Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Blackwater'

AbstractRoughton, Dean Morris. Blackwater: A Collection of Stories. (Under the direction of Angela Davis-Gardner.)The stories in this collection all either take place in or deal with characters from Blackwater, a fictional town in eastern North Carolina. Blackwater is not meant to represent any real town, but is more an amalgamation of the small towns that exist in the region. Eastern North Carolina serves as a point of convergence for various waters, salt and fresh, alkaline and acidic. The term blackwater refers to a specific kind of water often found in the slow moving rivers of the region and named for its dark color which is, as described on a plaque at the entrance of a river boardwalk/nature trail in an eastern NC town, "the result of a continuous process by which bacteria and fungi in the wetland soil break down plant material." The visitor will often comment upon perceiving a foul odor rising from this highly acidic water, a byproduct of the dense nutrients in suspension. Despite the displeasing smell, these waters are home to an abundance of wildlife, fish and aquatic animals, which would not thrive so readily in different waters but which do manage to survive and even do reasonably well at the points of converging waters where a mixture of elements is achieved.I find blackwater an apt metaphor for the culture in the region and, so, have named my fictional town accordingly. Life in eastern North Carolina, comparatively speaking, is often slower on the surface than in more metropolitan areas. However, there is a rich undercurrent of events, which often are avoided in conversation.The stories in this collection, for the most part, are not given to monumental action, but instead focus on what lies beneath the surface. In addition, several of the stories investigate the way characters develop from or respond to a convergence of waters. It is my purpose in writing these stories neither to condemn nor uphold life as it exists in Blackwater; nor is it my purpose to condemn or uphold life as it exists in the waters that converge. I write in the hope that the reader will recognize that, though the breadth of towns like Blackwater is less than that of other areas, the depth is not lacking.

The late Permian Rangal Coal Measures of the Bowen Basin, east central Queensland, have been the subject of a detailed investigation into floodbasin facies architecture in coalbearing environments. An extensive geophysical database, comprising well logs for over 230 boreholes and supplemented by core samples and excellent highwall exposures, has been used to determine the distribution of facies within interseam successions of the Kenmare Underground Mine, South Blackwater Coal Mine. Maps of sedimentary facies, sand percent and interval thickness are presented for each of three sub-intervals within the Pollux (C) to Castor (B) interseam and a fourth interval between the Castor (B) and Aries (A) seams. These maps depict a small sub-basinal depression, 4 km x 2.75 km, and record accumulations of overbank and crevasse splay sediments derived from a large channel network located outside the margins of the study area. The Lower Sub-Interval of the Pollux to Castor interseam records the early stages of elastic sedimentation, with numerous crevasse splay complexes and associated crevasse splay channels encroaching on distal floodbasin environments and shallow floodbasin lakes in the central part of the study area.

In response to the rapid rate of multiple natural resource developments in British Columbia (BC) First Nations across the province are raising concern about the health and safety of traditional food or ‘country food’ sources. This concern has led to a large number of requests by BC First Nations to monitor country foods. Furthermore, a progressive approach to environmental assessment of mines in BC includes the implementation of a program to assess and monitor country foods especially when mine developments occur on or near First Nations traditional food gathering lands. Such monitoring programs can also be incorporated into Impact Benefit Agreements, which have become a key social tool for mining companies working on or near Aboriginal lands. The mining industry in BC has only recently begun to specifically assess the potential impacts of mining on country foods. However, this assessment has lacked both depth and guidance. New Gold, a mid-tier mining company, has implemented a ‘Country Food Monitoring Plan’ as part of an application for an environmental impact assessment of the proposed Blackwater Mine in central BC. In particular, moose were identified by local First Nations as a country food of primary concern. This report describes a unique collaboration between New Gold and the Lhoosk’uz Dene Nation and hunting guide outfitters, with support from wildlife veterinarians to develop and pilot the implementation of a moose health monitoring program. The goal is to establish a community-based monitoring program to provide information to First Nations and others on moose health and any potential threats via ingestion of country foods to humans throughout all stages, including construction, operation and post-closure, of the Blackwater Mine. This research can be used by industry, government, First Nations, and other stakeholders to provide a framework and model to approach the assessment and monitoring of the health and safety of country foods near mining development and other natural resource extractive activities.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Mining Engineering, Keevil Institute of
Graduate

An investigation of the elastic interseam sedimentary rocks has elucidated the depositional and contemporaneous tectonic history of the Upper Permian Rangal Coal Measures at the C.S.R. South Blackwater Mine, Central Queensland, The studied section is stratigraphically bound by the Orion and Aries coal seams. The approximately 84 square km study area is located on the eastern flank of the Comet Ridge, within the Bowen Basin. The geological data used in this study consists of Qorehole information, approximately derived 2800 from bores, a geological and detailed database, containing examination of representative core material. The interseam sedimentary rocks indicate that deposition occurred within an upper mixed-load channels, delta plain environment, incorporating lacustrine (interchannel/interdistributary lakes), fluvio-lacustrine (crevasse splay/minor suspended-load channels. deltas), and Normal faults occurred contemporaneously with the accumulation of the Castor Seam. These faults displaced the sequence underlying the Castor Seam and modified subsequent deposition. The faults also show brittle deformation due to post-lithification tectonism. Split and/or absent coal in the Castor Seam displays a close association with faults, which disrupt the Pollux Seam. Such locations can be used as primary drilling targets during the delineation of faults and the definition of fault-free mining blocks.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2004.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 73 p. : ill., maps. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.

Antibiotic resistance analysis (ARA) was used to determine sources of fecal pollution in the Blackwater River in South-central Virginia. The Department of Environmental Quality designated six segments as impaired due to high fecal coliform concentrations with non-point source (NPS) agriculture the suspected source of impairment. The Blackwater River watershed encompasses 72,000 ha of dairy, beef, and intensive production agriculture, abundant wildlife populations and many homes with onsite septic systems. A library of antibiotic resistance profiles based on 30 concentrations of 9 antibiotics was developed for 1,451 enterococci isolates from human, cattle, chicken, horse, goat, sheep, deer, raccoon, muskrat, goose, duck, coyote, and wild turkey fecal samples. Each isolate was classified as human, wildlife or livestock. Correct classification rates were 82.3% for human, 86.2% for livestock and 87.4% for wildlife isolates when profiles were analyzed with discriminant analysis. Profiles were also determined for 48 isolates from 128 stream samples collected periodically from August 1999 thru April 2001 and compared to the known sources using discriminate analysis. A human signature was found at each site at least once during the year, ranging from 0.0% to 85.0% of the sample isolates. The livestock signature varied from 2.3% to 100% over sites and months, and the wildlife signature varied from 0.0% to 79.5%. The results indicate that both humans and wildlife contribute to fecal pollution in addition to the suspected source, livestock, and reducing fecal pollution will require consideration of all three sources. The results from this research are being used to develop a total maximum daily load (TMDL) project allocations for fecal coliforms in the Blackwater River. Isolates identified by ARA were also profiled using the Biolog metabolic identification system. A library of metabolic profiles was constructed from known source isolates. Stream isolates were identified by Biolog and the metabolic profile was compared to the Biolog library. Of ten stream isolates identified by ARA as human, the Biolog library identified one as human, four as livestock, and five as wildlife. Of ten isolates identified by ARA as livestock, the Biolog library identified seven as livestock and three as wildlife. Of ten isolates identified by ARA as wildlife, one was identified as human, three as livestock and six as wildlife. The overall correct classification of Blackwater isolates in the Biolog library was 14 of 30 isolates, or 47%. Although the Biolog library was constructed with some isolates from the Blackwater basin, there may not be enough isolates in the Biolog library to adequately represent the variability shown by the Blackwater isolates, resulting in lower than expected correct classifications. In spite of these results, Biolog remains promising as one of several tools with potential as a bacterial source tracking method.
Master of Science

The world-wide proliferation of dams in the last few decades has necessitated a fuller understanding of the effects of stream regulation but has also provided a setting for testing and developing basic theories of stream ecology. Two important concepts in stream ecology, the River Continuum Concept (RCC) and the Serial Discontinuity Concept (SOC), required investigation as to their applicability to entire river systems in the Southern Hemisphere. The RCC hypothesises that biological communities are structured in a predictable fashion from the source to the mouth of a river in relation to physical environmental gradients along the stream continuum. The SOC proposes that a major impoundment at any position on a river system will cause a longitudinal shift in a given parameter (physical or biological) which will cause a discontinuity in the stream continuum. A certain distance is then required for the stream to return to its normal position in the continuum, and this is termed a 'discontinuity distance'. The effect of regulation by multiple impoundment on the 'discontinuity' (recovery) 'distances' for various physical, chemical and biological attributes of the Palmiet River (a short, steep gradient, cool, acid, low nutrient system) was investigated in a two-year study. Two zones of the river were identified for study: one below an upper-reach impoundment, Nuweberg, and one below a middle-reach impoundment, Arieskraal, as they provided sufficiently long stretches of unperturbed river (7 km and 37 km) over which recovery distances could be investigated. Sampling was undertaken monthly for 27 months from February 1986 to April 1988. Eleven sites were chosen along the length of the river: one in the pristine upper reaches, one site above and 3 sites below Nuweberg, a site on the river as it passes through the village of Grabouw, one site above and three sites below Arieskraal and a site on a tributary, the Klein Palmiet, from which water is abstracted into Arieskraal. The values of the variables downstream of the impoundment are said to increase or decrease with respect to the "above-impoundment" value. Median temperatures, pH and alkalinity increased below Nuweberg, but decreased below Arieskraal, whereas the converse was true for soluble reactive phosphate. Seasonal flow regime reversal occurred below Nuweberg and seasonal flow constancy below Arieskraal; there were seasonal shifts in temperature and a dampening of the annual temperature range below both impoundments; and seasonal shifts in alkalinity below Arieskraal. At least partial recovery was noted in all cases, but in some instances, recovery was incomplete to the estuary.

Includes bibliographies.
Blackwater lakelets in the south-western Cape are amongst the most darkly coloured humic waters in the world. In addition the aquatic invertebrate fauna of this region represents a relict and highly endemic group of the South Temperate Gondwanian fauna. The major environmental and biological variables were investigated over a period of fifteen months in six south-western Cape vleis (Suurdam, Gillidam, Sirkelsvlei, Grootrondevlei, Grootwitvlei and Rondevlei), which range in colour from a very dark brown to only slightly stained and vary in pH from 3.7 to 10.1. Using absorbance and fluorescence measurements and the Folin-Ciocallteu reagent, relative measures of the quantity and quality of humic compounds were obtained. Suurdam, Gillidam and Sirkelsvlei contained waters of greatest humic content (Suurdam mean A₂₉₀ = 6.561), with a common mid-winter to spring minimum; levels were lower in Grootrondevlei and Grootwitvlei (Grootrondevlei mean A₂₉₀ = 0.996), with a common mid-winter to spring maximum; and lowest in Rondevlei (mean A₂₉₀ = 0.284), with a slight peak in winter. Maxima were related to increased inflow of water with winter rain. Humic compounds in Suurdam, Gillidam and Grootrondevlei were of relatively high molecular weight and phenolic content, indicating an allochthonous origin. In Sirkelsvlei humic compounds were of lower molecular weight and phenolic content, possibly as a result of precipitation of the higher molecular weight fraction due to the high total salinity. Grootwitvlei and Rondevlei had lower molecular weight fractions probably as a result of autochthonous humic production, precipitation with calcium and greater rates of humic degradation; a higher molecular weight allochthonous fraction was present in winter in these two vleis. Buffering at low pH and the complexation of both iron and soluble reactive phosphorous were evident in Suurdam and Gillidam. Catchment geology, atmospheric precipitation, evaporation and the input of vertebrate excreta explain the inorganic chemical environments of the vleis. Acid, well-leached soils and calcareous sands resulted in mean pH values of 3.8 and 4.2 in Suurdam and Gillidam and 8.0 and 8.6 in Grootwitvlei and Rondevlei. The cation composition of the vleis on well-leached acid soils was primarily determined by the atmospheric precipitation of marine salt; evaporation and calcareous sands increased the salinity or relative calcium concentrations in some vleis. Animal excreta in Grootwitvlei and Rondevlei also alter the cation composition slightly, and increase the load of major nutrients. Nitrogen and phosphorous are largely of biological origin. Nutrient levels in the vleis are variously affected by marginal macrophytes, the sediments, primary production and the levels of humics. Chlorophyll a levels indicated low phytoplankton biomass in Suurdam, Gillidam and Grootrondevlei (Suurdam, mean chlorophyll a = 0.9ug1-¹ ) and no distinct seasonality; intermediate levels in Sirkelsvlei (mean chlorophyll a = 11.6ug1-¹ ) and high levels in Grootwitvlei and Rondevlei (Rondevlei, mean chlorophyll a = 60.4ug1-¹ ) displayed a common mid- to late-summer peak. Summer stratification was present only in Suurdam and Gillidam. Maximum phytoplankton biomass of the different vleis related to pH, the quantity and quality of the humic substances, and the nutrient loading. Chlorophyll b: chlorophyll a ratios and chlorophyll c: chlorophyll a ratios indicated a dominance of b- and c-containing species in Suurdam, Gillidam and Grootrondevlei and a dominance of species containing only chlorophyll a in Grootwitvlei and Rondevlei. Multi-dimensional scaling showed four distinct zooplankton community groupings. In Suurdam, the community was dominated by Microcyclops crassipes and was characterised by low zooplankton abundance (mean no.m-³ = 1783), a low species richness, an absence of limnetic cladocerans, and high species diversity (H') and evenness (J') indices. The community appeared to be limited by the low pH and the pH-dependent humic toxicity of the water. The communities in Gillidam, Grootrondevlei and Grootwitvlei were dominated by Metadiaptomus purcelli; otherwise that of Gillidam showed similar characteristics to that of Suurdam and was probably limited by the same factors. Both communities contained individuals of small mean size, more likely a result of limitation by the chemical environment rather than of predation pressure. A number of large-bodied limnetic cladoceran species and Lovenula simplex were present in Grootrondevlei, but absent from Grootwitvlei, possibly as a result of a visual predation pressure. In Sirkelsvlei the community was dominated by Metadiaptomus capensis and Lovenula simplex was present in lower numbers. Species richness, species diversity (H') and evenness (J') were low, with few limnetic cladoceran species present. High total salinity probably determines the community composition and seasonal variation. The eutrophic Rondevlei contains a community dominated by cosmopolitan and common Pan-Ethiopian species, in contrast to the endemic south temperate Gondwanian species of the other vleis. The community was dominated by Thermocyclops oblongatus, Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus rubens, and was characterized by greater species richness, and high species diversity (H') and evenness (J'). Total zooplankton abundances were much greater than in the other vleis (mean no.m-³ = 618944). Size-selective predation and the quantity and quality of the phytoplankton probably determine community composition. It is concluded that zooplankton diversity and abundance are influenced, both directly and indirectly, by the concentration and character of the humic substances and the pH, particularly at high concentration and low pH.

Because the Coastal Plain of southeastern Virginia has not been extensively studied, thirty random samples associated with Blackwater and Nottoway rivers were collected in the spring of 1987 from Surry, Sussex, and Southampton counties. Soil classification as well as mineralogical, chemical, and physical analysis were conducted for all samples.

The purposes of this investigation were to: (1)classify the soils in this area, (2) determine the distribution of sand and clay minerals, (3) examine the weathering effect on clay minerals on different position of the landscape for different parent material sources.

The soils examined classified as follow: Aquic Hapludults 43% > Typic Hapludults 26.6% > Ultic Hapludalfs 10% > Humic Hapludults 3% = Typic Rhodudlts 3% = Aquic Hapludalfs 3% = Typic Udipsamment 3% = Typic Quartzpsamment 3% = Psammentic Hapludalfs. Qualitative analysis of clay minerals revealed that kaolinite and hydroxy interlayer vermiculite were the dominant clay minerals; that montmorillonite, mica, gibbsite quartz, and vermiculite were of lesser quantities; that chlorite, feldspar and interstratified minerals were of trace amounts. Kaolinite represents about 21-70%, HlV 11-60%, montmorillonite 0-20%, mica 0-16%, gibbsite 0-13%, quartz 1-12%, and vermiculite 0-10%. The presence of these minerals were mainly related to the acid reaction of the soil media, which was essentially attributed to Al and H ions in soil solution. From the past history and geological composition of the Piedmont it is assumed that kaolinitic minerals were transported and sedimented in the Coastal Plain. Hydroxy-interlayer vermiculite minerals was weathering from vermiculite because most of the Al was adsorbed by vermiculite to form HIV. Therfore, gibbsite was not precipitated. Montmorillonite was assumed to have formed from mica minerals. That was substantiated by statistical analysis which showed a high negative correlation between gibbsite and vermiculite (r=0.46, n=30) and between montmorillonite and mica (r=-0.6, n=10).

Master of Science

The problem of piracy and armed robbery at sea has sharply risen in the last decades. As a result, shipping companies, governments, insurances and maritime organisations have tried to approach the problem in different ways, the employment of private maritime security companies being one of them. State navies do not have enough resources to cover the vast areas of the high seas. As a result, armed security teams are exercising traditional State functions to protect vessels from being attacked. This study aims to find the legal foundations in international public law for the employment of armed guards on-board of commercial or private vessels. Furthermore, legal questions about the seizing of pirates, the use of force, criminal jurisdiction on-board of ships and the carrying of weapons will be scrutinized. For this purpose, the applicability of the Geneva Conventions and other key documents of the international humanitarian law will be analysed such as the Montreux Document and the Draft International Convention on the Regulation, Oversight and Monitoring of Private Military and Security Companies. Moreover, relevant aspects of the UNCLOS rules will be highlighted. An additional chapter will review existing international and regional soft law standards, mainly developed by the shipping and the security industry. The analysis concludes that international law has not yet developed distinct rules for the use of private maritime security companies. Especially the UNCLOS does not deal with private actors in the fight against piracy at all. As a result, national law remains responsible for the creation of a comprehensive set of rules concerning the employment and the conduct of maritime security guards. In addition, the vast number of soft law guidance and standards are missing enforceable and effective mechanisms and cannot yet be seen as an alternative for national regulations.

Denitrification removes large amounts of reactive nitrogen (N) from ecosystems via reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas. In aquatic ecosystems, the influences of terrestrial and aquatic sources of organic matter (OM) on denitrification are potentially complex. Terrestrially-derived OM is often less labile than autochthonous OM; it may inhibit denitrification directly via biochemical mechanisms; and it may indirectly inhibit denitrification by reducing light availability to—and thus OM exudation by—aquatic primary producers. Using a natural dissolved OM gradient among rivers of northern Florida, I investigated these mechanisms using laboratory denitrification assays subjected to factorial amendments of NO3- and dextrose, humic acid dosing, and cross-incubations of sediments and water. Results indicated that C-limitation increased with DOC concentrations, consistent with the indirect inhibition hypothesis. Blackwater neither depressed nor stimulated denitrification rates, indicating that this DOC neither directly inhibits nor acts as a usable OM source for denitrifiers.

Collection of sewage from toilets in a closed tank provides good protection for the environment and health. The closed tank reduces emissions of fertilizing substances, and other substances that may pose a risk, such as pathogens and drug residues. To reduce the water volume in the tank, it is advantageous to connect an extremely low-flush toilet, which means that the average flush volume is a maximum of 1 liter per flush. It is important that the toilet system is reliable for the technology to be used to a greater extent. This study examines experiences and functioning of extremely low-flush toilets to identify possible deficiencies and possible areas for improvement. Information has been obtained through telephone interviews and online surveys. The result shows that most respondents are generally satisfied with their extremely low-flush toilets. For the system to function optimally, it must be properly installed and maintained. There are some deficiencies that are more common, such as interruptions caused by flushing of incorrect objects or incorrect installation, but also some occasional errors. Many malfunctions appear to be caused by improper use or installation. There may be a need to develop certain technology components, such as the alarm function. The sound when flushing can be perceived as too loud. It is important that there are clear instructions for installation, maintenance, and use, as well as functioning service networks in case of problems.

The Blackwater Au-Ag deposit of central British Columbia is hosted by a lithic-rich, latite lapilli tuff and felsic volcanic rock sequence. U/Pb zircon geochronology shows that these two volcanic rock sequences are Late-Cretaceous, and were deposited at ca. 73.5 and 73.1 Ma, respectively. These host rocks overlie plagioclase to hornblende porphyritic andesite lava flows, mudstone, chert and conglomerate. A monzonite intruded the western portion of the deposit. Felsic dykes or sills are inferred to have intruded felsic volcanic rocks at ca. 68 Ma. A post-mineralization, dacitic sill intruded contacts between sedimentary rocks and lithic-rich, latite tuffs in the south of the Blackwater deposit at ca. 53 Ma. High temperature (>300⁰C), biotite-sericite-sulfide, actinolite-sulfide and garnet-sulfide assemblages alter rocks at the deposit’s perimeter. Low temperature (250-350⁰C), Au-mineralizing fluids precipitated the early main-stage green sericite-quartz-pyrite and the late main-stage green sericite-chlorite-quartz-base metal sulfide assemblages located in the deposit’s centre. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology suggests that high temperature alteration minerals precipitated prior to Au-mineralization, between ~68-64 Ma, and that Au-mineralization took place at ca. 65.6-63.9 Ma. The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar systematics of biotite were reset at ca. 59 Ma during a thermal event. High temperature, barren alteration is attributed to fluids with stable isotope compositions distinct from those that precipitated low temperature alteration. High temperature alteration minerals are enriched in ¹⁸O relative to primary magmatic waters (δ¹⁸OH₂O = 8.9-12.6‰) and have variable δD values (δD =-93.9 to -66.1‰). This, in conjunction with depleted, sedimentary δ³⁴S values (δ³⁴Smineral =-17.7 to -7.7‰) suggests a combination of exchanged meteoric waters, sedimentary formation and/or magmatic fluid sources. A component of magmatic fluids ± evolved meteoric fluids is inferred for low temperature, Au mineralizing fluids. Calculated stable isotope compositions of fluids in equilibrium with green sericite (δ¹⁸O =6.6 - 7.1‰, δD = -79.2 to -62.9‰) plot within the primary magmatic water field while isotopic compositions of associated sulfides (δ³⁴Smineral =-1.8 - 0.3‰) provide evidence for igneous derived sulfur. Blackwater’s host rocks, tectonic environment, metal signature and alteration match those of an intermediate-sulfidation epithermal system with both low- and intermediate sulfidation state sulfide minerals.
Science, Faculty of
Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of
Graduate

Abstract Orogenic gold deposits from the Reefton goldfield in New Zealand hosted in Ordovician metasediments of the Greenland group have produce 67 tons of gold before 1951. The Blackwater mine in Waiuta account for about 1/3 of the gold production at Reefton prior 1951. The ore system at Blackwater consist of NE trending steeply dipping gold-bearing quartz veins (Birthday reef) occurring in faulted, sheared and folded alternating sequence of sandstone-mudstone metamorphosed to low greenschist facies and hydrothermally altered proximal to distal from the quartz vein. Host rock and ore forming fluids interaction resulted in a systematic change in the mineralogy and geochemistry of the wallrock developing a distinctive footprint of the ore system. The mineral assemblage subsequent to hydrothermal alteration is formed by quartz veining, chlorite, carbonates (minor calcite-dolomite-ankerite-siderite), albite, K-Mica and composite quartz-carbonate veining, carbonates spotting, pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, cobaltite, galena and in a lesser extent ullmannite, gersdorffite, pentlandite, millerite and sphalerite. Mass balance calculation based on geochemical data obtained by ultra-low detection analysis with a detection limit in part per trillion of Au, As and Sb provide new insight in the geochemical footprint of the ore system at Blackwater. A clear zone of roughly 40 meters (20 meters above and below the birthday reef) is enriched in Au, As and Sb up to respectively 6806%, 605% and 891% compared to the un-mineralised protolith. Furthermore, mass changes in K2O and Na2O indicate a consistent decrease in Na and increase in K in the vicinity of the Birthday reef reflecting the replacement of albite by K-mica. This is corroborated by pattern of alkali alteration index Na/Al for albite and 3K/Al for K-Mica showing similar trend. Carbonation and de/-hydration index also exhibits peaks in samples adjacent to the Birthday reef, though carbonation index is also influenced by carbonates content in the protolith or late carbonation that may not related to gold mineralisation. Using the indicators above-mentioned it is possible to define the mineralogical and geochemical “footprint” for the ore system in the host rock allowing to use this footprint as a tool for mineral exploration for orogenic gold deposits similar to Blackwater. Given that the geochemical footprint of orogenic gold deposit such as Blackwater is significantly wider than the economically viable part of the deposit defining the footprint of the ore system offers the potential for vectoring from sub-economic mineralisation towards higher-grade ore that is economically viable.

Thesis (M.A.)--Georgia State University, 2009.
Title from title page (Digital Archive@GSU, viewed July 6, 2010) John Duffield, committee chair; Jelena Subotic, Scott Graves, committee members. Includes bibliographical references (p. 53-56).

As Empresas Militares Privadas marcam a sociedade contemporânea internacional na afirmação como actor preponderante no que ao emprego da força diz respeito. A escolha deste tema, teve por base a sua actualidade, a controvérsia que gera e o facto de continuar a ser um fenómeno em expansão, facto pelo qual a procura de respostas é ainda uma constante e tem como principal objectivo analisar a possibilidade da sua complementaridade com os exércitos convencionais e verificar até que ponto essa relação será eficaz. A pressão exercida pela opinião pública e pelos “média” condicionou e potenciou esta problemática, assistindo-se a um jogo de interesses onde se verifica um equilíbrio entre a oferta e a procura destes serviços no contexto actual. Procurou-se fazer uma abordagem às raízes do que está na génese desta problemática e uma sinopse desde a antiguidade até ao período Pós Guerra Fria, altura onde se verifica o crescimento exponencial das Empresas Militares Privadas. Neste contexto visou-se explicar o fenómeno e o seu enquadramento na mudança do sistema internacional após a queda do muro de Berlim e consequentemente a queda do regime comunista da União das Repúblicas Soviéticas Socialistas. Porém é após o 11 de Setembro de 2001, retratado nos ataques terroristas aos símbolos económicos e militares dos Estados Unidos que as Empresas Militares Privadas solidificam a sua posição, no que concerne aos conflitos contemporâneos. A Guerra do Iraque revelou-se também preponderante na proliferação das empresas militares privadas. A Blackwater, a Triple Canopy, a Aegis Defense Services, entre outras de importante relevo são algumas das Empresas Militares Privadas, que ali actuam, tendo como objectivo a rentabilidade económica num mercado em que a procura de segurança se apresentou promissora com a privatização da violência. Verificou-se também as implicações que, a interacção destas com os Estados, produzem no âmbito jurídico e no sistema internacional. Como conclusão há a referir que sobre as Empresas Militares Privadas se podem fazer duas leituras e em dimensões opostas, isto é, podem ser extremamente importantes ou prejudiciais, dependendo de um conjunto de variáveis. Estas vão desde o objectivo da missão, tipo de conflito, teatro de operações, tipo de contrato, controlo exercido pelos contratantes, bem como todo o ambiente envolvente da sua actuação. Em suma, cabe aos Estados e entidades interessadas realizar estudos quer de mercado, quer de objectivos, que permitam conhecer indicadores mais precisos relativamente à utilização destas empresas em complementaridade aos Exércitos
Abstract The Private Military Companies mark international modern society as a main character in what concerns to the application of force. Choosing this theme had as base its present time, the controversy that generates and the fact that it is still a growing phenomenon. Fact that the search of answers is still a constant and have as a main goal, to analyze the possibility of complementing itself with conventional Armies and verify it’s efficiency. Pressure made by public opinion and by the media have conditioned and enhanced this problematic where we watch a game of interests and where we verify a balance between offer and demand of this type of services in the present context. A goal was to make an approach and a study of the roots of what is in the base of this problem, and a synapse since early times, until the post Cold War period, time when we registered the biggest exponential growth of Private Military Companies. In this context, we try to explain the phenomenon and its place in the change of the international system after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the consequent fall of the Communist Regime of the former USSR. However it is after September 11, 2001, pictured in the terrorist attacks to the military and economic symbols of the United States, that Private Military Companies have solidified their position in what concerns to modern conflicts. The Iraq War has revealed itself also as an important step in the proliferation of Private Military Companies. Blackwater, Triple Canopy, Aegis Defense Services, among others, are some of the private military companies’ that are in Iraq, and have as a goal the economic profitability in a market where the search of safety as presented itself promising with the privatization of violence. The interaction of Private Military Companies with the governments was studied and also its implications produced in the international and judicial system. As a major conclusion, we find that in what concerns the Private Military Companies two kinds of readings cand be done, both in opposite dimensions. They can be extremely important or harmful, depending of a set of variables. These variables can go from themission goal, conflict type, operation scenario, contracts type, control made by the contractors, as well as the entire environment involved in its operation. As a summary, it is responsibility of the governments and entities interested in Private Military Companies, to perform market studies, as well as goal studies that may allow to know more precise indicators that relate to the use of these companies as a complement to the Armies.

Hammarby Sjöstad is a new district in southern Stockholm. A main objective with the Sjöstad project was to halve the environmental impact compared to other construction work. The environmental goals involve a halved water consumption rate, a local treatment of storm water and trials aiming to extract nutrients from the waste water. Sjöstadsverket is an experimental treatment plant used for testing new treatment processes for domestic waste water from Hammarby Sjöstad. The results are to be compared with the conventional process used at Henrikdals treatment plant today. Two aerobic and two anaerobic main treatment processes are to be tested before decision of full scale is taken in 2005.

Anaerobic treatment without heating, as a way to reduce the content of organic material in the waste water, consumes less energy than conventional methods. Anaerobic reactors are usually operated at 37°C. It is possible to attain a high COD-reduction at lower temperatures, assumed a longer contact time between biomass and waste water. In an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) - reactor the microorganisms form granules with excellent sedimentation properties. The granules are floating with the waste water flowing upwards through the reactor. This makes it possible to reduce the COD-content despite a short hydraulic retention time in the reactor.

The two UASB-reactors examined in this thesis is a part of the pilot plant. The thesis shows how the startup of the reactors has functioned and evaluates the possibility to reduce the contence of different COD-fractions with this technique.The domestic waste water temperature has during the experiment period dropped from 23°C to 18°C. The total COD-content of the untreated waste water is 567 mg/l. Before the anaerobic step the water is pre-treated by adding of flocculation chemicals and sedimentation. The total amount of suspended material is reduced by 50 % in the pre-treatment and the load on the UASB-reactors is 100 mg/l. With a hydrologic retention time of 2,4 h the pre-treatment and the two-step anaerobic reactor has reduced 64 % of the total COD-content. Over the anaerobic treatment step the COD-reduction was 49 %. The reduction of dissolved COD (<0, 45 μm) was 59 %. When operated in series the main part of the soluble CODreduction has taken place in the first reactor. After more than six months operation there is still a granulated sludge in the reactors and tests show a high metanogenic activity. Gas production from the reactors has been observed but not measured quantitatively.

The results from this thesis show that anaerobic treatment with a UASB-process functions without heating for the household waste water from Hammarby Sjöstad. The anaerobic process should be combined with pre-treatment and supplementary treatment to reduce the remaining COD and the nitrogen and phosphorus content.

Hammarby Sjöstad i södra Stockholm är en stadsdel under framväxt. Tanken bakom Sjöstadsprojektet var att halvera miljöpåverkan jämfört med annan nybyggnation. Bland annat anges i miljömålen halverad vattenförbrukning, lokal hantering av dagvatten och försök med utvinning av växtnäringsämnen ur avloppsvattnet. Sjöstadsverket är en del av detta projekt; en försöksanläggning för reningen av avloppsvattnet från hushållen i Hammarby Sjöstad. Två aeroba och två anaeroba linjer ska utvärderas innan beslut om full skala tas år 2005.

Anaerob rening utan uppvärmning är ett resurssnålt sätt att minska innehållet av organiskt material i avloppsvattnet. Anaeroba reaktorer drivs vanligen vid ca 37°C. Det är möjligt att nå en hög reduktion av organiskt material även vid lägre temperaturer, förutsatt en längre kontakttid mellan biomassa och avloppsvatten. I en Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)-reaktor utnyttjas mikroorganismernas förmåga att bilda granuler, vilka svävar med avloppsvattnet som flödar uppåt genom reaktorn. Det gör det möjligt att reducera vattnets innehåll av organiskt material trots en kort hydraulisk uppehållstid i reaktorn. I detta examensarbete studeras de två UASB-reaktorer som ingår som en del i pilotanläggningen vid Sjöstadsverket. Examensarbetet visar hur uppstarten av reaktorerna fungerat och utvärderar möjligheten att reducera avloppsvattnets olika fraktioner av COD med denna teknik.

Temperaturen på vattnet från hushållen har under försöksperioden sjunkit från 23°C till 18°C. Det obehandlade avloppsvattnet har en total COD-halt kring 567 mg/l. Innan det anaeroba reningssteget förbehandlas vattnet genom sedimentering och inblandning av flockningskemikalier. Den totala mängden suspenderat material halveras i förbehandlingen och belastningen på UASB-reaktorerna är kring 100 mg /l. Efter förbehandling är vattnets COD-koncentration ca 400 mg/l. Med en hydraulisk uppehållstid på 2,4 timmar har en COD-reduktion på 64 % uppnåtts i hela systemet, dvs. försedimentering och två-stegs UASB-reaktor. Över det anaeroba reningssteget var reduktionen av COD 49 %. Reduktionen av löst COD (<0, 45 μm) i UASB-reaktorerna var 59 %. Vid seriell drift har merparten av lösligt COD reducerats i den första reaktorn. Efter nio månaders drift finns fortfarande ett granulärt slam i båda reaktorerna. Tester visar på en hög metanogen aktivitet. Gasproduktion har observerats i reaktorerna men inte kunnat mätas kvantitativt.

Resultaten från detta examensarbete indikerar att anaerob rening med en UASB-process fungerar utan uppvärmning för avloppsvattnet från hushållen i Hammarby Sjöstad. Den anaeroba behandlingen bör kompletteras med förbehandling samt en kompletterande behandling för att minska kvarvarande COD och reducera kväve och fosfor.

Starting point to this Paper is the idea and wish to adapt the society and its different activities to a recycle society. A building area in Göteborg is planned and investigated for such adaptation. In the district named Skogaberg, about 130 households totally are planned from what 20 are blocks of flats. The idea with this project is to constitute an alternative sewage system, a Blackwater system, were the fractions of most nutrients and least pollution are separated, taken care of and utilised. The aim is to get a market and use the nutrients of the organic waste from the household in agriculture use. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pays attention to water- and sewage systems from a recycle perspective and the aim of a long-termed sustainable development. The agriculture sector has also an intention to protect the environment and the means for sustainability.

The object of this study is to map and analyse a planned alternative sewage system in Skogaberg from recommended criteria for water and sewage systems. The alternative solution in Skogaberg will be analysed compared to a conventional solution. A specific aim is to estimate the possibilities and limitations of the alternative system when it comes to recycle of nutrients. Phosphorus and cadmium are chosen to describe and indicate the resource utilisation and environmental impact of different nutrient sources. Sanitation and risks with diseases, environmental&resource saving criteria together with technical&socio-economic criteria are intended to constitute a general background for the analysis. Criteria recommended, to concern environmental adapted water and sewage system by the Swedish EPA, is used in order to make an assessment of the planned system and a more viewed assessment and analyse is done from experiences and observations that I have got from literature sources and place studies. The results show good theoretical possibilities to get and recycle nutrients from the system with an alternative solution. With an alternative sewage system in Skogaberg opportunities that the users reflect and care are created. This project may provide us with innovations and ground for further research and development in future project. But it is also important to consider that these projects are established in the system of the society and that these recycle systems are not directly comparable with ecological recycling system in nature.

Small on-site sanitation systems for wastewater collection and treatment are prevalent in suburban and rural areas in many countries. However, these systems often underperform, causing potential impact to the receiving waters and increasing the risks to public health, thus hindering the overall sustainability of the systems. Understanding the different sustainability dimensions and trade-offs between assessment indicators can support the planning of sustainable on-site sanitation systems for a specific context. The overall aim of this thesis was to evaluate the sustainability and function of on-site sanitation systems by defining a set of indicators to assess on-site sanitation options and estimating them for different scenarios, and by investigating the treatment efficiency of on-site facilities for domestic wastewater treatment in a field study. Particular attention was given to the removal of phosphorus (P) and indicator bacteria due to their relevance in terms of eutrophication risk and public-health concern. In a multi-criteria approach, twelve indicators were defined to assess nine on-site sanitation systems. A reference group representing stakeholders’ views assigned weights to express the relative importance of each indicator. The reference group assigned the highest weights to the indicators robustness, risk of pathogen discharge and nutrient removal. Assessing the robustness proved to be challenging, as there is a gap between how the sanitation systems are expected to perform based on their design, and how they actually perform in practice, mainly due to incorrect construction, operation and maintenance. The discriminating power of the indicators was calculated using the entropy method, which showed that the indicators energy recovery and capital cost had little impact in the final ranking of the alternatives. A sustainability ranking was obtained by using the method ELECTRE III. A scenario analysis based on different settings of interest based on socio-economic and geographical factors was done to evaluate the changes in the ranking of alternatives. Overall, the greywater–blackwater separation system ranked the highest in the baseline scenario and when nutrient-related indicators were important (Scenario 2), together with the urine diversion system. The sand filter and drain field were the most sustainable options when nutrient removal and recycling was not important (Scenario 1), and (in combination with chemical P-removal) when the indicators related to energy and climate change had the highest weights (Scenario 3). In terms of P-removal, chemical removal outranked the alkaline P-filter. In a field study, the effluent wastewater from twelve on-site wastewater treatment facilities with sand and alkaline P-filters was evaluated in terms of removal and discharge of organic content, total and dissolved phosphorus, and indicator bacteria (E. coli, total coliforms, intestinal enterococci and C.perfringens). The results showed that the investigated sand filters generally had low P-removal capacity and sometimes exceeded the criteria for excellent water quality set by the EU bathing water directive with regard to intestinal enterococci and E. coli. Only one sand filter of eight was confirmed to remove P according to the Swedish guidelines for areas with non-sensitive receiving waters with a tot-P effluent concentration below 3 mg L−1. This indicates that a downstream treatment step is needed to meet the guidelines regarding P discharge concentrations. Alkaline P-filters generally removed P efficiently. Despite high effluent pH, the collected data did not generally confirm a further reduction of the bacterial content of the wastewater in the P-filters, as had been previously hypothesized. However, effluent concentrations of indicator bacteria showed moderate positive correlations with effluent concentrations of P and organic matter, indicating the potential of the P-filters to serve as a polishing step also for bacteria.
Små lokala avloppssystem för insamling och rening av avloppsvatten är vanligt förekommande i omvandlings- och landsbygdsområden i många länder. Dessa system fungerar ofta sämre än förväntat vilket kan leda till effekter på recipienter, ökad risk för folkhälsan och begränsa systemens hållbarhet. En djupare förståelse för hållbarhetsdimensioner och avvägningar mellan olika indikatorer kan stödja planering och implementering av hållbara lokala avloppsystem för specifika sammanhang. Det övergripande syftet med denna uppsats var att utvärdera hållbarhet och funktion av enskilda avloppssystem. Detta utfördes genom att först definiera en uppsättning indikatorer för bedömning av ett antal enskilda avloppsalternativ och sedan utvärdera dem för olika scenarier. Vidare var syftet att undersöka några systems prestanda för rening av hushållsavloppsvatten i en fältstudie. Särskilt fokus lades på reduktion av fosfor (P) och indikatorbakterier på grund av deras relevans i relation till övergödningsrisk och folkhälsoperspektiv. I en multikriteriestudie definierades tolv indikatorer för att bedöma nio typer av enskilda avloppssystem. En referensgrupp som representerade olika intressenter viktade indikatorerna för att uttrycka den relativa betydelsen av varje indikator. Referensgruppen gav systemens robusthet, risk för utsläpp av patogener, och näringsreduktion störst vikt. Att bedöma robusthet var en utmaning i studien, eftersom det finns ett gap mellan hur systemen förväntas fungera, och hur de faktiskt fungerar i praktiken, mestadels på grund av felaktig konstruktion, drift och underhåll. Indikatorernas diskriminerande effekt räknades ut med entropimetoden, som visade att indikatorerna energiåtervinning och kapitalkostnad hade liten inverkan på alternativens slutgiltiga rangordning. En scenarioanalys genomfördes baserad på socioekonomiska och geografiska faktorer. En hållbarhetsrankning erhölls genom att använda ELECTRE III-metoden. Överlag rankades system som separerar gråvatten – svartvatten samt urinseparerande system högst i basfallsscenariot och när näringsrelaterade indikatorer var viktiga (scenario 2). Markbäddar och infiltrationsanläggningar var de mest hållbara alternativen när rening och återvinning av näringsämnen inte var viktigt (scenario 1) och (i kombination med kemisk P-rening) när indikatorer relaterade till energi och klimatförändringar viktades högst (scenario 3). När det gäller P-rening, gav system med kemisk rening ett bättre utfall än de med alkaliska P-filter. I en fältstudie utvärderades tolv enskilda avloppsanläggningar med markbaserade system och alkaliska P-filter med avseende på rening och utsläpp av organiskt innehåll, totalt och löst P och indikatorbakterier (E.coli, totala koliformer, intestinala enterokocker och C.perfringens). Resultaten visade att de markbaserade systemen generellt hade låg P-reningskapacitet och ofta överskreds kriterierna för utmärkt vattenkvalitet enligt EUs badvattendirektiv avseende intestinala enterokocker och C. perfringens. Endast ett markbaserat system av åtta uppvisade en P-rening som låg under de svenska riktlinjerna för områden med normal skyddsnivå, med en utsläppskoncentration på under 3 mg L-1 tot-P. Detta indikerade att markbäddar behöver nedströms placerade reningssteg för att uppfylla nuvarande riktlinjer för utsläpp av P. Alkaliska P-filter avskilde generellt P effektivt. Trots högt pH-värde kunde ingen ytterligare minskning av bakterieinnehåll i avloppsvattnet från P-filtren påvisas statistiskt. Utsläppen av indikatorbakterier uppvisade emellertid måttliga positiva korrelationer med utsläpp av P och organiskt material, vilket visar på en viss potential att P-filtren kan fungera som ett ytterligare poleringssteg även för bakterier.

Neste estudo avaliamos a resposta imune humoral de indivíduos naturalmente expostos à malária em áreas endêmicas no Brasil. Os anticorpos IgG, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgM, IgE e IgA anti-formas eritrocitárias de Plasmodium falciparum foram determinadas por ELISA. Anticorpos IgG, IgG1, IgG2 de alta avidez e IgG3 de baixa avidez predominaram nos indivíduos sem complicações de malária ou assintomáticos, enquanto anticorpos IgG4, IgE e IgM predominaram nos indivíduos com complicações clínicas por malária. Os resultados mostram que mesmo em regiões com transmissão instável de malária pode ser observado o desenvolvimento de imunidade protetora quando anticorpos apropriados são produzidos
In this study, we have evaluated the humoral immune response of individuals naturally exposed to malaria living in endemic areas of Brazil. We determined IgG, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgM, IgE and IgA antibodies against Plasmodium falciparum blood stages by ELISA. We observed that the level of high avidity IgG, IgG1 and IgG2 and low avidity IgG3 antibodies were higher in asymptomatic individuals or with uncomplicated malaria, while IgG4, IgE and IgM antibodies were higher in individuals with complicated malaria. Taken together the results showed that even in unstable malaria regions it can be observed the development of protective immunity against malaria when appropriate antibodies are produced

The Central Queensland University developed an on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology. Septic tanks were used for primary treatment and the discharged effluent was then pumped though a series of contained channels. The channels were designed to be a modified evapotranspiration trench; they were comprised of an aggregate layer and a soil layer in which were planted a variety of plants. The aggregate and the soil provided physical filtration, the microorganisms within the effluent, aggregate and soil provided nutrient reuse and transformation and the plants also used the nutrients and reused the treated effluent through evapotranspiration. Any effluent that was not transpired was returned to a holding tank and pumped through the evapotranspiration again. The treatment technology was assessed in relation to its ability to treat effluent in a sustainable manner. The water and soil was examined for concentrations of nutrients, heavy metals, salts, sodium, and organic carbon %. The pH, temperature and number of colony forming units of certain microorganism potential pathogens were also inspected in the soil and the water. The plants grown within the evapotranspiration channels were assessed in regards to their health, water usage, and in some cases potential pathogens on fruit. The infrastructure that was used to construct the wastewater treatment and reuse system was also evaluated in regards to reliability and maintenance. Certain limiting factors, in particular sodicity and salinity were identified, but the trial was successful and a sustainable form of on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology was developed.

Tens of thousands of contractors work for private military and security companies (PMSCs) in armed conflicts around the world, often hired by states to fulfil functions that were once the exclusive domain of the armed forces. In this context, PMSCs have performed a wide range of activities including offensive combat, prisoner interrogation, military advice and training, armed security, intelligence and logistics. The proliferation of PMSCs during the past two decades has challenged conventional conceptions of the state as the primary holder of coercive power in the international arena. Nonetheless, this Thesis argues that the traditional state-centred frameworks of international law remain vitally relevant to the regulation of private security activity in contemporary armed conflict. Three states are in a strong position to influence PMSCs in this context—the state that hires the PMSC, the state in which the company is based or incorporated, and the state in which the company operates—and this capacity for influence enables international law to regulate PMSC activities indirectly using these states as an intermediary. This Thesis critically analyses the pertinent international obligations on these three categories of states and identifies the circumstances in which PMSC misconduct may give rise to state responsibility in each case. It also examines the recent practice of certain key states in order to evaluate their compliance with these obligations. By providing a clear and in-depth analysis of states' international obligations to control PMSCs in armed conflict, this Thesis may not only facilitate the assessment of state responsibility in cases of PMSC misconduct; it may also play an important prospective role in setting standards of conduct for states in relation to the private security industry. This in turn may encourage and assist states to develop their domestic laws and policies in order to improve overall PMSC compliance with international law.

Blackwater rivers and lakelets are a common feature of the landscape in the South Western Cape. Contrastingly, white rivers can also be found in the region. Key to the colour of blackwaters is the increased presence of dissolved organic carbon. The vegetation of the regions is known to posses' large amounts of polyphenols and potentially low microbial decomposition. Therefore, are the plant-soil dynamics a possible answer to variation in river colour? To answer this, the chemical correlates of rivers in the region, along with the in vitro leaching of the fynbos vegetation compared to other types and the effects of nutrient fertilisation on microbial activity in soil were determined. The results revealed that organic carbon, Fe and pH are significantly correlated with blackwaters. The Fe in the water appears to be bound to humic compounds. Fynbos vegetation is able to produce greater concentrations of polyphenol leachates (315 mg/l humic acid) compared to savanna species (246 mg/ humic acid) over a four-day period. P fertilisations increased the concentrations of humic acids from 30 mg/1 to 200 mg/l in some soils through their affinity to bind with humic compounds. The N fertilisations moderately increased the humic acid concentrations and in some cases lowered the concentration by 10 mg/l, indicating that it provided a nutrient source to the microbes for carbon breakdown. The interactions between humic compounds, nutrients and Fe are key to the formation of blackwaters in the region. Attached to this is the limited decomposition that takes place due to nutrient limitations. Therefore, the interactions between the carbon leached from the vegetation and below ground activities are determinants of water colour in the South Western Cape.

This diploma thesis presents the knowledge of wastewater reuse. The theoretical part of the thesis describes types of wastewater (greywater, brownwater, and yellow-water) and their characteristics. Further, the theoretical part describes the possibilities of re-use of wastewater as a source of water in detail, including treatment technology, and the heat recuperation from wastewater. The practical part of the thesis uses gained knowledge for designing a greywater treatment and heat recovery technology of grey water in an apartment complex.

This diploma thesis presents reader with current knowledge in the field of gray wastewater reuse. The theoretical part describes the current state of water in the world, thus characterizes wastewater and describes its treatment. Further, this section describes the possibility of obtaining thermal energy from wastewater. At the end of the theoretical part, the reader is presented with some existing buildings in the Czech Republic that use the wastewater re-use technology system. In the following practical part, all the knowledge from the theoretical part are applied for a concrete project of construction of a graywater re-use technology system in the area of Vlněna in Brno city.

This paper attempts to determine the theoretical requirements for a non-state actor to give peacekeepers to a Member state of the United Nations, who would in turn give those peacekeepers to the United Nations. The paper examines two case studies, specifically the contract between Blackwater and the United States Department of State and the SHIRBRIG series of treaties. The paper finds that there is some overlap between a Member state’s needs and a non-state actor’s needs and that there is a theoretical possibility of the donation stated above taking place.

The south-western Cape of South Africa has a very endemic, specialized terrestrial flora and aquatic fauna. It has been argued that the high degree of endemism is related to the origin of the fauna, the multiplicity of habitats present and the harsh water chemistry characterized by low pH. The aim of this project was to look at the relationship between pH and endemism. Specifically I asked if there is a trichopteran and ephemeropteran fauna confined to the Cape and if this is true, I attempted to find out whether it is the acidic waters or its biogeographical origin that limits its distribution. I also attempted to identify a group of species that occurs at a wide range of pH values (i.e. pH insensitive) and another group that is intolerant of acidic waters. This was done by looking at historical data on species distribution and the pH ranges at which they were found, and these data then re-analysed in the light of fieldwork performed on the Breede River in the western Cape. A number of species within different genera ( e.g. Lithogloea, Leptecho and Agapetus) appears to be confined to the Cape. Their distribution is determined by both their origin and water chemistry conditions, which are characterised by low pH and pure, silt-free water. A warm stenothermal group, comprising Leptonema, Elassoneuria and Eatonica spp. is limited to the subtropical regions of South Africa, where water is alkaline. A eurythermal, pH-insensitive group that includes Castanophlebia calida, Ecnomus and Cheumatopsyche spp has a widespread distribution throughout the country. Lastly, there appears to be another eurythermal group ( e.g. Pseudopannota macu/osa, Pseudocloeon glaucum) that is intolerant of low pH values. As research is continuously discovering new species and new distribution records for old ones, it is likely that the above categories will need revision as more data are collected.

Pit toilets satisfy the sanitation requirement in regions with no access to piped sewerage facilities. Black water discharged from pit toilets is a major source of groundwater pollution. The primary focus of the thesis is to understand the fate of ammonium-N in blackwater generated in pour flush pit toilets, in blackwater contaminated soils in vicinity of leach pits that are subject to moisture evaporation and lastly develop a methodology to reduce nitrate contamination of aquifers by blackwater released from leach pits of pour flush toilets. In the first part of the study, the characteristics of black water from a pour flush pit toilet located in Mulbagal town, Karnataka, India, for nitrogenous constituents and other physico-chemical parameters are examined. The impact of moisture evaporation on fate of ammonium-N reactions in blackwater contaminated soils is next investigated in this study. Methodology for in-situ removal of soluble N fraction from blackwater in leach pit of pit toilet is developed. Guided by results from laboratory experiments, design for modified twin pit toilet is proposed that reduces the contamination load on groundwater

This study focuses on the endocrine-disrupting capabilities of paper and pulpmill effluents discharged into Elevenmile Creek, FL; specifically effects of effluents on levels of testosterone, 11-ketotestosterone, estradiol in blood, vitellogenin production, gonadosomatic index, and condition coefficients in bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus. Bluegill were captured monthly for one year from Elevenmile Creek and a reference site---Blackwater River. Standard length and weight were recorded, and blood samples were collected. All hormone and vitellogenin levels were measured by ELISA. The reproductive cycle of bluegill in the southeastern United States in a blackwater system was also determined from reference site data. The livers of formalin fixed specimens archived in Tulane's Museum of Natural History from Elevenmile Creek and from the reference site were immunohistochemically examined in an attempt to detect historical differences in vitellogenin production between fish from the two sites. The alternate hypothesis of this investigation was that female bluegill would exhibit a type of masculinization as seen in female mosquitofish captured from this site, indicating an androgenic effect of this type of contamination. Results of Chapter II show that, when compared to reference females, females from Elevenmile Creek exhibited significantly higher levels of estradiol in Spring 2001 (5.50 ng/ml vs. 2.30 ng/ml), vitellogenin in Winter 2001 (2833.70 mug/ml vs. 187.96 mug/ml). When compared to reference males, males from Elevenmile Creek exhibit higher levels of estradiol in Summer 2001 (5.96 ng/ml vs. 2.27 ng/ml), and vitellogenin in Fall 2600 (1136.20 mug/ml vs. 86.57 mug/ml). There was no evidence of masculinization of females or supermasculinization of males. The added nutrients, food supply, and species differences are all plausible explanations for the increased levels of hormones and vitellogenin in bluegill from Elevenmile Creek The reproductive cycle of bluegill found in Florida in blackwater system, displayed in Chapter II begins in spring (April) and continues through the summer (September). In Chapter III, vitellogenin was detected in formalin fixed livers. Historical evidence also shows that exposure of paper and pulpmill effluents has had no adverse effects on the reproductive physiology of bluegill sunfish in the past
acase@tulane.edu

"The Central Queensland University developed an on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology. Septic tanks were used for primary treatment and the discharged effluent was then pumped though a series of contained channels. The channels were designed to be a modified evapotranspiration trench; they were comprised of an aggregate layer and a soil layer in which were planted a variety of plants. The aggregate and the soil provided physical filtration, the microorganisms within the effluent, aggregate and soil provided nutrient reuse and transformation and the plants also used the nutrients and reused the treated effluent through evapotranspiration. Any effluent that was not transpired was returned to a holding tank and pumped through the evapotranspiration again. The treatment technology was assessed in relation to its ability to treat effluent in a sustainable manner. The water and soil was examined for concentrations of nutrients, heavy metals, salts, sodium, and organic carbon %. The pH, temperature and number of colony forming units of certain microorganism potential pathogens were also inspected in the soil and the water. The plants grown within the evapotranspiration channels were assessed in regards to their health, water usage, and in some cases potential pathogens on fruit. The infrastructure that was used to construct the wastewater treatment and reuse system was also evaluated in regards to reliability and maintenance. Certain limiting factors, in particular sodicity and salinity were identified, but the trial was successful and a sustainable form of on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology was developed." --abstract