Journal articles on the topic 'Birthweight'
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Luke, B., L. Keith, and D. Keith. "Maternal Nutrition in Twin Gestations: Weight Gain, Cravings and Aversions, and Sources of Nutrition Advice." Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae: twin research 46, no. 3 (July 1997): 157–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000156600000057x.
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AbstractBackground: Maternal nutrition has a strong influence on singleton and twin birthweight. This study evaluated the association between twin birthweight and maternal pregravid body mass index (BMI), weight gain, and cravings and aversions. Information was also obtained regarding sources of nutrition advice and advised versus actual weight gain.Methods: This study is based on data from interviews with 928 mothers of twins. Univariate analysis included comparisons by source of nutritional advice, birthweight categories, and categories of cravings and aversions. Multiple logistic regression was used to formulate models for mean twin birthweights > 1,500 g and > 2,500 g.Results: Mothers who received their nutrition advice from a registered dietitian had the highest weight gains and the lowest proportion of birthweights < 1,500 g. For mean twin birthweight > 2,500 g, the final model included prematurity, pregravid BMI, and weight gain; for birthweights > 1,500 g, the model additionally included maternal age and aversions.Conclusions: Maternal pregravid BMI and gestational weight gain were shown to be important factors influencing twin birthweight. Nutrition advice, particularly from a registered dietitian, may be vital in assuring adequate weight gain, and therefore better birthweights, for these high-risk pregnancies.
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Bjelland, Elisabeth K., Jon M. Gran, Solveig Hofvind, and Anne Eskild. "The association of birthweight with age at natural menopause: a population study of women in Norway." International Journal of Epidemiology 49, no. 2 (October 21, 2019): 528–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz207.
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Abstract Background Previous studies suggest that birthweight may influence age at natural menopause, but the evidence remains inconclusive. Thus, we aimed to estimate the association of birthweight with age at natural menopause. Methods A retrospective population study of 164 608 women in Norway, aged 48–71 years. Data were obtained by two self-administered questionnaires among participants in BreastScreen Norway during 2006–2014. We used Cox proportional hazard models to estimate hazard ratios and logistic regression models to estimate odds ratios of menopause according to birthweight. Restricted cubic splines were applied to allow for possible non-linear associations, and adjustments were made for year and country of birth. Results Women with birthweight <2500 g were median 51 years at menopause (interquartile range 49–54 years), whereas women with birthweight 3500–3999 g were median 52 years at menopause (interquartile range 49–54 years). The hazard ratio of menopause decreased with increasing birthweight up until 3500 g. At birthweights >3500 g, we estimated no further decrease (P for non-linearity = 0.007). Birthweight at 2500 g increased the odds ratios of menopause before the age of 45 [1.20; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14–1.25] and the age of 40 (1.26; 95% CI: 1.15–1.38) compared with birthweight at 3500 g. At birthweights 4000 g and 4500 g, the odds ratio estimates were very similar to the reference group and the CIs overlapped 1.00. Conclusions We found a non-linear dose-relationship of birthweight with age at natural menopause, and low birthweight was associated with early natural menopause. Our findings suggest that growth restriction during fetal life may influence the timing of natural menopause.
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MSL, Mathule, Kennedy T, Gates G, and Maria T. Spicer. "Predictors of Birthweight in Healthy Women Attending A Rural Antenatal Clinic." African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 5, no. 8 (April 25, 2005): 01–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.8.1125.
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Birthweight is important to infant survival and the later health of a child. To promote optimum birthweight, in an environment that is vulnerable to seasonal food shortages, it is important to understand the relationship between birthweight and exposure to the hungry season. The objective of this study was to determine seasonal effects on birthweight and examined the ability of maternal and seasonal variables to predict birthweight in this cohort. The study was conducted at Scott Hospital-Morija which services rural communities in Lesotho. Women with normal healthy pregnancies without complications, with a clinic attendance of five or more times, who had full term singleton infants were included. Information including infant’s date of birth, infant’s birthweight and length, monthly maternal weights, and date of first and last antenatal visit were systematically and retrospectively extracted from 477 Antenatal Clinic (ANC) records covering a period of three years from May 1998 to April 2001. There were 252 male infants with mean birthweight of 3169g ± 420 and 225 female infants with mean birthweight of 3297g ± 436. A seasonal pattern was observed with a significant difference (p<0.05) between the mean birthweights in the December and January hungry season (3100g ± 70) and the mean birthweights in March, April, August and September (3310g ± 70). First trimester exposure to the hungry season had a tendency to correlate with birthweight (p<0.10). Third trimester exposure to the hungry season had a significant negative (r = - 0.106, p<0.05) relationship with birthweight. The best predictors of birthweight were maternal parity (p=0.0001), last pregnancy weight (p=0.0001) and exposure to the hungry season in the third trimester (p=0.022) with the first trimester (p=0.056) of pregnancy approaching significance. Thus, length of exposure to the hungry season is important in determining pregnancy outcomes. The regression model including last pregnancy weight, maternal parity and exposure to the hungry season in the third trimester explained 12.2% of the variance in birth weight (p=0.017). Increased surveillance of primigravid women, promoting pregnancy weight gain for optimal infant weight at term and supplementation during the hungry season are recommended.
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MSL, Mathule, Kennedy T, Gates G, and Maria T. Spicer. "Predictors of Birthweight in Healthy Women Attending A Rural Antenatal Clinic." African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 5, no. 8 (April 25, 2005): 01–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.8.1125.
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Birthweight is important to infant survival and the later health of a child. To promote optimum birthweight, in an environment that is vulnerable to seasonal food shortages, it is important to understand the relationship between birthweight and exposure to the hungry season. The objective of this study was to determine seasonal effects on birthweight and examined the ability of maternal and seasonal variables to predict birthweight in this cohort. The study was conducted at Scott Hospital-Morija which services rural communities in Lesotho. Women with normal healthy pregnancies without complications, with a clinic attendance of five or more times, who had full term singleton infants were included. Information including infant’s date of birth, infant’s birthweight and length, monthly maternal weights, and date of first and last antenatal visit were systematically and retrospectively extracted from 477 Antenatal Clinic (ANC) records covering a period of three years from May 1998 to April 2001. There were 252 male infants with mean birthweight of 3169g ± 420 and 225 female infants with mean birthweight of 3297g ± 436. A seasonal pattern was observed with a significant difference (p<0.05) between the mean birthweights in the December and January hungry season (3100g ± 70) and the mean birthweights in March, April, August and September (3310g ± 70). First trimester exposure to the hungry season had a tendency to correlate with birthweight (p<0.10). Third trimester exposure to the hungry season had a significant negative (r = - 0.106, p<0.05) relationship with birthweight. The best predictors of birthweight were maternal parity (p=0.0001), last pregnancy weight (p=0.0001) and exposure to the hungry season in the third trimester (p=0.022) with the first trimester (p=0.056) of pregnancy approaching significance. Thus, length of exposure to the hungry season is important in determining pregnancy outcomes. The regression model including last pregnancy weight, maternal parity and exposure to the hungry season in the third trimester explained 12.2% of the variance in birth weight (p=0.017). Increased surveillance of primigravid women, promoting pregnancy weight gain for optimal infant weight at term and supplementation during the hungry season are recommended.
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Horton, B. J., R. Corkrey, and G. N. Hinch. "Estimation of risk factors associated with difficult birth in ewes." Animal Production Science 58, no. 6 (2018): 1125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an16339.
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In eight closely recorded Australian Merino and crossbred sheep flocks, all lamb deaths were examined and the cause of deaths identified if possible. Dystocia was identified as one of the major causes of lamb death and this study examined factors that could be used to identify ewes at high risk of dystocia, either to avoid dystocia or to assist with early intervention where possible. Dystocia was least common in lambs of ~4.8 kg, but there was a higher risk at both lower and higher birthweights. Dystocia with both low and high birthweight was more common in older ewes, ranging from negligible low birthweight dystocia in ewes less than 3 years old at lambing, to 5% in older ewes. Low birthweight dystocia increased with increasing litter size, with 40% dystocia in ewes at least 4 years of age with triplets. In contrast, high birthweight dystocia was not affected by litter size. A previous record of low birthweight dystocia was a risk factor for future low birthweight dystocia, but the same relationship was not observed for high birthweight dystocia. A high lambing ease score (difficult birth) with high birthweight was a risk factor for future high birthweight dystocia, but this was not the case for low birthweight dystocia. These differences between the risk factors for low and high birthweight dystocia suggest that they have different causes. High ewe liveweight and condition score during pregnancy may be additional indicators of the risk of dystocia, particularly for ewes with high liveweight in the first 60 days of pregnancy. For most ewes dystocia was difficult to predict, but there was a small proportion of ewes with a very high risk of dystocia and if these could be identified in advance they could be monitored much more closely than the rest of the flock.
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Paganoni, B. L., C. M. Oldham, M. B. Ferguson, A. N. Thompson, P. E. Vercoe, and D. G. Gordon. "Ewe nutrition during pregnancy and birthweight of lambs has minimal impact on fat and eye muscle depth in Merino progeny." Animal Production Science 53, no. 6 (2013): 509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an12266.
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The hypothesis tested in this experiment was that Merino lambs with lower birthweights, due to poor ewe nutrition during pregnancy, would have more fat and less muscle than Merino lambs with higher birthweights. At two sites (Victoria and Western Australia) in each of 2 years, a wide range in the liveweight profiles of ewes was generated during pregnancy and lactation by varying the amount of supplements fed and feed on offer grazed. Progeny had fat and muscle depth at the C-site measured at various ages from 8 to 28 months of age. Across the four experiments, there were differences of 0.5 kg in birthweights and 8 kg in weaning weights between extreme treatments. The effects on the depth of fat and muscle were very small with fat depth increasing by 0.1–0.2 mm (5–7%) and muscle depth increasing by 0.2–0.7 mm (1–3%) when birthweights decreased by 1 kg. The effects of birthweight on fat depth are consistent with our hypothesis whereas the effects of birthweight on muscle depth are in contrast to our hypothesis. Nevertheless, the impacts of birthweight on the depth of fat and muscle measured at the C-site of progeny from Merino ewes, is unlikely to be of any commercial significance within the range of nutritional scenarios during pregnancy and lactation that are likely to be experienced within the Australian sheep industry.
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Gielen, Marij, Patrick J. Lindsey, Catherine Derom, Ruth J. F. Loos, Nicole Y. Souren, Aimee D. C. Paulussen, Maurice P. Zeegers, Robert Derom, Robert Vlietinck, and Jan G. Nijhuis. "Twin-Specific Intrauterine ‘Growth’ Charts Based on Cross-Sectional Birthweight Data." Twin Research and Human Genetics 11, no. 2 (April 1, 2008): 224–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.11.2.224.
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AbstractThe assessment of fetal growth is an essential component of good antenatal care, especially for twins. The aims of this study are to develop twin-specific intrauterine 'growth' charts, based on cross-sectional birthweight data, for monochorionic and dichorionic twins according to sex and parity, and to detect twins at risk for neonatal death by comparing the use of twin-specific and singleton charts. The study sample consisted of 76,471 singletons and 8454 twins (4227 pairs) born in East Flanders (Belgium). Birthweights were analyzed using a nonlinear Gaussian regression. After 33 weeks of gestation, the birthweights of twins started to deviate from singletons (difference of 900 grams at 42 weeks). Birthweights of dichorionic twins continued to increase, whereas those of monochorionic twins decreased after week 40 (difference of more than 300 g at 42 weeks). After 31 weeks of gestation, neonatal mortality increased as centile decreased, and was especially high if birthweight was below the twin-specific third centile: .032 (below) versus .007 (above). Using singleton centiles, this was less obvious. In conclusion, twin-specific growth charts, taking chorionicity into account, are more accurate to detect twins at risk for neonatal death. Therefore the presented charts, based on cross-sectional birthweight data, enable an improved assessment of twin growth.
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Olafimihan, Victoria I., Adekunle J. Ariba, Ademola Egunjobi, and Olusanya Abiodun. "Maternal factors influencing birth weight of term babies among women who received antenatal care at a Nigerian voluntary agency health care facility." International Journal of Reproduction, Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology 9, no. 11 (October 27, 2020): 4382. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-1770.ijrcog20204783.
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Background: Birthweight is an important indicator of babies’ health status and a reliable predictor of their postnatal survival. Maternal factors are regarded as major contributors to birthweight outcome due to their direct effects on foetal growth. Proper knowledge of these factors is essential for implementing preventive measures against suboptimal birthweight. Objective of the study sought to determine the proportion of term babies with normal birthweight and identify the maternal factors that influence birthweight.Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 257 booked pregnant women and their newborns delivered at the Sacred Heart Hospital (SHH), Abeokuta, Nigeria between August and November 2017. Selection was by systematic random sampling method. Data were collected with a pre-tested interviewer-administered questionnaire and analyzed with SPSS version 21 program.Results: The mean age of the women was 30.73±5.17 years. Among the women, 95.7% had at least senior secondary education, 95% of them were married and employed. The mean birthweight was 3.25±0.47 kg and male babies had higher mean weight (male: 3.30±0.54 kg; female: 3.21±0.39 kg). NBW was recorded among 92.6% of the babies with 3.5 and 3.9% as LBW and HBW, respectively. Only maternal booking BMI (p=0.005) and chronic hypertension (p=0.007) were significantly associated with birthweight.Conclusion: Most babies in this study had normal birthweights reflecting the influence of optimal maternal biological and socio-demographic characteristics. Chronic hypertension and subnormal booking BMI undermined achievement of optimal birthweight, underscoring the need for pre-conception care for intending mothers.
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Silveira, Mariangela F., Cesar G. Victora, Bernardo L. Horta, Bruna G. C. da Silva, Alicia Matijasevich, Fernando C. Barros, Aluisio J. D. Barros, et al. "Low birthweight and preterm birth: trends and inequalities in four population-based birth cohorts in Pelotas, Brazil, 1982–2015." International Journal of Epidemiology 48, Supplement_1 (June 22, 2018): i46—i53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyy106.
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Abstract Background Despite positive changes in most maternal risk factors in Brazil, previous studies did not show reductions in preterm birth and low birthweight. We analysed trends and inequalities in these outcomes over a 33-year period in a Brazilian city. Methods Four population-based birth cohort studies were carried out in the city of Pelotas in 1982, 1993, 2004 and 2015, with samples ranging from 4231 to 5914 liveborn children. Low birthweight (LBW) was defined as <2500 g, and preterm birth as less than 37 weeks of gestation. Information was collected on family income, maternal skin colour and other risk factors for low birthweight. Multivariable linear regression was used to estimate the contribution of risk factors to time trends in birthweight. Results Preterm births increased from 5.8% (1982) to 13.8% (2015), and LBW prevalence increased from 9.0% to 10.1%, being higher for boys and for children born to mothers with low income and brown or black skin colour. Mean birthweight remained stable, around 3200 g, but increased from 3058 to 3146 g in the poorest quintile and decreased from 3307 to 3227 g in the richest quintile. After adjustment for risk factors for LBW, mean birthweight was estimated to have declined by 160 g over 1982–2015 (reductions of 103 g in the poorest and 213 g in the richest quintiles). Conclusions Data from four birth cohorts show that preterm births increased markedly. Mean birthweights remained stable over a 33-year period. Increased prevalence of preterm and early term births, associated with high levels of obstetric interventions, has offset the expected improvements due to reduction in risk factors for low birthweight.
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Mishra, Vinod, Shyam Thapa, Robert D. Retherford, and Xiaolei Dai. "Effect of Iron Supplementation during Pregnancy on Birthweight: Evidence from Zimbabwe." Food and Nutrition Bulletin 26, no. 4 (December 2005): 338–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/156482650502600403.
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Background Iron deficiency in pregnant women has been shown to reduce the oxygen supply to the fetus, cause intrauterine growth retardation, and increase the risk of premature delivery and reduced birthweight. Yet the effects of iron supplementation programs on pregnancy outcomes are not well documented for developing countries. Objective To examine the relation between iron supplementation of mothers during pregnancy and children's birthweight using data from a national population-based survey in Zimbabwe. Methods The analysis uses information on 3,559 births during the five years preceding the 1999 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey. The effect of iron supplementation during pregnancy on birthweight was estimated by multiple regression, controlling for potential confounding effects of prenatal care, child's sex and birth order, mother's education and nutritional status (measured by body-mass index), household living standard, smoke exposure, and other variables. Results Babies born to mothers who received iron supplementation during pregnancy were 103 g heavier (95% confidence interval, 42–164; p = .001), on average, than babies born to mothers who did not receive iron supplementation during pregnancy. The difference was 64 g (95% confidence interval, 2–125; p = .043) for children whose birthweights were taken from health cards and 163 g (95% confidence interval, 44–281; p = .008) for children whose birthweights were reported by their mothers. Conclusions Iron supplementation during pregnancy is associated with significantly higher birthweight, independent of other pregnancy care factors, mother's nutritional status, smoke exposure, and a number of demographic and socioeconomic factors. Prenatal iron supplementation programs can improve pregnancy outcomes and promote child survival in developing countries.
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Whitfield, John B., Susan A. Treloar, Gu Zhu, and Nicholas G. Martin. "Genetic and Non-Genetic Factors Affecting Birth-Weight and Adult Body Mass Index." Twin Research 4, no. 5 (October 1, 2001): 365–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.4.5.365.
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AbstractBirthweight affects neonatal mortality and morbidity and has been used as a marker of foetal undernutrition in studies of prenatal effects on adult characteristics. It is potentially influenced by genetic and environmental influences on the mother, and effects of foetal genotype, which is partially derived from the maternal genotype. Interpretations of variation in birthweight and associated characteristics as being due to prenatal environment ignore other possible modes of materno-foetal transmission. Subjects were adult twins recruited through the Australian Twin Registry, aged 17 to 87 years, and the sample comprised 1820 men and 4048 women. Twins reported their own birthweight as part of a health questionnaire. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated from self-reports of height and weight. Correlations between co-twins' birthweights were high for both monozygotic (r = 0.77) and dizygotic (r = 0.67) pairs, leading to substantial estimates of shared environmental effects (56% of variance) with significant additive genetic (23%) and non-shared environmental (21%) components. Adult BMI was mainly influenced by genetic factors, both additive (36% of variance) and nonadditive (35%). The correlation between birthweight and BMI was positive, in that heavier babies became on average more obese adults. A bivariate model of birthweight and adult BMI showed significant positive genetic (rg = 0.16, p = 0.005) and environmental (re = 0.08, p = 0.000011) correlations. Intra-uterine environmental or perinatal influences shared by cotwins exercise a strong influence on birthweight, but the factors which affect both birthweight and adult BMI are partly genetic and partly non-shared environmental.
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Yokoyama, Yoshie, Masako Sugimoto, and Syuichi Ooki. "Analysis of Factors Affecting Birthweight, Birth Length and Head Circumference: Study of Japanese Triplets." Twin Research and Human Genetics 8, no. 6 (December 1, 2005): 657–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.8.6.657.
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AbstractThe aims of this study were to identify factors associated with birthweight, birth length and head circumference for triplets, and analyze these body size parameters at birth, especially head circumference, according to gestational age. The subjects of this study were 370 mothers and their 1109 triplet children (excluding one stillborn infant) who were born between 1978 and 2002. The gestational age proved to be the strongest contributing factor to birthweight, birth length and head circumference of the triplets. Moreover, sex was a significant factor affecting birthweight, birth length and head circumference. Male neonates had a higher birthweight, longer birth length and greater head circumference than female neonates. Birth order in triplets also had a significant effect on birthweight and head circumference. Lower birth- order neonates had a higher birthweight and greater head circumference. An effect of maternal pregravid body mass index (BMI) on both birth- weight and birth length was observed. The birthweights of triplets born to women whose pregravid BMIs were more than 26.0 kg/m2 weighed an average of 150 g more than those of triplets born to women whose pregravid BMIs were less than 19.8 kg/m2, and the birth length of triplets born to women whose pregravid BMIs were more than 26.0 kg/m2 averaged 1.5 cm longer than those of triplets born to women whose pregravid BMIs were less than 19.8 kg/m2. Concerning head circumference, the median head circumference of male neonates was approximately 0.5 cm longer than female neonates. Compared to singleton neonates, the median head circumference of triplets was almost the same.
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Chang, Karen T., Emily D. Carter, Luke C. Mullany, Subarna K. Khatry, Simon Cousens, Xiaoyi An, Julia Krasevec, Steven C. LeClerq, Melinda K. Munos, and Joanne Katz. "Validation of MINORMIX Approach for Estimation of Low Birthweight Prevalence Using a Rural Nepal Dataset." Journal of Nutrition 152, no. 3 (December 9, 2021): 872–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxab417.
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ABSTRACT Background The Global Nutrition Target of reducing low birthweight (LBW) by ≥30% between 2012 and 2025 has led to renewed interest in producing accurate, population-based, national LBW estimates. Low- and middle-income countries rely on household surveys for birthweight data. These data are frequently incomplete and exhibit strong “heaping.” Standard survey adjustment methods produce estimates with residual bias. The global database used to report against the LBW Global Nutrition Target adjusts survey data using a new MINORMIX (multiple imputation followed by normal mixture) approach: 1) multiple imputation to address missing birthweights, followed by 2) use of a 2-component normal mixture model to account for heaping of birthweights. Objectives To evaluate the performance of the MINORMIX birthweight adjustment approach and alternative methods against gold-standard measured birthweights in rural Nepal. Methods As part of a community-randomized trial in rural Nepal, we measured “gold-standard” birthweights at birth and returned 1–24 mo later to collect maternally reported birthweights using standard survey methods. We compared estimates of LBW from maternally reported data derived using: 1) the new MINORMAX approach; 2) the previously used Blanc–Wardlaw adjustment; or 3) no adjustment for missingness or heaping against our gold standard. We also assessed the independent contribution of multiple imputation and curve fitting to LBW adjustment. Results Our gold standard found 27.7% of newborns were LBW. The unadjusted LBW estimate based on maternal report with simulated missing birthweights was 14.5% (95% CI: 11.6, 18.0%). Application of the Blanc–Wardlaw adjustment increased the LBW estimate to 20.6%. The MINORMIX approach produced an estimate of 26.4% (95% CI: 23.5, 29.3%) LBW, closest to and with bounds encompassing the measured point estimate. Conclusions In a rural Nepal validation dataset, the MINORMIX method generated a more accurate LBW estimate than the previously applied adjustment method. This supports the use of the MINORMIX method to produce estimates for tracking the LBW Global Nutrition Target.
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Wynn, Arthur, and Margaret Wynn. "Magnesium and Other Nutrient Deficiencies as Possible Causes of Hypertension and Low Birthweight." Nutrition and Health 6, no. 2 (July 1988): 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026010608800600201.
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7.2 per cent of babies born in England and Wales in 1986 had birthweights below 2,500 g. Low birthweight and hypertension are associated. European trials have reported that oral supplementation with physiological amounts of magnesium during pregnancy reduces pregnancy hypertension and also miscarriage, preterm birth and fetal growth retardation. Magnesium deficiency causes hypertension and low birthweight in animals. In humans deficiency of thiamin and other B vitamins has also been reported to cause pregnancy hypertension and low birthweight. Magnesium and B vitamins are essential for the same biochemical reactions in energy metabolism. There is evidence that magnesium consumption of substantial numbers of women in Europe and North America is too low to support a healthy pregnancy. Magnesium and thiamin are lost in processing many foods. British trials of magnesium supplementation are advocated. It is suggested that more attention should be given to magnesium in nutritional advice.
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Kunugi, H., S. Nanko, and R. M. Murray. "Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: prenatal underdevelopment and subsequent neurodevelopmental impairment." British Journal of Psychiatry 178, S40 (April 2001): s25—s29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.178.40.s25.
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BackgroundMany studies have shown an association between obstetric complications and schizophrenia.AimsTo investigate the possible relationship between prenatal underdevelopment, neurodevelopmental abnormality and subsequent schizophrenia.MethodThe literature was reviewed. In particular, by pooling data from recently published reports, we examined whether low birthweight (<2500 g) is a risk factor for schizophrenia.ResultsLow birthweight was significantly more common for subjects with schizophrenia than for control subjects: P < 0.00001, odds ratio 2.6 (95% CI 2.0 to 3.3). Individuals born prematurely are at greater risk of perinatal brain damage and subsequent neurodevelopmental abnormalities, which may constitute vulnerability to the development of schizophrenia. Patients with schizophrenia who had low birthweights also tended to have poor premorbid psychosocial adjustment.ConclusionsLow birthweight is a modest, but definite, risk factor for schizophrenia. Brain damage associated with prenatal underdevelopment has a role in the pathogenesis of poor premorbid functioning and subsequent neurodevelopmental impairment in some cases of schizophrenia.
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Fernandez-Rodriguez, Beatriz, Ana Roche Gomez, Blanca Sofia Jimenez Moreno, Concepción de Alba, Alberto Galindo, Cecilia Villalain, Carmen Pallás, and Ignacio Herraiz. "Smoking influence on early and late fetal growth." Journal of Perinatal Medicine 50, no. 2 (December 17, 2021): 200–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jpm-2021-0226.
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Abstract Objectives Smoking during pregnancy is a leading and modifiable risk factor for fetal growth restriction (FGR) and low birthweight (<10th centile). We studied the effects of smoking in the development of early and late FGR or low birthweight, as well as in uteroplacental and fetoplacental hemodynamics of growth-restricted fetuses. Methods Retrospective cohort study of 5,537 consecutive singleton pregnancies delivered at ≤34 + 0 (“early delivery” group, n=95) and >34 + 0 (“late delivery” group, n=5,442) weeks of gestation. Each group was divided into smokers and non-smokers. Prenatal diagnosis of FGR was based on customized fetal growth standards and fetal Doppler, and postnatal birthweight was assessed using the Olsen newborn chart. Results There were 15/95 (15.8%) and 602/5,442 (11.1%) smokers in the early and late delivery groups, respectively. In early deliveries, FGR was diagnosed in 3/15 (20%) of smokers and in 20/80 (25%) of non-smokers (p=0.68). We also found no differences in birthweights and hemodynamics. In late deliveres, FGR was detected in 30/602 (5%) smokers and 64/4,840 (1.3%) non-smokers (p<0.001). Birthweights <3rd centile and <10th centile were more common in smokers vs. non-smokers: 38/602 (6.3%) vs. 87/4,840 (1.8%) and 89/602 (14.8%) vs. 288/4,840 (6%), respectively (all p<0.01). Fetal Doppler of late FGR showed slightly higher umbilical artery resistances in smokers. Conclusions Smoking in pregnancy is associated with FGR, low birthweight and higher umbilical artery Doppler resistances after 34 weeks of gestation, but we could not confirm this association in earlier deliveries.
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Luke, B., L. Keith, J. A. Lopez-Zeno, F. R. Witter, and E. Saquil. "A Case-Control Study of Maternal Gestational Weight Gain and Newborn Birthweight and Birthlength in Twin Pregnancies Complicated by Preeclampsia." Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae: twin research 42, no. 1 (1993): 7–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0515283600042232.
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AbstractTo evaluate the influence of rate of gestational weight gain on newborn birthweight and birthlength in twin gestations complicated by preeclampsia, 74 cases of preeclampsia in twin pregnancy were matched to 148 non-preeclamptic twin controls for maternal race, height, pregravid weight, age and length of gestation. Total weight gain was significantly higher for all cases versus controls and for mild cases versus controls. However, the rate of early weight gain was lower for severe cases and severe cases with thrombocytopenia compared to their controls. Mean birthweight and birthlength did not differ between cases and controls, although the proportion with birthlength below the 10th percentile was significantly higher among cases than controls. In addition, the proportion of birthweights and birthlengths < 10th percentile was significantly higher among cases than controls. These findings suggest that inadequate early weight gain in twin gestations complicated by preeclampsia results in retarded birthlength and birthweight. The implication of these findings are discussed.
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CROMWELL, POLLY F., MADELON VISINTAINER BARANOSKI, and DONNA DIERS. "Birthweight." Nursing Management (Springhouse) 21, no. 4 (April 1990): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006247-199004000-00017.
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Kenyon, P. R., D. K. Revell, and S. T. Morris. "Mid-pregnancy shearing can increase birthweight and survival to weaning of multiple-born lambs under commercial conditions." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, no. 7 (2006): 821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea05329.
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In several field studies, mid-pregnancy shearing has increased lamb birthweight, which may be associated with an increase in lamb survival. However, animal numbers have been too low in these studies to accurately examine any effects on survival rates to weaning. This study was designed to investigate the effect of mid-pregnancy shearing on the birthweight of multiple-born lambs and their survival rates to weaning under commercial farming conditions at 2 different sites. At Riverside, 657 twin- and 47 triplet-bearing ewes were either shorn at mid-pregnancy (n = 347) or left unshorn (n = 357). Similarly, at Tuapaka, 532 twin-, and 60 triplet-bearing ewes were either shorn at mid-pregnancy (n = 291) or left unshorn (n = 301). Mid-pregnancy shearing significantly (P<0.05) increased the birthweights of lambs at each site (by 0.44 and 0.13 kg at Riverside and Tuapaka, respectively). Mid-pregnancy shearing significantly (P<0.05) increased lamb weaning weights (by 1.07 kg) and survival rates to weaning (by 5.5%) at Riverside, but not at Tuapaka. These findings show that mid-pregnancy shearing under commercial farming conditions can increase the birthweight of multiple-born lambs and, when the birthweight response is large enough to reduce the numbers of otherwise lightweight lambs, it is associated with an increase in survival rates to weaning.
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Dorak, M. Tevfik, Donna M. Hammal, Mark S. Pearce, Richard J. Q. McNally, and Louise Parker. "Associations of Birthweight and Maternal Fertility Problems with Childhood Cancers." Blood 106, no. 11 (November 16, 2005): 4546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood.v106.11.4546.4546.
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Abstract Higher birthweight, maternal history of miscarriage and low birth order have been associated with increased risk of childhood leukaemias and some solid tumours. No study has investigated these factors together and differences in disease etiology between girls and boys have been generally overlooked. In a retrospective case-control study, 732 childhood (≤15 yr) cancer cases from the population-based Northern Region Young Persons’ Malignant Disease Registry (NRYPMDR) whose hospital birth records could be accessed and 3723 controls matched for date and hospital of birth were compared. We examined maternal reproductive history and birthweight for gender-specific associations using conditional logistic regression. In univariate analysis, maternal history of miscarriage showed an association with all cancers (OR = 1.29; 95% CI = 1.05 to 1.62, P = 0.02). In individual cancer groups, this association was significant for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) (n=225, OR = 1.56; 95% CI = 1.07 to 2.27, P = 0.02), and marginally significant in osteosarcoma and neuroblastic tumours (neuroblastoma and ganglioneuroblastoma). There was no significant association with birth order. Being first born was a weak risk factor for ALL in boys only (OR=1.3, 95% CI = 0.8 to1.8). In boys but not in girls, the risk of ALL increased with birthweight (OR = 1.06 per 100 gr increase; 95% CI = 1.01 to 1.11, P = 0.01). When birthweights were normalized using UK standards for gestational age and gender, the associations were not more marked. A multivariate model for ALL confirmed the independence of associations with miscarriage history and birthweight. Gestational age was not a risk marker and did not explain the associations with birth weight and miscarriage history. Consideration of gender unravelled significant associations of maternal reproductive history and size at birth with childhood cancer markedly different between girls and boys. Most notably, associations with birth weight and miscarriage and the weak association with being first-born in childhood ALL were all stronger in males. The findings for birthweights normalized for gestational age suggested that size at birth rather than in utero growth trajectory is of etiologic importance in childhood ALL.
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Hirst, Jane E., Hannah Ellin Knight, Eric O. Ohuma, Terence Dwyer, Benjamin D. Hennig, Aris T. Papageorghiou, Leila Cheikh Ismail, José Villar, and Stephen H. Kennedy. "Social gradient of birthweight in England assessed using the INTERGROWTH-21st gestational age-specific standard." Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition 104, no. 5 (November 21, 2018): F486—F492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2018-315295.
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ObjectiveTo determine the socioeconomic gradient of birthweights in England with reference to the prescriptive INTERGROWTH-21st Birthweight Standard.DesignNational cross-sectional study using data from Hospital Episode Statistics.SettingNational Health Service in England.ParticipantsAll singleton babies, live born between 34 weeks’ gestation and 42 weeks’ gestation, between 1 April 2011 and 31 March 2012.Main outcome measuresBirthweight distribution of babies with a birthweight of <10th centile or >90th centile, that is, small for gestational age (SGA) or large for gestational age (LGA) using Index of Multiple Deprivation quintiles as a proxy for socioeconomic status.ResultsOf 508 230 babies born alive between 1 April 2011 and 31 March 2012, 38 838 (7.6%) were SGA and 81 026 (15.9%) were LGA. Median birthweight was 3405 g, median z-score was 0.25 (SD 1.06). Birthweight z-score demonstrated a social gradient, from 0.26 (SD 1.1) in the most deprived areas to 0.53 (1.0) in the least deprived. Women in the most deprived areas were twice as likely to have SGA babies using the INTERGROWTH-21st chart (OR 1.94; 95% CI 1.87 to 2.01) compared with those in the least deprived areas. If all women had the same rate of SGA equivalent to those living in the least deprived areas, approximately 12 410 (30%) fewer babies would be born SGA in England each year.ConclusionsThis study gives a measure of the social gradient in singleton SGA and LGA babies across England using an international standard of newborn size at birth.
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Eny, Karen, Jonathon Maguire, David Dai, Gerald Lebovic, Khosrow Adeli, Jill Hamilton, Anthony Hanley, et al. "ACCELERATED GROWTH IN EARLY CHILDHOOD IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE." Paediatrics & Child Health 23, suppl_1 (May 18, 2018): e12-e12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxy054.031.
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Abstract BACKGROUND Maternal obesity, low birthweight, and accelerated growth have been shown to be associated with elevated blood pressure in children. However, it is unknown which growth periods are associated with blood pressure, and whether birthweight or maternal obesity modify the relationship between growth and blood pressure in early childhood. OBJECTIVES We examined the relationship between age- and sex-standardized body mass index (zBMI) growth trajectories with longitudinal measures of systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure in early childhood. DESIGN/METHODS We collected repeated measures of zBMI and blood pressure in 2502 children participating in the TARGet Kids! cohort. In stage 1 we used linear spline multilevel models to estimate each child’s zBMI at birth and zBMI growth trajectories in early infancy (0–3 m), late infancy (3–18 m) and toddler years (18–36 m). In stage 2 we used generalized estimating equations to examine the relationship between zBMI at birth and zBMI growth with repeated measures of SBP and DBP from 3 to 6 years of age. We tested for effect modification by birthweight and maternal obesity status by inclusion of interaction terms in each growth period. RESULTS After adjusting for confounders and prior growth, a 1 standard deviation unit increase in zBMI growth per month in early infancy (β=0.59; 95% CI 0.32,0.87) and late infancy (β=0.73; 95% CI 0.44,1.01), were associated with higher SBP. Growth in the toddler years was not significantly associated with SBP (p=0.08). Similar but smaller associations were observed for zBMI growth and DBP in early (β=0.29; 95% CI 0.04, 0.53) and late infancy (β=0.42; 95% CI 0.18, 0.66). Birthweight status modified (p=0.004) the relationship between zBMI growth and SBP during late infancy, with the strongest positive association observed in the low birthweight group. During toddler years, birthweight status modified the relationship between zBMI growth with SBP (p=0.03) and DBP (p=0.04), with the strongest positive association observed in the low birthweight group, followed by the high birthweight group. Maternal obesity status modified (p= 0.03) the relationship between zBMI growth with DBP in late infancy, with a stronger association observed among children of mothers with obesity. CONCLUSION Accelerated growth in early and late infancy are associated with increased blood pressure in early childhood. Growth during late infancy and toddler years may impact blood pressure differently in children born with high and low birthweights and high maternal BMI, suggesting prospective windows and risk groups to target interventions.
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Bleker, O. P., J. Oosting, and D. J. Hemrika. "On the Cause of the Retardation of Fetal Growth in Multiple Gestations." Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae: twin research 37, no. 1 (January 1988): 41–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001566000004244.
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AbstractThe birthweights and placental weights of 3000 singletons, 1500 twin pairs and 67 triplets are studied in relation to the gestational age. From 30-32 weeks onwards, newborns of twin- and triplet gestation show lower birthweight as compared to singleton newborns. Placental indices (placental weights related to birthweights) are about alike in singletons, twins and triplets. From about 24 weeks onwards placental weights of twin and triplet newborns are smaller as compared to those of singletons. Obviously, children in multiple gestations become growth retarded, preceded by and very likely due to poor early placental development (placental crowding of the uterus).
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Wilcox, M. A., and I. R. Johnson. "Understanding birthweight." Current Obstetrics & Gynaecology 2, no. 2 (June 1992): 100–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0957-5847(05)80023-x.
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Lucas, A., and R. Morley. "Birthweight ratio." Archives of Disease in Childhood 66, no. 9 (September 1, 1991): 1099. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.66.9.1099-b.
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Barker, D. J. P. "The developmental origins of well–being." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 359, no. 1449 (September 29, 2004): 1359–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1518.
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Low birthweight is now known to be associated with increased rates of coronary heart disease and the related disorders, stroke, hypertension and adult–onset diabetes. These associations have been extensively replicated in studies in different countries and are not the result of confounding variables. They extend across the normal range of birthweight and depend on lower birthweights in relation to the duration of gestation rather than the effects of premature birth. The associations are thought to be consequences of developmental plasticity, the phenomenon by which one genotype can give rise to a range of different physiological or morphological states in response to different environmental conditions during development. Recent observations have shown that impaired growth in infancy and rapid childhood weight gain exacerbate the effects of impaired prenatal growth. A new vision of optimal early human development is emerging, which takes account of health and well–being throughout life.
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Kato, Noriko, and Tomohiro Matsuda. "The Relationship Between Birthweight Discordance and Perinatal Mortality of One of the Twins in a Twin Pair." Twin Research and Human Genetics 9, no. 2 (April 1, 2006): 292–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.9.2.292.
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AbstractThis study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of birth-weight discordance among twins, to determine the risk cut-off point for birthweight discordance, and to clarify whether perinatal deaths are aggravated by birthweight discordance or by low birthweight itself. A population-based analysis of all twins born between 1995 and 1999 in Japan was conducted using data collected from national birth, death and stillbirth certificates. Birthweight discordance was determined as: higher birthweight minus lower birthweight divided by higher birthweight multiplied by 100. Among twins with a birthweight discordance of more than 15%, the fetal and perinatal mortality rate was higher than that of twins with a discordance of less than 15%. Ninety per cent of the relative cumulative frequency of twin live-births were within 25% of the birthweight discordance. Logistic regression analysis showed that the stillbirth of at least one of the twins is associated with the birthweight of the larger twin and birthweight discordance. It also showed that the stillbirth of both twins in the twin pair is associated with the birth-weight of larger twins and the gestational weeks. It was clarified that birthweight discordance was associated with the stillbirth of only one twin in the twin pair, and the stillbirth of both twins in the twin pair was associated with low birthweight itself.
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Torniainen, M., A. Wegelius, A. Tuulio-Henriksson, J. Lönnqvist, and J. Suvisaari. "Both low birthweight and high birthweight are associated with cognitive impairment in persons with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives." Psychological Medicine 43, no. 11 (January 29, 2013): 2361–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713000032.
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BackgroundBoth low birthweight and high birthweight have been associated with an increased risk for schizophrenia and cognitive impairments in the general population. We assessed the association between birthweight and cognitive performance in persons with schizophrenia and their unaffected first-degree relatives.MethodWe investigated a population-based family sample comprising persons with schizophrenia (n = 142) and their unaffected first-degree relatives (n = 277). Both patients and relatives were interviewed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders, Clinician Version (SCID-CV) and a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery was administered. Information on birthweight was obtained from obstetric records. We used generalized estimating equation (GEE) models to investigate the effect of birthweight, as a continuous variable, on cognitive functioning, adjusting for within-family correlation and relevant covariates.ResultsBoth low birthweight and high birthweight were associated with lower performance in visuospatial reasoning, processing speed, set-shifting and verbal and visual working memory among persons with schizophrenia and their unaffected first-degree relatives compared to individuals with birthweight in the intermediate range. The group × birthweight interactions were non-significant.ConclusionsBoth low birthweight and high birthweight are associated with deficits in cognition later in life. Schizophrenia does not seem to modify the relationship between birthweight and cognition in families with schizophrenia.
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Kenyon, P. R., S. T. Morris, D. K. Revell, and S. N. McCutcheon. "Maternal constraint and the birthweight response to mid-pregnancy shearing." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 53, no. 5 (2002): 511. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar01130.
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Pregnancy shearing has been shown to increase lamb birthweights. However, results have been variable between studies. It has been suggested that the birthweight response to pregnancy shearing is greatest in conditions in which the unshorn dam gives birth to lambs of low birthweight. This study was designed to examine the birthweight response under 2 differing maternal treatments (one designed to restrict fetal growth and the other designed not to limit fetal growth), with the aim of explaining the variation observed in pregnancy shearing studies. Mixed aged Romney cross ewes were either shorn during mid pregnancy (n = 55) or left unshorn (n = 50). At shearing, ewes were split into either a ‘maintenance’ group (64 kg at shearing and fed to permit total ewe liveweight gain equivalent to expected conceptus growth during mid- to late-pregnancy) (n = 52) or a ‘low’ group (54 kg at shearing and fed to permit total ewe liveweight to increase at half the expected conceptus growth during mid- to late-pregnancy) (n = 53), respectively. Mid-pregnancy shearing was found to increase the birthweights of singletons (5.6 v. 4.9 kg, P < 0.05) but not twins, and of lambs born to maintenance group ewes (by 0.6 kg, P < 0.05), but not low group ewes. Additionally, mid-pregnancy shearing had no effect on the thermoregulatory capacity of twin-born lambs. When the results of this study are considered with those of previous New Zealand pregnancy shearing studies, they suggest that there are 2 criteria (and not one, as previously suggested) that must be met to achieve a response to pregnancy shearing. Firstly, the dam must have the potential to respond [i.e. have been destined to give birth to an otherwise lightweight lamb(s)], and secondly, the ewe must have the means to respond (i.e. an adequate level of maternal reserves and/or level of nutrition to partition towards additional fetal growth).
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Rondó, Patricia H. C., Jesuana O. Lemos, Joilane A. Pereira, Julicristie M. Oliveira, and Luiz Roberto Innocente. "Relationship between birthweight and arterial elasticity in childhood." Clinical Science 115, no. 10 (October 15, 2008): 317–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/cs20070420.
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There is a considerable debate about the potential influence of ‘fetal programming’ on cardiovascular diseases in adulthood. In the present prospective epidemiological cohort study, the relationship between birthweight and arterial elasticity in 472 children between 5 and 8 years of age was assessed. LAEI (large artery elasticity index), SAEI (small artery elasticity index) and BP (blood pressure) were assessed using the HDI/PulseWave™ CR-2000 CardioVascular Profiling System. Blood concentrations of glucose, total cholesterol and its fractions [LDL (low-density lipoprotein)-cholesterol and HDL (high-density lipoprotein)-cholesterol] and triacylglycerols (triglycerides) were determined by automated enzymatic methods. Insulin was assessed by a chemiluminescent method, insulin resistance by HOMA (homoeostasis model assessment) and CRP (C-reactive protein) by immunonephelometry. Two linear regression models were applied to investigate the relationship between the outcomes, LAEI and SAEI, and the following variables: birthweight, gestational age, glucose, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triacylglycerols, insulin, CRP, HOMA, age, gender, waist circumference, per capita income, SBP (systolic BP) and DBP (diastolic BP). LAEI was positively associated with birthweight (P=0.036), waist circumference (P<0.001) and age (P<0.001), and negatively associated with CRP (P=0.024) and SBP (P<0.001). SAEI was positively associated with birthweight (P=0.04), waist circumference (P=0.001) and age (P<0.001), and negatively associated with DBP (P<0.001). Arterial elasticity was decreased in apparently healthy children who had lower birthweights, indicating an earlier atherogenetic susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases in adolescence and adult life. Possible explanations for the results include changes in angiogenesis during critical phases of intrauterine life caused by periods of fetal growth inhibition and local haemodynamic anomalies as a way of adaptation to abnormal pressure and flow.
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Godfrey, Keith M., and David JP Barker. "Fetal programming and adult health." Public Health Nutrition 4, no. 2b (April 2001): 611–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/phn2001145.
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AbstractLow birthweight is now known to be associated with increased rates of coronary heart disease and the related disorders stroke, hypertension and non-insulin dependent diabetes. These associations have been extensively replicated in studies in different countries and are not the result of confounding variables. They extend across the normal range of birthweight and depend on lower birthweights in relation to the duration of gestation rather than the effects of premature birth. The associations are thought to be consequences of ‘programming’, whereby a stimulus or insult at a critical, sensitive period of early life has permanent effects on structure, physiology and metabolism. Programming of the fetus may result from adaptations invoked when the materno-placental nutrient supply fails to match the fetal nutrient demand. Although the influences that impair fetal development and programme adult cardiovascular disease remain to be defined, there are strong pointers to the importance of maternal body composition and dietary balance during pregnancy.
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Race, Jonathan P., Grant C. Townsend, and Toby E. Hughes. "Chorion Type, Birthweight Discordance and Tooth-Size Variability in Australian Monozygotic Twins." Twin Research and Human Genetics 9, no. 2 (April 1, 2006): 285–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.9.2.285.
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AbstractChorion type is an important variable that can affect the prenatal environment of monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs, leading to differences in growth and development. In particular, vascular anastomoses between monochorionic (MC) MZ twin pairs can lead to an imbalance in nutrition between co-twins. One objective of this study was to determine whether maternal reports, hospital records or birthweight discordances found in MZ co-twins provide reliable indications of monochorionicity. The other objective was to test the hypotheses that in MZ twin pairs of known chorion type, MC twin pairs would show greater birthweight differences and greater within-pair variability in permanent tooth size than dichorionic (DC) twin pairs, reflecting greater differences in intrauterine environment between MC MZ pairs. Birthweights and tooth size data were recorded for 170 pairs of MZ Australian twins enrolled in an ongoing study of dentofacial growth and development. Chorion type based on maternal reports was compared with that based on hospital records for a subsample of 68 pairs of these MZ twins. Maternal reports were found to be unreliable for determining chorion type and hospital records often did not provide enough information to be certain about chorionicity. For 27 twin pairs with confirmed chorion type, associations were tested between birthweight discordances in MZ twin pairs and chorion type, and also between intrapair variances for tooth size and chorion type. A significant association was noted between birthweight discordance and chorion type (p <.05), with greater discordances occurring more often in MC twin pairs. Although significant heterogeneity of intrapair variances for tooth size was found in only 5 of 48 comparisons, intrapair variances for crown dimensions were greater significantly more often in MC pairs than DC pairs (p <.05). Our findings indicated that neither maternal reports nor often hospital records can be relied upon for information on chorion type. However, when analyses were performed on data for MZ twin pairs of known chorion type, we found evidence of a significant association between intrapair birthweight differences and chorion type and also between intrapair variances of dental crown measurements and chorion type. Consistent with our hypotheses, large birthweight discordances were found to occur more often in MC twin pairs than DC twin pairs, and intrapair variances for tooth size in MC twin pairs exceeded those in DC twin pairs more often than expected due to chance.
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Choirunisa, Septyana, Asri Adisasmita, Yulia Nur Izati, Hadi Pratomo, and Dewi Iriani. "Kangaroo mother care practices for low birthweight newborns in a district hospital in Indonesia." Child Health Nursing Research 27, no. 4 (October 31, 2021): 354–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.4094/chnr.2021.27.4.354.
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Purpose: Kangaroo mother care (KMC) was introduced in Indonesia 30 years ago, but the extent of its use has not been fully documented. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the use of KMC and evaluate the characteristics of infants who received KMC at Koja District Hospital in North Jakarta, Indonesia. This retrospective cohort study recorded the characteristics of infants with birthweights less than or equal to 2,200 g at the above-mentioned hospital.Methods: Data collected from infant registers included gestational age, birthweight, Apgar score, number of complications, history of neonatal intensive care unit treatment, and KMC status. Cox regression analysis was conducted.Results: This study found that 57.7% of infants received KMC. Infants with birthweights over 1,500 g were 2.16 times (95% CI: 1.20-3.89) more likely to receive KMC.Conclusion: Efforts to promote KMC are recommended, specifically for infants with birthweights greater than 1,500 g. KMC for infants with other conditions can also be considered based on the infants' stability.
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Vettore, Mario Vianna, Silvana Granado Nogueira da Gama, Gabriela de Almeida Lamarca, Arthur Orlando Corrêa Schilithz, and Maria do Carmo Leal. "Housing conditions as a social determinant of low birthweight and preterm low birthweight." Revista de Saúde Pública 44, no. 6 (December 2010): 1021–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0034-89102010005000045.
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OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between housing conditions and low birthweight and preterm low birthweight among low-income women. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted with post-partum women living in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Southeast Brazil, in 2003-2005. Two groups of cases, low birthweight (n=96) and preterm low birthweight infants (n=68), were compared against normal weight term controls (n=393). Housing conditions were categorized into three levels: adequate, inadequate, and highly inadequate. Covariates included sociodemographic and anthropometric characteristics, risk behaviors, violence, anxiety, satisfaction during pregnancy, obstetric history and prenatal care. RESULTS: Poor housing conditions was independently associated with low birthweight (inadequate - OR 2.3 [1.1;4.6]; highly inadequate - OR 7.6 [2.1;27.6]) and preterm low birthweight (inadequate - OR 2.2 [1.1;4.3]; highly inadequate - OR 7.6 [2.4;23.9]) and factors associated with outcomes were inadequate prenatal care and previous preterm birth. Low income and low maternal body mass index remained associated with low birthweight. CONCLUSIONS: Poor housing conditions were associated with low birthweight and preterm low birthweight.
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Roberts, B. L., N. Marlow, and R. W. I. Cooke. "Motor Problems among Children of Very Low Birthweight." British Journal of Occupational Therapy 52, no. 3 (March 1989): 97–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030802268905200307.
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The motor outcome for 53 six-year-old children with birthweights of 1251g or less who were receiving mainstream education is reported. Compared with age and sex matched classmates, these children had significantly poorer motor skills, as assessed by the Test of Motor Impairment. Despite lower scores in tests of fine motor, ball and balancing skills, these children were perceived by their teachers to be performing satisfactorily at school. The impairment observed was independent of IQ and social and demographic variables. Because of the risk of later schooling difficulties, very low birthweight children should be considered for early assessment by occupational therapists and physiotherapists in view of the frequent motor problems encountered.
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Vettore, M. V., M. doC Leal, A. T. Leão, A. M. Monteiro da Silva, G. A. Lamarca, and A. Sheiham. "The Relationship between Periodontitis and Preterm Low Birthweight." Journal of Dental Research 87, no. 1 (January 2008): 73–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154405910808700113.
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There is no consensus about the influence of periodontal disease on preterm low birthweight. The objective was to investigate the relationship between periodontal disease and preterm low birthweight. A case-control study with 542 post partum women aged over 30 yrs was conducted. Three groups of cases were compared with non-preterm and non-low-birthweight control individuals (n = 393): low birthweight (n = 96), preterm (n = 110), and preterm and low birthweight (n = 63). Periodontal clinical parameters and covariates were recorded. Periodontal disease levels were higher in control individuals than in cases. The extent of periodontal disease did not increase risk of preterm low birthweight according to 15 measures of periodontal disease. Mean periodontal pocket depth and frequency of periodontal sites with clinical attachment level ≥ 3 mm in preterm low birthweight cases were lower than in control individuals. Periodontal disease was not more severe in women with preterm low birthweight babies.
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Lund, Agnethe, Cathrine Ebbing, Svein Rasmussen, Elisabeth Qvigstad, Torvid Kiserud, and Jörg Kessler. "Pre-gestational diabetes: Maternal body mass index and gestational weight gain are associated with augmented umbilical venous flow, fetal liver perfusion, and thus birthweight." PLOS ONE 16, no. 8 (August 16, 2021): e0256171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256171.
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Objectives To assess how maternal body mass index and gestational weight gain are related to on fetal venous liver flow and birthweight in pregnancies with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus. Methods In a longitudinal observational study, 49 women with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus were included for monthly assessments (gestational weeks 24–36). According to the Institute Of Medicine criteria, body mass index was categorized to underweight, normal, overweight, and obese, while gestational weight gain was classified as insufficient, appropriate or excessive. Fetal size, portal flow, umbilical venous flow and distribution to the fetal liver or ductus venosus were determined using ultrasound techniques. The impact of fetal venous liver perfusion on birthweight and how body mass index and gestational weight gain modified this effect, was compared with a reference population (n = 160). Results The positive association between umbilical flow to liver and birthweight was more pronounced in pregnancies with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus than in the reference population. Overweight and excessive gestational weight gain were associated with higher birthweights in women with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus, but not in the reference population. Fetuses of overweight women with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus had higher umbilical (p = 0.02) and total venous liver flows (p = 0.02), and a lower portal flow fraction (p = 0.04) than in the reference population. In pre-gestational diabetes mellitus pregnancies with excessive gestational weight gain, the umbilical flow to liver was higher than in those with appropriate weight gain (p = 0.02). Conclusions The results support the hypothesis that umbilical flow to the fetal liver is a key determinant for fetal growth and birthweight modifiable by maternal factors. Maternal pre-gestational diabetes mellitus seems to augment this influence as shown with body mass index and gestational weight gain.
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Zagré, Noël M., Gwénola Desplats, Pierre Adou, Aïssa Mamadoultaibou, and Victor M. Aguayo. "Prenatal Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation has Greater Impact on Birthweight than Supplementation with Iron and Folic Acid: A Cluster-Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Programmatic Study in Rural Niger." Food and Nutrition Bulletin 28, no. 3 (September 2007): 317–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/156482650702800308.
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Background Micronutrient deficiencies during pregnancy are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including reduced birthweight. Low birthweight is associated with increased risk of infant mortality and growth failure. Objectives To assess the effects of prenatal supplementation with UNIMMAP (United Nations International Multiple Micronutrient Preparation) compared with iron/folic acid on average birthweight and incidence of low birthweight. Methods Pregnant women from 78 villages in Niger were included in a cluster-randomized, double-blinded, controlled supplementation trial. Baseline, monthly follow-up, and birth data were collected. Cluster analysis was conducted to assess differences in mean birthweight and incidence of low birthweight between groups using multiple linear regression models. Analyses were stratified by nutrition status and duration of supplementation. Results Of the 3,670 women recruited, 2,550 completed the study and provided complete birthweight data (1,328 received multiple micronutrients and 1,222 received iron/folic acid). Mean birthweight was significantly higher (67 g, p < .001) with multiple micronutrients (3,092 ± 190 g) than with iron/folic acid (3,025 ± 205 g); this corresponded to a 14% fall in the incidence of low birthweight (from 8.4% with multiple micronutrients to 7.2% with folic acid fortification). The impact of multiple micronutrients was greater when the supplements were taken for more than 150 days. The incidence of low birthweight was further reduced in women who entered pregnancy with a poorer nutrition status. Conclusions Prenatal supplementation with multiple micronutrients had a greater positive impact on birthweight than supplementation with iron/folic acid. Our data suggest that prenatal supplementation with multiple micronutrients as part of a prenatal care package in addition to interventions to promote improved maternal prepregnancy nutrition status is an important strategy to increase birthweight and reduce the incidence of low birthweight.
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Rieger-Fackeldey, Esther, Peter Schulz, and Andreas Schulze. "General Movements and Outcome in Children with Birthweights ≤ 500 Grams at Age 5 to 6 Years." Zeitschrift für Geburtshilfe und Neonatologie 224, no. 02 (August 7, 2019): 86–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-0966-9740.
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Abstract Background The prognosis of long-term outcome in the delicate subgroup of preterm infants born with a birthweight ≤ 500 g is difficult. We wanted to determine whether general movements (GMs) correlate with outcome at 5 to 6 years of age in preterm children with birthweights ≤500 g. Methods GMs were assessed up to 20 weeks postterm age in a cohort of infants born consecutively in our unit between 1998 until 2003. A structured neurological examination, the Gross Motor Function Classification Scale, and the Kaufman Assessment Battery Test for Children were applied in surviving children at 5 to 6 years. In relation to long-term outcome, only the postterm GM assessment was analysed. Results Of 44 infants in total, 19 received immediate life support in the delivery room and were admitted to the NICU (GA 25 weeks [22.3–29.5]; BW 440 g [334–490]). All 9 surviving infants received GM assessment, but only 8 out of 9 infants had postterm assessment; all 9 had outcome assessment at 5 to 6 years. Children with female sex and birthweights>400 g had better outcomes than those with male sex and birthweights < 400 g. Normal fidgety movements and normal repertoire were associated with normal development at early school age in 3 children, in one child with moderate cognitive impairment and light motor impairment. Pathological fidgety movements or repertoire were associated with abnormal motor development and moderate and severe cognitive impairment in 3 children and with normal development in one child. Conclusion This study shows that normal fidgety movements at postterm age combined with birthweight and sex may predict normal motor and cognitive outcome in extremely preterm children with birthweights ≤500 g.
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Schreurs, N. M., P. R. Kenyon, F. J. Mulvaney, P. C. H. Morel, D. M. West, and S. T. Morris. "Effect of birthweight and birth rank on the survival of single and twin lambs born to ewe lambs." Animal Production Science 50, no. 6 (2010): 460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an09184.
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Benefits of ewe lamb mating include improved lifetime production, increased rates of genetic gain and higher net profits. These benefits are only achieved if the ewe lamb successfully rears its offspring to weaning. A meta-analytic approach was used to assess the effects of birthweight and the interacting effect of birth rank on the survival to weaning of lambs born to ewe lambs. The data were from eight studies where birthweight and weight at weaning had been recorded for lambs born from ewe lambs. Data were for single- (n = 1392) or twin-born lambs (n = 456). The twin lambs were further classified as the ‘heavier’ or ‘lighter’ of the pair to give three birth rank categories. To compare the probability of dying before weaning between birth ranks, but with lambs compared at a similar birthweight, lambs were categorised by their birthweight as heavy (>3.8 kg) or light (<3.8 kg) and also categorised within their birth rank on their placement around the mean birthweight (birthweight deviation). A mid-range birthweight deviation fell between one standard deviation above or below the mean for each birth rank, whereas a low- and high-range birthweight fell below and above the mid-range, respectively. Logistic regression was used to assess the effect of birth rank (single, heavier twin and lighter twin) and birthweight on lamb mortality up to weaning. To compare the probability of surviving up to weaning between the different birth ranks, relative risk ratios were calculated. Birth ranks were compared for lambs within the same birthweight group (heavy or light) and same birthweight deviation (low-, mid-, high-range). Decreasing birthweight increased mortality before weaning in twins and the change in mortality was greater for the lighter twin. Birthweight did not alter mortality before weaning in singles. Comparison of the birth ranks showed that there were differences (P < 0.05) in the probability of dying for lambs of different birth ranks but similar birthweight. The results suggest that management options for ewe lambs that increase the birthweight of the lighter twin could increase the weaning percentage.
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Little, Ruth E. "Mother's and father's birthweight as predictors of infant birthweight." Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 1, no. 1 (April 1987): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.1987.tb00084.x.
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Parkin, J. M. "BIRTHWEIGHT OR GESTATIONAL AGE, OR BIRTHWEIGHT FOR GESTATIONAL AGE?" Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 17, no. 5 (November 12, 2008): 644–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1975.tb03534.x.
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Caputo, Daniel V., Harvey B. Taub, Kenneth M. Goldstein, and J. M. Parkin. "Birthweight or Gestational Age, or Birthweight for Gestational Age?" Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 18, no. 1 (November 12, 2008): 119–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1976.tb03617.x.
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Oldham, C. M., A. N. Thompson, M. B. Ferguson, D. J. Gordon, G. A. Kearney, and B. L. Paganoni. "The birthweight and survival of Merino lambs can be predicted from the profile of liveweight change of their mothers during pregnancy." Animal Production Science 51, no. 9 (2011): 776. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an10155.
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The single largest influence on the survival of lambs in the first few days of life is their birthweight. Fetal growth and birthweight are regulated by genotype of the fetus, maternal genotype, maternal nutrition and the external environment. In this paper we report the extent to which the changes in maternal liveweight during pregnancy and lactation (liveweight profile) of Merino ewes can be used to predict the birthweight and survival of their progeny to weaning. At two sites [Victoria (Vic.) ~700 ewes and Western Australia (WA) ~300 ewes] in each of 2 years, a similar experiment used adult Merino ewes to explore effects of nutrition from joining to Day 100 of pregnancy and from Day 100 of pregnancy to weaning. The average difference between extreme treatments at Day 100 of pregnancy were 7 kg in ewe liveweight and 0.7 of a condition score (CS) and at lambing 11.9 kg and 1.3 of a CS. This resulted in average birthweights of progeny from different treatments ranging from 4.0 to 5.4 kg and survival to weaning ranging from 68 to 92%. Across the four experiments between 68 and 85% of all lamb deaths to weaning occurred within 48 h of birth. Lambs born to ewes in CS 2 at Day 100 of pregnancy were lighter (P < 0.05) in both years at the Vic. site than those from ewes in CS 3 at Day 100 of pregnancy. Lambs born to the ewes grazing a feed on offer of 800 kg DM/ha during late pregnancy were also lighter than those from other levels of feed on offer between 1100 and 3000 kg DM/ha at the Vic. site in both years and at the WA site in 1 year (P < 0.001). Lambs from the 800 kg DM/ha treatment during late pregnancy at the Vic. site had a lower survival than other treatments, especially in the second year. There were no significant effects of treatments on lamb survival at the WA site; however, the results were in the same direction. The birthweight of individual lambs was significantly related to the liveweight profile of their mothers. Their liveweight at joining, change in liveweight to Day 100 of pregnancy and change in liveweight from Day 100 to lambing all contributed (P < 0.05) to the prediction of the birthweight of their lambs. The responses were consistent across experimental sites and years, lamb birth rank and sex, and confirmed that the effects of poor nutrition up until Day 100 of pregnancy could be completely overcome by improving nutrition during late pregnancy. At the Vic. site, survival to 48 h was most influenced by the birthweight of the lamb and survival was significantly higher in single- than twin-born lambs and female than male lambs after adjusting for differences in birthweight. A higher chill index during the 48 h after birth reduced survival of both single and twin lambs to a similar extent, but reduced survival of male lambs more than female lambs. There were no effects of birthweight or chill index on lamb survival at the WA site where most lambs weighed more than 4 kg at birth and climatic conditions during lambing were less extreme. Overall, these results supported our hypothesis that improving the nutrition of Merino ewes during pregnancy increases birthweight and this leads to improved survival of their progeny.
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Brown, Clare C., Jennifer E. Moore, Holly C. Felix, Mary K. Stewart, and John M. Tilford. "Geographic Hotspots for Low Birthweight: An Analysis of Counties With Persistently High Rates." INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing 57 (January 2020): 004695802095099. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0046958020950999.
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This study evaluated persistency in county-level rates of low birthweight outcomes to identify “hotspot counties” and their associated area-level characteristics. Administrative data from the National Center for Health Statistics Birth Data Files, years 2011 to 2016 were used to calculate annual county-level rates of low birthweight. Counties ranking in the worst quintile (Q5) for ≥3 years with a neighboring county in the worst quintile were identified as hotspot counties. Multivariate logistic regression was used to associate county-level characteristics with hotspot designation. Adverse birth outcomes were persistent in poor performing counties, with 52% of counties in Q5 for low birthweight in 2011 remaining in Q5 in 2016. The rate of low birthweight among low birthweight hotspot counties (n = 495) was 1.6 times the rate of low birthweight among non-hotspot counties (9.3% vs 5.8%). The rate of very low birthweight among very low birthweight hotspot counties (n = 387) was twice as high compared to non-hotspot counties (1.8% vs 0.9%). A one standard deviation (6.5%) increase in the percentage of adults with at least a high school degree decreased the probability of low birthweight hotspot designation by 1.7 percentage points ( P = .006). A one standard deviation (20%) increase in the percentage of the population that was of minority race/ethnicity increased hotspot designation for low birthweight by 5.7 percentage points ( P < .001). Given the association between low birthweight and chronic conditions, hotspot counties should be a focus for policy makers in order to improve health equity across the life course.
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Heikkilä, Kauko, Catharina E. M. Van Beijsterveldt, Jari Haukka, Matti Iivanainen, Aulikki Saari-Kemppainen, Karri Silventoinen, Dorret I. Boomsma, Yoshie Yokoyama, and Eero Vuoksimaa. "Triplets, birthweight, and handedness." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 23 (May 14, 2018): 6076–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1719567115.
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The mechanisms behind handedness formation in humans are still poorly understood. Very low birthweight is associated with higher odds of left-handedness, but whether this is due to low birthweight itself or premature birth is unknown. Handedness has also been linked to development, but the role of birthweight behind this association is unclear. Knowing that birthweight is lower in multiple births, triplets being about 1.5 kg lighter in comparison with singletons, and that multiples have a higher prevalence of left-handedness than singletons, we studied the association between birthweight and handedness in two large samples consisting exclusively of triplets from Japan (n = 1,305) and the Netherlands (n = 947). In both samples, left-handers had significantly lower birthweight (Japanese mean = 1,599 g [95% confidence interval (CI): 1,526–1,672 g]; Dutch mean = 1,794 g [95% CI: 1,709–1,879 g]) compared with right-handers (Japanese mean = 1,727 g [95% CI: 1,699–1,755 g]; Dutch mean = 1,903 g [95% CI: 1,867–1,938 g]). Within-family and between-family analyses both suggested that left-handedness is associated with lower birthweight, also when fully controlling for gestational age. Left-handers also had significantly delayed motor development and smaller infant head circumference compared with right-handers, but these associations diluted and became nonsignificant when controlling for birthweight. Our study in triplets provides evidence for the link between low birthweight and left-handedness. Our results also suggest that developmental differences between left- and right-handers are due to a shared etiology associated with low birthweight.
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Tobe, Ruoyan Gai, Rintaro Mori, Norio Shinozuka, Takahiko Kubo, and Kazuo Itabashi. "Birthweight Discordance, Risk Factors and its Impact on Perinatal Mortality Among Japanese Twins: Data From a National Project During 2001–2005." Twin Research and Human Genetics 13, no. 5 (October 1, 2010): 490–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.13.5.490.
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Our aims were to assess the incidence of birthweight discordance of twins, to explore risk factors and its impact on perinatal mortality, and to quantify the risks at different severity of birthweight discordance in Japan, by using a nationwide obstetric database. There were 10,828 pairs of twins, born from 2001 to 2005 recorded in the database of the national Perinatal Health Care Project, fully enrolled. The overall incidence of birthweight discordance was 47.34%. The incidence of mild, severe and extremely severe discordance was 19.26%, 10.21% and 17.87%, respectively. The incidence of birthweight discordance in Japan is much higher than that in other countries, particularly at higher severity level. By linear regression model, our study added independent factors of primiparity (p < .001), sex composition (p < .001), chorionicity (p < .001), gestational age (p < .001), and delivery mode (p < .001) in determining birthweight discordance percentage. Maternal age and application of assisted reproduction technologies (ART) didn't significantly influence the birthweight discordance. The birthweight discordance is closely associated with gestational age and affected discharge mortality. From 25% of birthweight discordance, risk to discharge mortality tended to significantly increase, suggesting it should be added as a reference for clinical practices.
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Newcombe, Rhiannon, Barry J. Milne, Avshalom Caspi, Richie Poulton, and Terrie E. Moffitt. "Birthweight Predicts IQ: Fact or Artefact?" Twin Research and Human Genetics 10, no. 4 (August 1, 2007): 581–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.10.4.581.
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AbstractIt has been shown that lower birthweight is associated with lower IQ, but it remains unclear whether this association is causal or spurious. We examined the relationship between birthweight and IQ in two prospective longitudinal birth cohorts: a UK cohort of 1116 twin pairs (563 monozygotic [MZ] pairs), born in 1994–95, and a New Zealand cohort of 1037 singletons born in 1972–73. IQ was tested with the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children. Birthweight differences within MZ twin pairs predicted IQ differences within pairs, ruling out genetic and shared environmental explanations for the association. Birthweight predicted IQ similarly in the twin and nontwin cohorts after controlling for social disadvantage, attesting that the association generalized beyond twins. An increase of 1000 g in birthweight was associated with a 3 IQ point increase. Results from two cohorts add to evidence that low birthweight is a risk factor for compromised neurological health. Our finding that birthweight differences predict IQ differences within MZ twin pairs provides new evidence that the mechanism can be narrowed to an environmental effect during pregnancy, rather than any familial environmental influence shared by siblings, or genes. With the increasing numbers of low-birthweight infants, our results support the contention that birthweight could be a target for early preventive intervention to reduce the number of children with compromised IQ.
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Rahman, Mohammad L., Deepika Shrestha, Tsegaselassie Workalemahu, Jing Wu, Chunming Zhu, Cuilin Zhang, and Fasil Tekola-Ayele. "Maternal and Offspring Genetic Risk of Type 2 Diabetes and Offspring Birthweight Among African Ancestry Populations." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 104, no. 11 (May 23, 2019): 5032–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-02756.
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Abstract Objectives Maternal genetic risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D) can influence offspring birthweight through shared offspring genetic risk and by altering intrauterine glycemic status. The aim of this study was to estimate the independent effects of maternal and offspring genetic risk scores (GRSs) of T2D on offspring birthweight and the extent to which intrauterine glycemic traits mediate the effect of maternal GRSs on offspring birthweight. Design The study involved 949 mother–offspring pairs of African ancestry from the Hyperglycemia Adverse Pregnancy Outcome study. GRSs of T2D were calculated separately for mothers and offspring as the weighted sum of 91 T2D risk alleles identified in a genome-wide association study meta-analysis in African Americans. Linear regression models were fit to estimate changes in birthweight by quartiles of GRSs. Mediation analysis was implemented to estimate the direct and indirect effects of maternal GRS on offspring birthweight through cord blood C-peptide and maternal fasting and postchallenge glucose levels. Results Maternal and offspring GRSs were independently and differentially associated with offspring birthweight. Changes (95% CI) in birthweight across increasing quartiles of maternal GRSs were 0 g (reference), 83.1 g (6.5, 159.6), 103.1 g (26.0, 180.2), and 92.7 g (12.6, 172.8) (P trend = 0.041) and those of offspring GRSs were 0 (reference), −92.0 g (−169.2, −14.9), −64.9 g (−142.4, 12.6), and 2.0 g (−77.8, 81.7) (P trend = 0.032). Cord blood C-peptide mediated the effect of maternal GRS on offspring birthweight, whereas maternal postchallenge glucose levels showed additive effects with maternal GRS on birthweight. Conclusions Maternal and offspring GRSs of T2D were independently and differentially associated with offspring birthweight.
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Behrman, Jere R., and Mark R. Rosenzweig. "Returns to Birthweight." Review of Economics and Statistics 86, no. 2 (May 2004): 586–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031139.
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