Academic literature on the topic 'Bioligy'

The purpose of this study was to examine prospective biology teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards Instagram as a potential edutainment tool in biology learning. The study involved 87 prospective biology teachers from 4 public universities in Indonesia. Participants answered 15 closed questions and three open questions. Then data were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively. The results demonstrated that prospective biology teachers had highly positive perceptions of Instagram as an edutainment tool in biology learning. Respondents strongly agree that Instagram is easier to use than other learning platforms to create and upload learning content. Prospective biology teachers’ attitudes show that they agree to use Instagram as an edutainment tool in biology learning. The use of Instagram also has the potential to increase motivation, interaction, and creativity and is enjoyable in learning biology. Key words: Instagram, edutainment, perceptions, prospective biology teacher Abstrak. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menguji persepsi dan sikap calon guru biologi terhadap Instagram sebagai sarana edutainment yang potensial dalam pembelajaran biologi. Penelitian ini melibatkan 87 calon guru biologi dari 4 perguruan tinggi negeri di Indonesia. Partisipan menjawab 15 pertanyaan tertutup dan tiga pertanyaan terbuka. Kemudian data dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa calon guru biologi memiliki persepsi yang sangat positif terhadap Instagram sebagai sarana edutainment dalam pembelajaran biologi. Responden sangat setuju bahwa Instagram lebih mudah digunakan dibandingkan platform pembelajaran lain untuk membuat dan mengunggah konten pembelajaran. Sikap calon guru biologi menunjukkan bahwa mereka setuju untuk menggunakan Instagram sebagai sarana edutainment dalam pembelajaran biologi. Penggunaan Instagram juga berpotensi untuk meningkatkan motivasi, interaksi, dan kreativitas serta menyenangkan dalam pembelajaran biologi. Kata kunci: Instagram, edutainment, persepsi, calon guru biologi,

AbstrakPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh persepsi siswa pada mata pelajaran biologi, ekspektasi karir, dan regulasi diri terhadap hasil belajar biologi. Penelitian ini adalah penelitian ex-post facto dengan pendekatan jalur. Variabel eksogenus dalam penelitian ini adalah persepsi siswa pada mata pelajaran biologi dan ekspektasi karir, sedangkan variabel endogenusnya adalah regulasi diri dan hasil belajar biologi. Penelitian ini dilakukan di SMA Laboratorium Undiksha Singaraja pada siswa kelas X MIA dengan besar sampel 43 orang siswa. Data persepsi siswa pada mata pelajaran biologi, ekspektasi karir, dan regulasi diri dikumpulkan dengan angket, sedangkan data hasil belajar diperoleh dari nilai ulangan harian dan penilaian akhir semester. Data dianalisis dengan analisis jalur (pathway analysis). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: 1) ada pengaruh yang signifikan persepsi siswa pada mata pelajaran biologi terhadap regulasi diri, 2) ada pengaruh yang signifikan ekspektasi karir terhadap regulasi diri 3) ada pengaruh langsung persepsi siswa pada mata pelajaran biologi terhadap hasil belajar biologi 4) ada pengaruh langsung ekspektasi karir terhadap hasil belajar biologi 5) ada pengaruh tidak langsung persepsi siswa terhadap hasil belajar biologi melalui regulasi diri, dan 6) ada pengaruh tidak langsung ekspektasi karir terhadap hasil belajar biologi melalui regulasi diri. Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa peningkatan hasil belajar biologi dapat diupayakan dengan peningkatan persepsi siswa, ekspektasi karir, dan regulasi diri.Kata kunci: ekspektasi karir, hasil belajar biologi, regulasi diri, persepsi AbstractThis study aims to determine the effect of students' perceptions on biology subjects, career expectations and self-regulation towards biology learning outcomes. This research was an ex-post facto with pathway approach. Exogenous variables in this study were students' perceptions on biology subjects and career expectations, while endogenous variables were self-regulation and biology learning outcomes. This research was conducted at SMA Laboratorium Undiksha Singaraja in X Grade Natural Science students with total sample were 43 students. The data in this study were collected using student perception questionnaires on biology subjects, career expectations, and self-regulation. While learning outcomes data was collected from tests and final test. Data was analyzed by pathway analysis. The result show 1) there are effects of students 'perception on biology subject toward self-regulation, 2) there are effects of career expectation toward self-regulation, 3) there are direct effects of students' perception on biology subject toward biology learning outcomes, 4) there are direct effects of career expectations toward biology learning outcomes, 5) there are indirect effects of students' perception on biology subject toward biology learning outcomes through self-regulation, and 6) there are indirect effects of career expectations toward biology learning outcomes through self-regulation. So it can be conclude that the improvement of biology learning outcomes can be pursue from increase of student perception , carrer expectation, and self-regulation.Keywords : career expectations, learning outcomes, self-regulation, studens’ perception

Lokakaraya dan pelatihan pembuatan preparat biologi bagi guru-guru SMA bertujuan untuk melatih guru-guru membuat preparat awetan biologi yang penting dalam pelaksaaan praktikum biologi di sekolah. Khalayak sasaran dari pengabdian ini adalah guru-guru SMA biologi di Lampung Timur. Kegiatan pengabdian telah dilaksanakan pada tanggal 15 Oktober 2019 yang bertempat di Laboratorium SMA Negeri 1 Way Jepara, dengan diikuti oleh 26 orang peserta guru biologi SMA. Hasil evaluasi diperoleh hasil dan manfaat dari kegiatan pengabdian ini diantaranya adalah meningkatkan keterampilan guru- guru SMA dalam pembuatan preparat smear darah dan preparat awetan biologi sebagai media pembelajaran biologi. Kegiatan diharapkan kelak dapat membantu guru-guru biologi dalam mengembangkan media pembelajaran IPA sehingga mutu pembelajaran IPA dapat lebih meningkat.Workshop and Training on Making Biology Preparations for High School Teachers in East LampungAbstractThe workshop and training in making biological preparations for high school teachers aims to train teachers to make biological preparations that are important in the implementation of biology practices in schools. The target audience for this service is high school biology teachers in East Lampung. The dedication activity was carried out on October 15, 2019 which took place at the State High School Laboratory of 1 Jepara, with 26 participants participating in the high school biology teacher. The evaluation results obtained the results and benefits of this service include increasing the skills of high school teachers in making blood smear preparations and biological preservation preparations as media for learning biology. The activity is expected to be able to help biology teachers in developing science learning media so that the quality of science learning can be improved

The low problem-solving ability in understanding biology lessons makes biology lessons difficult for some prospective teachers to learn. This study aims to determine the contribution of science process skills to higher-order thinking skills. This study uses quantitative methods to analyse the HOTS skills of prospective biology teachers. The quantitative descriptive method used in this study. Data collected from 59 respondents through the Saturated Sampling technique. The instrument used was 54 multiple choice questions with indicators of science process skills and higher-order thinking skills. The data obtained is processed quantitatively with Microsoft Excel. Prospective Biology teachers have the contribution of science process skills with a high level of ability of 13% and a contribution is known. This research proves that the contribution of science process skills to prospective biology teachers to higher-level thinking skills has low categorisation. Keywords: Science Process Skills; Pre-service Teachers Biology; High-level Thinking Ability; biology lessons. Abstrak. Rendahnya kemampuan pemecahan masalah dalam memahami pelajaran biologi menyebabkan pelajaran biologi menjadi sulit dipelajari oleh sebagian calon guru. Studi ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kontribusi keterampilan proses sains terhadap kemampuan berpikir tingkat tinggi. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuantitatif untuk menganalisa keterampilan HOTS calon guru biologi. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah diskriptif kuantitatif. Data dikumpulkan dengan sampel sebanyak 59 mahasiswa melalui teknik Sampling Jenuh. Instrumen yang digunakan berupa 54 soal pilihan ganda dengan indikator keterampilan proses sains dan kemampuan berpikir tingkat tinggi. Data yang diperoleh diolah secara kuantitatif dengan Microsoft Excel. Calon guru Biologi memiliki hasil kontribusi keterampilan proses sains dengan kemampuan berpikir tingkat tinggi sebesar 13% dan diketahui adanya kontribusi. Penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa kontribusi keterampilan proses sains calon guru biologi terhadap kemampuan berpikir tingkat tinggi memiliki kategori rendah. Kata kunci: Keterampilan Proses Sains; Calon guru biologi; HOTS; Pelajaran biologi.

Terjadinya Pandemi Covid-19 yang menyebabkan perubahan pola pembelajaran secara offline menjadi pembelajaran online, sehingga memberikan tantangan tersendiri bagi dunia Pendidikan tinggi, baik bagi mahasiswa maupun bagi dosen. Sebagai upaya peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran Biologi Dasar secara online, maka dinilai penting untuk menganalisis pengalaman mahasiswa selama mengikuti pembelajaran online Biologi Dasar, khususnya terkait jenis sumber belajar yang digunakan dan kendala yang dialami selama pembelajaran di masa Pandemi Covid-19. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis sumber belajar yang dimanfaatkan mahasiswa selama pembelajaran Biologi Dasar secara online, kendala yang dialami mahasiswa selama pembelajaran Biologi Dasar secara online, dan persepsi mahasiswa terkait potensi penggunaan E-Module Biologi Dasar untuk mendukung pembelajaran online Biologi Dasar. Populasi penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa Jurusan Biologi Angkatan 2021 yang telah mengikuti pembelajaran Biologi Dasar secara online. Sebanyak 60 mahasiswa berpartisipasi secagai responden dengan mengisi kuesioner yang diedarkan melalui google form. Hasil analisis data terkait pengalaman mahasiswa dalam Pembelajaran Biologi Dasar secara online menunjukkan bahwa jenis sumber belajar yang paling umum digunakan oleh responden adalah Buku Fisik/Text Book (47%), Internet (43%), dan Powerpoint (42%). Responden umumnya menggunakan satu atau dua jenis sumber belajar, hanya sedikit responden yang menggunakan lebih dari dua sumber belajar. Jaringan yang tidak stabil (40%) dan kesulitan memahami materi yang disampaikan secara online (21%) merupakan kendala yang paling banyak dialami oleh responden selama pembelajaran Biologi Dasar secara online. The occurrence of the Covid-19 Pandemic which caused the change in learning patterns from offline to online learning posed its own challenges for the world of higher education, both for students and for lecturers. As an effort to improve the quality of online General Biology learning, it is considered important to analyze students' experiences while participating in online Basic Biology learning, especially regarding the types of learning resources used and the obstacles experienced during the Covid-19 Pandemic. Therefore, this study aims to find out 1) Types of learning resources used by students during online General Biology learning, 2) Constraints experienced by students during online Basic Biology learning, and 3) Student perceptions regarding the potential use of General Biology E-Module to support online Biology learning. The population of this study were students majoring in Biology Class of 2021 who had taken online Basic Biology lessons. As many as 60 students participated as respondents by filling out a questionnaire which was distributed online via the Google form. The results of data analysis related to students' experiences in learning Basic Biology online show that the most common types of learning resources used by respondents are Physical Books/Text Books (47%), Internet (43%), and Powerpoint (42%). Respondents generally use one or two types of learning resources, only a few respondents use more than two learning sources. Unstable network (40%) and difficulty understanding material delivered online (21%) are the most common obstacles experienced by respondents during online General Biology learning.

Online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic is a choice so that learning can continue. However, in its implementation, various obstacles were found. These obstacles are caused by poor internet networks, limited internet quotas, and the availability of teaching materials that do not support the online learning process. Therefore the objectives of this study are to describe: 1) The validity of the biology e-module, 2) The practicality of the biology e-module, and 3) Students’ responses to the biology e-module based on I-SETS using eXeLearning on bacterial material. The method used in this study is the research and development method with the ADDIE model. The result shows that: 1) The average validity results of biology e-modules, include the material validity of 94,5% (very valid) and the media validity of 95% (very valid), 2) The practicality of the biology e-module was obtained at 94% (very practical), and 3) The average student’s responses to the biology e-module was obtained at 85% (very good). So, it can be concluded that the biology e-module that has been successfully developed can be used in online biology learning. Pembelajaran daring selama pandemi COVID-19 menjadi alternatif pilihan agar pembelajaran tetap dapat berlangsung. Akan tetapi dalam pelaksanaannya ditemukan berbagai kendala. Kendala-kendala tersebut disebabkan oleh jaringan internet yang buruk, kuota internet yang terbatas, dan ketersediaan bahan ajar yang kurang mendukung proses pembelajaran daring. Oleh karena itu, tujuan penelitian ini untuk mendeskripsikan: 1) Validitas e-modul biologi, 2) Praktikalitas e-modul biologi, dan 3) Respons siswa terhadap e-modul biologi berbasis I-SETS menggunakan eXeLearning pada materi bakteri. Metode yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah metode penelitian dan pengembangan dengan model ADDIE. Hasil studi menunjukkan bahwa: 1) Rata-rata validitas e-modul biologi, meliputi validitas materi sebesar 94,5% (sangat valid) dan validitas media sebesar 95% (sangat valid), 2) Praktikalitas e-modul biologi sebesar 94% (sangat praktis), dan 3) Rata-rata respons siswa terhadap e-modul biologi sebesar 85% (sangat baik). Maka dapat disimpulkan e-modul biologi yang berhasil dikembangkan dapat digunakan dalam pembelajaran biologi secara daring.

The characteristics of biology education students in lectures must be known to design better lectures. This study aims to analyze and determine students' characteristics in the Biology Education Study Program enrolled in basic biology courses at Universitas Labuhanbatu. This study employed a descriptive qualitative approach. A total of 30 first-semester biology education students were sampled from the population of first-semester biology education students. The tool for data collection was interviewed, and the strategy for data collection was the distribution of a questionnaire. The results of this study indicated that Biology Education students' characteristics enrolled in basic biology courses at Universitas Labuhanbatu were as follows: (1) Confidence in analyzing and understanding basic biology materials 47.20%, (2) Discipline 76.66%, (3) Honesty 48.66%, (4) Responsible 81.86%, and (5) Social care 69.66%. According to the results of this study, the student's character in the education system is one of the main aims for supporting a learning process in students so that they can become the next generation of individuals with excellent character souls.Abstrak Karakteristik mahasiswa pendidikan biologi dalam perkuliahan perlu diketahui guna mendesain perkuliahan yang lebih baik. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk dapat menganalisis dan mengetahui karakter yang ada pada mahasiswa Program Studi Pendidikan Biologi pada mata kuliah biologi dasar di Universitas Labuhanbatu. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian adalah kualitatif deskriptif, Populasi yang digunakan adalah mahasiswa pendidikan biologi semester satu dengan pengambilan sampel total sampling yang berjumlah 30 mahasiswa pendidikan biologi, Instrumen dalam pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah wawancara serta teknik dalam pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan pemberian angket. Hasil dalam penelitian ini memperoleh hasil bahwa karakter pada mahasiswa Pendidikan Biologi pada mata kuliah biologi dasar di Universitas Labuhanbatu memperoleh hasil sebagai berikut bahwa perolehan hasil data berupa: (1) Percaya diri menganalisis dan memahami materi biologi dasar 47,20%, (2) Disiplin 76,66%, (3) Kejujuran 48,66%, (4) Bertanggungjawab 81,86%, (5) Peduli sosial 69,66%. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa karakter pada mahasiswa dalam sistem pendidikkan merupakan salah satu prioritas yang sangat penting dalam menunjang suatu proses pembelajaran yang ada pada diri mahasiswa agar dapat menjadi generasi penerus yang terbentuk jiwa karakter yang baik.

The purpose of this research is to find out how the influence of mind mapping methods inincreasing the learning motivation of students in biological biology in basic biology courses. This research was conducted by giving questionnaires or questionnaires online to respondents (students of biology class 1 biology class of 2019). The type of questionnaire used in this study was a closed questionnaire, where respondents answered questions that had been provided. Based on the results of study that by applying the mind mapping method in studying basic biology students find it easier to remember the material that has been delivered. In addition, for them by applying this method the material becomes easier to understand and effective for learning activities. So, it can be concluded that in this study the mind mapping method can increase student motivation in basic biology courses.Keywords: Motivation to learn, Mind mapping, Basic biology.Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui bagaimana pengaruh metode peta pikirandalam meningkatkan motivasi belajar mahasiswa tadris biologi pada mata kuliah biologi dasar.Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan cara pemberian kuesioner atau angket secara online kepada responden (mahasiswa tadris biologi kelas biologi 1 angkatan 2019 IAIN Jember). Jenis angket yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah angket tertutup, yang mana responden menjawab pertanyaan yang telah disediakan. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian bahwa dengan menerapkan metode peta pikiran dalam mempelajari biologi dasar mahasiswa merasa lebih mudah mengingat materi yang telah disampaikan. Selain itu, bagi mereka dengan menerapkan metode ini materi menjadi lebih mudah dipahami dan efektif untuk kegiatan belajar. Jadi, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pada penelitian ini metode peta pikiran dapat meningkatkan motivasi belajar mahasiswa pada mata kuliah biologi dasar.Kata kunci: Motivasi belajar,Peta pikiran, Biologi dasar.

One of the communication skills that must be possessed by prospective biology teachers is oral communication skills. Communication learning plays an important role. The aim of this research is to know the oral communication skills of prospective biology teachers through distance learning. This study uses True Experimental Design with a type of one shoot case study design. A research sample of 30 students of Wiralodra University Biology Education was randomly selected. The results of the data analysis showed that the communication skills of prospective biology teachers in distance learning using the Moodle platform were in the good category with a percentage of 81.8%. Key words: Communication Skills, Prospecive Biology Teacher Abstrak. Salah satu keterampilan komunikasi yang harus dimiliki oleh calon guru biologi yaitu keterampilan komunikasi lisan. Dalam pembelajaran komunikasi berperan penting. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui keterampilan komunikasi lisan calon guru biologi melalui pembelajaran jarak jauh. Penelitian ini menggunakan True Experimental Design dengan jenis rancangan one shoot case study. Sampel penelitian sebanyak 30 mahasiswa Pendidikan Biologi Universitas Wiralodra yang dipiih secara random. Hasil analisis data menunjukkan bahwa Keterampilan komunikasi mahasiswa calon guru biologi pada pembelajaran jarak jauh dengan menggunakan platform Moodle berada pada kategori baik dengan presentase sebesar 81,8%. Kata kunci: Komunikasi Lisan, Calon Guru Biologi

204This paper presents results of study on the development of professional training program participants’ personal perceptions and preferences toward biology content which were used as their research subject along the program. This longitudinal study was carried out in one of universities which conducted professional training program. As many as 23 participants have an undergraduate degree in biology and did have not educational research experience. The main data source for this sequential exploratory research design was participants’ classroom action research document which was analyzed along the program. Questionnaire on biological content capabilities was used as an additional instrument to identify participant’s personal perception. Results showed that biology content themes used are always changing. Personal perception of participants according to biology content also varied. In addition, biology content chosen as research focus was not related with the level of complexity of the content and participants self-efficacy.Keywords: biology content, teacher professional training program, research focus ABSTRAKArtikel ini menyajikan hasil penelitian tentang perkembangan preferensi dan persepsi personal peserta program pendidikan profesi guru. Penelitian longitudinal ini dilakukan di salah satu universitas penyelenggara pendidikan profesi guru biologi di Indonesia selama satu setengah tahun. Sejumlah 23 peserta program pendidikan profesi guru biologi yang menjadi subyek penelitian ini memiliki latar belakang akademik sarjana biologi dan tidak memiliki pengalaman melaksanakan penelitian pendidikan. Dokumen rancangan dan laporan penelitian tindakan kelas peserta selama mengikuti pendidikan profesi guru merupakan sumber data utama penelitian yang menggunakan desain penelitian campuran tipe eksploratori sekuensial. Kuesioner tentang kemampuan konten biologi merupakan instrumen pendukung yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa preferensi tema konten biologi peserta selalu berubah. Persepsi personal peserta terhadap konten biologi yang dipilihnya sebagai fokus penelitian juga bervariasi. Sebagai tambahan, pemilihan konten yang dijadikan fokus penelitian tidak terkait dengan kepercayaan diri peserta terhadap pemahaman konten yang dimilikinya.Kata kunci: program pendidikan profesi guru, fokus penelitian, konten biologi

Small GTP binding proteins function as molecular switches which cycles between GTP-bound ON and GDP-bound OFF states, and regulate a wide variety of cellular processes as biological timers. The first characterized member of the small GTPase family, the mutated oncogene p21 src, later known as Harvey-Ras, was identified in the early 1980s (Shih, T. Y. et al. 1980). In the following years small Ras-lik GTPases were found in several organisms and it was soon discovered that they took part in processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, cytoskeleton reorganisation, microtubule organisation, and vesicular and nuclear transport. The first Rho (Ras homology) gene was cloned in 1985 from the sea slug Aplysia (Madaule, P. et al. 1985) and because of their homology to Ras it was first suspected that they could act as oncogenes. Later studies have shown that even though they participate in processes such as cell migration and motility they are not mutated in cancers.

The first indications that Rho was a signaling protein regulating the actin cytoskeleton, came from experiments where activated forms of human RhoA was microinjected into 3T3 cells (Paterson, H. F. et al. 1990). Another Rho-like GTPase Rac1 (named after Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate) was later shown to regulate actin cytoskeletal dynamics as well, suggesting that Rho-family members cooperate in controlling these processes (Ridley, A. J. et al. 1992). The Rac GTPase was also implicated in regulating the phagocytic NADPH oxidase, which produce superoxide for killing phagocytized microorganisms (Abo, A. et al. 1991). Thus, it soon became clear that Rac/Rho and the related GTPase Cdc42 (cell division cycle 42) had central functions in many important cellular processes.

There are at least three types of regulators for Rho-like proteins. The GDP/GTP exchange factors (GEFs) which stimulates conversion from the GDPbound form to the GTP-bound form. GDP dissociation inhibitors (GDIs) decrease the nucleotide dissociation from the GTPase and retrieve them from membranes to the cytosol. GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) stimulates the intrinsic GTPase activity and GTP hydrolysis. In addition there are probably regulators that dissociate GDI from the GTPase leaving it open for activation by the RhoGEFs.

Ras and Rho-family proteins participate in a coordinated regulation of cellular processes such as cell motility, cell growth and division. The Ral GTPase is closely related to Ras and recent studies have shown that this GTPase is involved in crosstalk between both Ras and Rho proteins (Feig, L. A. et al. 1996; Oshiro, T. et al. 2002). Ral proteins are not found in plants and they appear to be restricted to animalia and probably yeast. During a screen for small GTPases in Drosophila melanogaster I discovered in 1993 several new members of the Ras-family, such as Drosophila Ral (DRal), Ric1 and Rap2. The functions of Ral GTPases in Drosophila have until recently been poorly known, but in paper 2 we present some of the new findings.

Rho-like GTPases have been identified in several eukaryotic organisms such as, yeast (Bender, A. et al. 1989), Dictyostelium discoideum (Bush, J. et al. 1993), plants (Yang, Z. et al. 1993), Entamoeba histolytica (Lohia, A. et al. 1993) and Trypanosoma cruzi (Nepomuceno-Silva, J. L. et al. 2001). In our first publication, (Winge, P. et al. 1997), we describe the cloning of cDNAs from RAC-like GTPases in Arabidopsis thaliana and show mRNA expressions pattern for five of the genes. The five genes analyzed were expressed in most plant tissues with the exception of AtRAC2 (named Arac2 in the paper), which has an expression restricted to vascular tissues. We also discuss the evolution and development of RAC genes in plants. The third publication, (Winge, P. et al. 2000), describe the genetic structure and the genomic sequence of 11 RAC genes from Arabidopsis thaliana. As most genomic sequences of the AtRACs we analyzed came from the Landsberg erecta ecotype and the Arabidopsis thaliana genome was sequenced from the Columbia ecotype, it was possible to compare the sequences and identify new polymorphisms. The genomic location of the AtRAC genes plus the revelation of large genomic duplications provided additional information regarding the evolution of the gene family in plants. A summary and discussion of these new findings are presented together with a general study of small Ras-like GTPases and their evolution in cellular organisms. This study suggests that the small GTPases in eukaryots evolved from two bacterial ancestors, a Rab-like and a MglA/Arp-like (Arf-like) protein. The MglA proteins (after the mgl locus in Myxococcus xanthus) are required for gliding motility, which is a type of movement that take place without help of flagella.

The second publication describes experiments done with the Drosophila melanogaster DRal gene and its effects on cell shape and development. Ectopic expression of dominant negative forms of DRal reveals developmental defects in eye facets and hairs, while constitutive activated forms affects dorsal closure, leaving embryos with an open dorsal phenotype. Results presented in this publication suggest that DRal act through the Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway to regulate dorsal closure, but recent findings may point to additional explanations as well. The results also indicate a close association between processes regulated by Rac/Rho and Ral proteins in Drosophila.

Essential oils (EO) are plant secondary metabolites that are known for their fragrance and food flavour properties. They consist of a complex mixture of mono- and sesquiterpenes, phenyl propanoids and oxygenated compounds. EOs can be present in different plant organs and materials, and their storage is related to specialised secretory structures. The yield of EOs from plant raw materials by distillation or pressing may on average vary from 0.1 – 1%, thus restricting the major EO production to the plant group of aromatic plants. Due to their function as signalling compounds between different types of organisms and diverse biological systems, their general antimicrobial and antioxidative effects and medicinal activity, EOs offer a promising potential for future applications within the fields of agriculture, medicine, pharmaceutical industry and biotechnology.

Changed consumer demands and raised interest in natural product compounds, especially essential oils, have formed the basis for initiating the research project “Norwegian Herb Production (Norsk Urteproduksjon NUP)” to encourage the cultivation, processing, marketing and distribution of aromatic and medicinal plants. The production, composition and quality characteristics of EOs (yield and terpene composition) from chamomile, lemon balm, oregano, peppermint, sachalinmint, thyme and yarrow have been investigated in the project period between 1994-1998.

Much focus has been put on the application of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the analysis of EO volatiles from various aromatic and medicinal plants. SPME is a fast, solvent-free and non- destructive sample preparation technique where the analytes are extracted from fluid or solid matrices by headspace (HS) or direct immersion sampling (DI). Apart from EO isolation by common distillation, the applicability and sensitivity of the SPME fibre has made it feasible to carry out qualitative and semi-quantitative HS analyses of aromatic plants with regard to changes of EO metabolism during ontogenesis and plant development.

Based on NUP-results from field trials in the period between 1995-1996, the mint species peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.) and sachalinmint (Mentha sachalinensis (Briq.) Kudô) have been studied in detail (Papers B, D and E). Comparative analyses by applying distillation sampling and SPME have been carried out in order to study the advantages and disadvantages of both techniques (Papers B and E). It could be shown, that SPME offers a fast and reliable method for detecting quality-impact compounds from the p-menthane group (menthol, menthone, neomenthol, isomenthone and menthyl acetate). A distinct increase in the menthol/menthone ratio in the basipetal direction could be detected for peppermint and sachalinmint by applying SPME, thus revealing within-plant quality differences according to pharmacopeial requirements. Taking the increase of EO production from the vegetative to the generative growth stage into account, the harvest of mint plants in bloom will result in better EO yield and quality with regard to higher amounts of menthol.

When applying HS-SPME on complex EO volatile matrices such as known for yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.; Paper C), one might deal with fibre-partitioning effects of the different mono- and sesquiterpenes due to their physical and chemical properties. Despite these disadvantages, HS-SPME appears to be a sensitive extraction method for the screening of EO volatiles from complex sample matrices. Comparative analyses of volatiles from rose root rhizomes (Rhodiola rosea L.) have been carried out in order to characterize the rose-like odour compounds (Paper F). A total of 75 and 59 compounds have been identified by distillation sampling and HS-SPME, respectively, thus underscoring the excellent extraction properties and applicability of the SPME fibre.

Paper A gives a brief overview of EO biosynthesis and chemical structures, plant sources and methods of EO production. Before leading over to the main topic of HS-SPME applications by referring to numerous examples from the research work at The Plant Biocenter in the past 5 years, an introduction of solid-phase microextraction with regard to devices, procedures and extraction parameters is given.

The advantages and disadvantages of distillation vs. SPME are outlined on the background of comparative analyses of peppermint, chamomile, basil and dill. Furthermore, the utilization of HS-SPME for quantitative studies with regard to extraction time and analyte concentration is being highlighted. Examples for the screening of chemotypes (hops −Humulus lupulus L.) and cultivars (dill – Anethum graveolens L.) and ontogenetic studies are given (Mentha species; arnica −Arnica montana L.). Finally, the applicability of HS-SPME for the quality assessment of processed herbs (sweet basil −Ocimum basilicum L.) and phytomedicinal preparations (red coneflower – Echinacea purpurea L.) is being discussed.

The advantages of HS-SPME over classical distillation and headspace applications are impressive due to drastically reduced analysis time and will introduce new frontiers in plant volatile research with regard to secondary metabolism, plant-insect interactions and in vivo studies. The user-friendliness of operating SPME will initiate the development of future applications and equipment for the monitoring of volatiles for plant biological and environmental studies, extraction automation, on-site sampling and on-fibre storage of analytes.

Paper VI reprinted with kind permission of Elsevier, Sciencedirect, www.sciencedirect.com

The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of known environmental contaminants on defined behavioural variables in fish, and to discuss properties of these behavioural traits that make them useful as potential indicators of pollution.

In studying the effects of pollution, the resulting biochemical and physiological alterations are more commonly measured. However, effects of pollution can manifest itself at all levels of biological organisation, including behaviour. In this respect, behaviour can be considered a valid biomarker of pollution in that it is expected to be both susceptible to pollution and of high ecological significance, as it influences the fitness of the affected individuals.

This thesis is based on four individual studies, in which the threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus was used as a model species. Results from these studies show that antipredator behaviour, feeding behaviour, shoaling behaviour, bottom-dwelling behaviour and reproductive behaviour are all sensitive to exposure to sublethal concentrations of defined environmentally relevant chemicals.

The results showed that antipredator behaviour and fright response in threespine stickleback were impaired following exposure to sublethal concentrations of bis(tributyltin)oxide (TBTO). However, for some of the tested antipredator variables the effects were reversed after the ending of exposure. Further, it was shown that feeding motivation in fish exposed to butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) and/or 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethylene (DDE) was increased in that exposed fish initiated feeding more often than the controls. Exposure to BBP also caused sticklebacks to aggregate into tight shoals and to spend more time at the bottom of the aquarium compared to the control fish.

The reported significant differences between the controls and BBPexposed fish with respect to feeding and shoaling behaviour were shown even though the levels of BBP were below the analytical detection limit. Different suggested explanations, for example, too high detection limit, or degradation to its BBP metabolites are given to this result.

17β-Oestradiol (E₂) exposed male sticklebacks started nest building later than non-exposed males, but there were no differences between exposed and control males with respect to the number of males that built nests. Further, the exposed males spent less time displaying paternal care compared to the control males, although there were no differences between the two groups in the number of performed courtship displays. Because of the significant effect upon some but not all reproductive behavioural traits, it was suggested that the different variables might vary in sensitivity, implying that a variety of variables should be studied in order to obtain a more reliable evaluation of the effects of pollution.

Chemicals can cause deleterious effects at one or more levels of biological organisation, from biochemical, physiological, individual, population and through to the ecosystem levels. In contrast to the established hypothesis that a pollutant affects the different biological levels in an escalating timedependent pattern, starting at the biochemical level, it is here suggested that biomarkers at the biochemical, physiological and behavioural levels often will respond early and simultaneously in the same individual.

Whereas some biochemical responses are specifically related to one class of exposure agents and thus may act as specific indicators of pollution, most behavioural traits may be altered in response to a variety of chemicals. One exception may be alterations in reproductive behaviour caused by endocrine disrupting chemicals, due to effects of the chemicals on hormones that result in immediate reproductive behavioural effects. In spite of the specific action of some biochemical biomarkers, they are often considered to be of little ecological relevance since many of them are not related to individual fitness.

In this thesis, it is argued that behavioural variables can be employed as useful and reliable biomarkers of environmental contamination. It is also important to focus on behaviour to map and quantify the resposes. However, to reliably evaluate the effects of pollution, behavioural variables should be used in association with biochemical and physiological traits. Moreover, optimal combination of results from laboratory and field experiments would enhance the ecological relevance of the study.

All papers reprinted with kind permission of Elsevier, sciencedirect.com

This thesis deals with effects of climate on tree growth of the dominating conifer species, Picea abies (L) Karst. (Norway spruce) and Pinus sylvestris L (Scots pine), in central Norway and Fennoscandia. Both species are sampled along major environmental gradients, i.e. altitude and oceanicity, and growth responses to climate, i.e. temperature and precipitation, are examined along these gradients. Additionally, time is considered as an environmental gradient and temporal responses are carefully deciphered. Special attention is given to large-scale climate oscillation and their effect on tree growth. In the individual papers the specific aims have been to:

1. identify climate variables (all seasons) with significant influence on radial tree growth of P. abies and P. sylvestris along major environmental gradients (Paper I-IV)

2. identify if and how the growth response to climate has changed through time along these gradients (Paper I-IV)

3. make interregional comparisons of P. sylvestris growth pattern across Fennoscandia from oceanic western Norway to continental eastern Finland (Paper III)

4. analyse to what degree large-scale circulation patterns of air masses are registered in regional tree growth of both P. abies and P. sylvestris (Paper I, III and IV)

5. discuss possible effects on radial tree growth of a predicted warmer climate (Paper I, III and IV)

When the study of this thesis was initiated, hardly any work had been carried out on how plant odour information was encoded by the olfactory RNs in heliothine moths. The method of gas chromatography linked to single cell recordings (GC-SCR) was employed and improved for identifying naturally occurring plant odorants that are detected by single RNs and can be considered as biologically relevant. Three species of the subfamily Heliothinae were included in this work, the two polyphagous H. virescens and H. armigera and the oligophagous H. assulta. The American H. virescens is geographically separated from the other two species. H. armigera and H. assulta are partly sympatric in Asia and Australia.

The aims of the thesis elucidated in Papers I-IV were as follows:

1. To identify plant produced volatiles detected by antennal RNs in the three species of the subfamily Heliothinae.

2. To elucidate whether the single RNs can be classified into distinct types according to their specificity.

3. To characterise the plant odour RN types by their molecular receptive ranges, sensitivity and specificity.

4. To compare the specificity of plant odour RN types across the three related species of Heliothinae, with the aim to reveal any differences in the peripheral olfactory system that may have evolved through evolution.

The bacterial origin of mitochondria from an ancient endosymbiosis is now widely accepted and the mitochondrial ancestor is generally believed to belong to the bacterial subdivision α-proteobacteria. The high fraction of mitochondrial proteins encoded in the nucleus has commonly been explained with a massive transfer of genes from the genome of the ancestral mitochondrion.

The aim of this work was to get a better understanding of the mitochondrial origin and evolution by comparative genomics and phylogenetic analyses on mitochondria and α-proteobacteria. To this end, we sequenced the genomes of the intracellular parasites Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana, the causative agents of cat-scratch disease and trench fever, and compared them with other α-proteobacteria as well as mitochondrial eukaryotes.

Our results suggest that the adaptation to an intracellular life-style is coupled to an increased rate of genome degradation and a reduced ability to accommodate environmental changes. Reconstruction of the α-proteobacterial ancestor and phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial proteome in yeast revealed that only a small fraction of the proteins used for mitochondrial functions could be traced to the α-proteobacteria. Furthermore, a substantial fraction of the mitochondrial proteins was of eukaryotic origin and while most of the genes of the α-proteobacterial ancestor have been lost, many of those that have been transferred to the nuclear genome seem to encode non-mitochondrial proteins.

Symbiosis is a widely common phenomenon in nature and has undoubtedly contributed to the evolution of all organisms on earth. Symbiotic associations can be of varying character, such as parasitic or mutualistic, but all imply a close relationship. To study the evolution of genomes of insect endosymbionts, we have sequenced the genomes of the mutualist Buchnera aphidicola from the aphid Schizaphis graminum (Sg) and the reproductive manipulator Wolbachia pipientis strain wRi from Drosophila simulans that show strikingly different evolutionary patterns.

The comparison between the genome of B.aphidicola (Sg) and the genome of B.aphidicola from the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Ap), that are believed to have diverged 50 million years ago, revealed a perfect gene order conservation and loss of only 14 genes in either of the lineages. In contrast, the rate of nucleotide turnover is very fast probably due to relaxed selection and loss of DNA repair genes. The genomic stasis observed in Buchnera was attributed to the loss of repeats and of the gene recA.

In striking contrast to the genomes of B.aphidicola, a vast amount of repeats were found in the genome sequence of W.pipientis strain wMel. The comparison between the genomes of W.pipientis strain wRi and W.pipientis strain wMel shows that a lot of rearrangements have occurred since their divergence. The massive amount of repeats might stem from relaxed selection pressure but possibly also from selection to create variability via recombination.

Comparisons between pairs of genomes from closely related bacteria showed that the stability of gene order and content is connected to an intracellular lifestyle and indicated that homologous recombination between repeats is an important mechanisms for causing intrachromosomal rearrangements. Our studies show that the lifestyle of a bacterium to a great extent shapes the evolution of their genetic material and future capabilities to adapt to new environments.

The tRNALeu (UAA) intron has been recorded in the plastid genome of many algae and land plants and was the first intron to be discovered in cyanobacteria. In all known cases it interrupts the tRNALeu anticodon loop at a conserved position (U-intron-AA). Cyanobacteria are a diverse group of photosynthetic prokaryotes, some involved in symbiotic associations with a wide range of organisms. The most studied associations are those with plants, where strains of Nostoc are the common cyanobacterial partner. In this thesis two aspects of the biology of the cyanobacterial tRNALeu (UAA) intron are focused: first, the use of the intron as a genetic marker for studying the diversity and specificity of two cyanobacterial symbiosis (bryophytes and cycads) and second, the evolutionary patterns of the intron by using the unique data set generated from the diversity analysis. From the studies, many different Nostoc strains are involved in the two symbiotic associations, although no variation was observed within a single bryophyte cavity or cycad coralloid root. Furthermore, a certain level of temporal stability in the cyanobiont composition of the bryophyte population was found and, in the cycad association different coralloid roots from a single specimen may harbor different cyanobacteria. That a minor cyanobiont could have avoided detection is still possible but unlikely. The sequence alignment of the Nostoc tRNALeu (UAA) introns reveals great sequence similarity with size variation only found in the structural element P6b. This element was found to consist of heptanucleotide repeats and of other non-repetitive genetic elements (NIS elements). The sporadic occurrence of the NIS elements indicates recent origins and a mechanism for its dispersal is proposed. In this thesis new insights are given concerning cyanobacterial symbioses and also on the mechanisms involved in the evolution of an old genetic element: the tRNALeu (UAA) intron in cyanobacteria.

This work is a collaborative effort between the Biomechanics and Living System Analysis Laboratory (BIOLISYS) in Cyprus and the Biomechanics Laboratory of IACM/FORTH in Greece. Both labs combine interdisciplinary skills from engineering, medicine and biology to provide solutions to clinical problems associated with cardiovascular and other diseases. For this study, numerical flow simulations were performed using: a) open source software VMTK and commercial software ICEM CFD as pre-processors, b) the finite volume based solver Fluent and c) Tecplot 360 (Amtec Inc.) for post-processing.