Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Belgium – Emigration and immigration – Economic aspects'

Australian immigration policy has traditionally been justified as a means to ensure national security and promote economic development. Neither of these rationales retains much contemporary force. A larger population is no longer regarded as critical to Australia's defensive capacity, and the quest for economic development, synonymous with aggregate growth, has been superseded by a concern about per capita growth performance. While humanitarian and cultural justifications for immigration have been advanced, they are either restricted in scope or contentious. Currently, the programme is operating on a large scale without a clear rationale. The purpose of this work is to investigate the economic consequences of immigration, and so consider whether the economic rationale may be recast in an alternative form. In this chapter, the existing literature is reviewed and a strategy for carrying the analysis further is outlined.

Defence date: 13 December 2019
Examining Board: Prof. Andrea Ichino, European University Institute; Supervisor Prof. Michèle Belot, European University Institute; Prof. Yann Algan, Sciences Po; Prof. Eleonora Patacchini, Cornell University
This thesis is a collection of independent essays in applied microeconomics. In the first chapter, I investigate if growing up in an ethnic enclave slow down the adoption of natives cultural behaviour by immigrants. To measure cultural behaviour, I use administrative data on usage of contraceptives by women aged 15 to 20. To observe exogenous variation in the ethnic concentration of (close) neighbourhoods, I rely on the random allocation of asylum seekers to government run accommodation in the Netherlands during the period 1996 to 2012. Although behaviours do converge with time, neighbourhood ethnic composition has no effect on this process. In the second chapter, co-authored with Eva Johansen, we study if teenagers decision to use contraceptives is influenced by peers. To identify peer effects, we rely on cross-cohort variation in students usage in Danish high-schools. To address the reflection problem, we focus on the influence of older cohorts on younger ones. Contraception not being prevalent among young women with a non-Western background, its usage is a good measure of cultural adaptation. Looking at the effect of different peers group is indicative of which is influential. Immigrant teenagers adapt their behaviours to what other immigrants (but not what other natives) do. Their probability of using contraceptives and of having an abortion becomes lower, but not their likelihood of being treated for chlamydia. In the third chapter, I study the influence of pre-migration social background on the economic assimilation of immigrants. I use unique French survey data to trace family histories over three generations, both in the sending country before migration and later in France. Pre-migration socioeconomic status is key in explaining the educational achievements of second generation immigrants. Holding the origin country fixed, it is as important as father's occupation in the destination country. After an initial loss at migration, the first generation regains human capital more slowly than the second generation develops its own. In a simple model of human capital accumulation, this can be due to (i) parents investing more in their children than in themselves or (ii) the productivity of the two investments being different. The latter channel is supported empirically.
-- 1. Does growing up in an ethnic enclave slow down the adoption of natives cultural behaviour? -- 2. Who influences young immigrants? -- 3. The Intergenerational (Im)mobility of Immigrants

Defence date: 19 May 2022
Examining Board: Prof. Andrea Ichino, (EUI, Supervisor); Prof. Andrea Mattozzi, (University of Bologna and EUI, Co-Supervisor); Prof. Frederico Finan, (University of California, Berkeley); Prof. Ekaterina Zhuravskaya, (Paris School of Economics and EHESS)
This thesis in four chapters focuses on political economy, migration, and public economics. The first chapter, joint with Vincent Pons and Clémence Tricaud, investigates the effects of campaign finance rules on electoral outcomes. In French departmental and municipal elections, candidates competing in districts above 9,000 inhabitants face spending limits and are eligible for public reimbursement. Using an RDD around the population threshold, we find that these rules increase competitiveness and benefit the runner-up of the previous race as well as new candidates, in departmental elections, while leaving the polarization and representativeness of the results unaffected. These results appear to be driven by the reimbursement of campaign expenditures, not spending limits. We do not find such effects in municipal elections, which we attribute to the use of a proportional list system instead of plurality voting. The second chapter, joint with Lars Ludolph, analyzes the effects of the migration wave from Central and Eastern European countries (AC-12) following their EU accession in 2004 on local level redistribution in England. We apply a difference-in-differences estimation strategy and find that greater migration flows led to spending on means-tested social care services to decrease in relative terms, while spending on education services increased. Our mechanisms suggest that, because of AC-12 migrants’ young age at the time of arrival, the 2004 EU enlargement alleviated some of the pressure faced by social care spending in England. We find no evidence that spending shifts are driven by a change in the local willingness to redistribute income. The third chapter investigates the effect of ideological distance between EU Commissioners for Agriculture and Regional Policy and heads of governments on the allocation of agricultural and regional funds flowing to member states. Results show that ideological distance is a strong deterrent of funds being channeled. The effects are strongest in pre-election years, for countries providing the Commissioners in charge of the given portfolios, and for countries that are single-party-ruled as opposed to coalition-ruled. These results provide first hand evidence that the behavior of European Commissioners follows similar principles to national level elected politicians and can help the debate surrounding EU reforms and the political independence of its executive body. The fourth chapter, joint with Pietro Panizza, exploits a reform in Italy that granted mayors the right to run for a third consecutive term in towns below 3,000 inhabitants. We employ a difference-indiscontinuity design and find evidence of pandering effects by mayors in both their first and second term at the time of the reform. Results differ depending on the term of the mayor reflecting the importance of the horizon of when mayors’ spending decisions pay off. We also find suggestive evidence of potential capture of first term mayors in the south of Italy.
1 The Impact of Campaign Finance Rules on Candidate Selection and Electoral Outcomes: Evidence from France 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Research setting 1.3 Empirical strategy 1.4 Effects in departmental elections 1.5 Effects in municipal elections 1.6 Mechanisms 1.7 Conclusion 2 Migration and Redistributive Spending: Evidence from Local Authorities in England 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Institutional setting 2.3 Sampling frame and data sources 2.4 Empirical strategy 2.5 Results 2.6 Robustness tests 2.7 Mechanisms 2.8 Conclusion 3 A Politically Independent Executive Arm? EU Commissioners’ Ideological Alignment and Budget Allocation in the European Union 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Institutional Setting 3.3 Data and Empirical strategy 3.5 Mechanisms 3.6 Conclusion 4 Term Limits and Accountability: Evidence from Italy 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Research setting 4.3 Research design 4.4 Main results 4.5 Mechanisms 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- A Appendix to Chapter 1 -- B Appendix to Chapter 2 -- B.1 Main results with controls - full table -- B.2 Local authority spending and funding -- B.3 Spatial distribution of other migrant groups -- B.4 2001 Census variables for matching -- B.5 UKIP results -- C Appendix to Chapter 3 -- D Appendix to Chapter 4 -- D.1 Figures -- D.2 Tables

Defence date : 6 February 2007
Examining Board: Andrea Ichino, (Università di Bologna and the EUI) ; Riccardo Faini, (Università degli Studi di Roma "Tor Vergata") ; Hartmut Lehmann, (Università di Bologna) ; Richard Spady, (European University Institute)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
Are migrants from a transition economy positively self-selected not only with respect to observable characteristics, but also with respect to the unobservales? Moreover, since the decision to migrate is endogenous, what are the causal returns to geographic mobility, net of unobservable confounders? Finally, does gender matter? Do female migrants from a transition economy experience a gain or a (double) disadvantage in the western labour market of being both female and migrants compared to female stayers and to male migrants?

La thèse a pour objet l'émancipation des femmes issues de l'immigration. Elle propose d'évaluer les effets de la migration et de l'accès au marché du travail sur l'émancipation des filles de migrantes d'origine marocaine en Belgique francophone.

L'étude tente d'abord de mettre en lumière le rôle des femmes immigrées dans l'histoire de la Belgique en le ré-articulant à l'histoire sociale, l'histoire des femmes et l'histoire de l'immigration. Ensuite, elle montre que l'approche dominante des travaux sur les migrations ne prend pas en compte la dimension du genre, ce qui a pour conséquence de masquer la différenciation des expériences migratoires selon le sexe. Enfin, elle replace l'analyse du statut des femmes immigrées et de leurs descendantes dans la complexité des rapports sociaux de sexe, de race et de classe afin de mieux rendre compte des réalités concrètes et de sortir du simplisme des approches culturalistes.

La thèse développe une analyse des politiques d'intégration (politiques éducative, de l'emploi et de lutte contre les discriminations) visant l'émancipation des immigrées et en évalue l'impact sur les filles de migrant-es d'origine marocaine. Elle présente enfin les trajectoires individuelles des filles de migrant.es marocain.es et examine les facteurs individuels et collectifs favorisant leur émancipation.

Doctorat en sciences sociales, Orientation sociologie
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En Belgique, à l’instar d’autres populations d’origine immigrée, les populations d’origine africaine subsaharienne font face à une relative impuissance. Cette dernière peut-être déterminée en fonction de critères tels que l’accès à l’emploi, au logement, à l’enseignement, ou encore le statut juridico-politique. Dans ma thèse, je m’intéresse aux stratégies mises en place par ces populations afin d’améliorer collectivement leur sort. J’articule la question des conséquences sociales et culturelles de la migration en termes de dialectique de l’identification, focalisée notamment sur l’utilisation couramment synonymique des catégories ethno-raciales « africain », « subsaharien » et « noir », avec celle des formes de l’action collective dégagées dans le cadre des social movement studies. Ma réflexion part d’une proposition théorique formulée de façon synthétique par Pnina Werbner et suggérant que, malgré le climat concurrentiel que la formation et l’expansion d’associations ethniques peut générer, leur développement et leur mise en relation constituerait les prémices incontournables d’éventuelles actions collectives protestataires. Pour Pnina Werbner, cette mise en réseau des associations, si elle s’assortit d’un processus de « convergence idéologique », peut donner lieu à des mobilisations. J’ai enrichi cette proposition de deux manières :d’une part, en affinant la notion de convergence idéologique au moyen de la littérature sur le cadrage et le processus d’alignement des cadres dans la mobilisation collective, et, d’autre part, en articulant dans mon analyse les trois courants théoriques centraux des recherches sur des mouvements sociaux – structure des opportunités politiques, mobilisations des ressources, cadres de l’action collective.

J’ai ainsi montré que le système politique belge était globalement à la fois favorable à l’expression de potentiels mouvements sociaux issus de l’immigration et peu ouvert à leur reconnaissance officielle. J’ai également mis en évidence que les niveaux infra-nationaux et supra-nationaux véhiculaient des opportunités politiques spécifiques. Je me suis ensuite penchée sur la façon dont les différentes opportunités et contraintes politiques mises à jour ont été saisies par deux associations « africaines » soucieuses de former un groupe d’intérêt représentant l’ensemble de la collectivité d’origine africaine subsaharienne, et sur les conséquences organisationnelles de ces choix. Ces études de cas m’ont permis de mettre en exergue le répertoire d’action accommodateur dans lequel ces organisations s’inscrivent, et la relation de leurs membres avec la structure des opportunités politiques. J’ai souligné comment certaines de ces opportunités, dans la façon dont elles ont été réappropriées par les leaders associatifs, ont eu un impact négatif sur la cohésion interne de leurs associations. Aussi, en me penchant plus spécifiquement sur la façon dont les différentes parties prenantes de ces organisations donnent sens aux activités de celles-ci, j’ai montré que les objectifs de ces associations étaient, de façon générale, investis de sens fort différents par les acteurs, y compris au sein des collèges d’administrateurs. Dans la lignée des travaux de Michael Herzfeld, les résultats de ma recherche soulignent la relation disémique inévitable entre la volonté de représentation communautaire officielle et les pratiques internes à la collectivité. Depuis quelques années, les entrepreneurs de représentation de cette collectivité tâchent d’amenuiser cette disémie en engageant leurs associations respectives, rebaptisées « panafricaines », dans des actions collectives. L’analyse de ces actions rend compte de la construction d’un « répertoire symbolique commun » qui se décline autour du référent panafricain et de politiques identitaires pragmatiques. Enfin, j’ai identifié les formes de sociabilité plutôt élitaires du réseau associatif « panafricain » comme une limite de son extension.

Ces développements empiriques montrent tout l’intérêt d’observer largement « l’espace des mouvements sociaux », c’est-à-dire la trajectoire des organisations et des acteurs susceptibles de donner forme à l’action collective. Ce faisant, mon travail contribue à décloisonner des études sur les mouvements sociaux trop souvent cantonnées aux actions protestataires directement menées contre l’autorité publique.
Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales
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The study was conceptualised against the background that leading migration theories explain return migration based on failure and success alone. The neo-classical economics theory of migration perceives return migration as a by-product of a failed migration experience while the new economics of labour migration perceives return as occurring after successful achievement of migration objectives. This study questions these theoretical positions through an exploration of the factors that deter South Africa-based Zimbabwean skilled migrants from returning home permanently notwithstanding a successful or failed migration experience. Furtive economic factors in Zimbabwe and South Africa that dissuade skilled migrants from returning home permanently are explored. Social factors in Zimbabwe and in South Africa that influence return migration decision making are also examined. Furthermore, the study analysed whether and how Zimbabwean skilled migrants are forced into a permanent settlement in South Africa as a result of what this study calls the ‘diaspora trap’. This ‘diaspora trap’ framework argues that Zimbabwean skilled migrants in South Africa do not return following their experiences of failure and success in South Africa. Central to the absence of return is the social construction of migrants as successful in Zimbabwe. Skilled migrants are deterred from returning due to their failure to meet family and communal expectations of success. In addition, return migration is deferred as a means to hide poverty in South Africa. Moreover, new diaspora family ties weaken attachments with Zimbabwe and contribute to deferred return migration. Skilled migrants are thus entrapped in South Africa by their failure to live up to the success social construct and the inability to mitigate adversities in the host country.

Les changements politiques qui ont eu lieu dans les pays de l’Est européen depuis 1989 ont eu pour conséquence l’ouverture des frontières des ex-pays communistes, facilitant les départs et les retours des leurs citoyens. La transformation économique qui se poursuit dans cette région de l’Europe a toutes ces conséquences :la hausse du chômage, les salaires très peu élevés, les difficultés économiques observées notamment dans les régions rurales etc. Tout cela provoque un déplacement de personnes qui, cherchant leur terre d’exile, cherchant une vie meilleure, se dirigent de l’Est vers l’Ouest du continent.

En 1991, le Royaume de Belgique a changé la législation concernant les citoyens polonais en leur accordant l’entrée libre, sans visas, pour un séjour touristique de trois mois. Cette modification de la loi a initié une nouvelle vague migratoire provenant de Pologne.

Notre étude concerne le milieu immigré polonais de Bruxelles, avec une prise en considération particulière de la question de la naissance et le fonctionnement d’un nouveau type d’organisation sociale qu’est la communauté transnationale. L’approche théorique de cette recherche est basée sur les études récentes relatives aux communautés transnationales. A partir de travaux de Alejandro Portes, Douglas Massey et Saskia Sassen, Robert Cohen et Steven Vertovec nous pouvons définir une communauté transnationale comme une nouvelle forme de vie sociale qui est composée d’immigrés vivant dans le pays d’accueil, des familles et des enfants des migrants qui sont dans le pays d’origine, d’anciens immigrés qui sont déjà rentrés dans leur pays d’origine et des migrants potentiels. Les communautés transnationales développent leurs propres entreprises, organisations, institutions et différentes formes de dépendances qui permettent à leurs membres de vivre et travailler dans le pays d’immigration, même sans avoir ni le permis de séjour ni le permis de travail. Le réseau de liens et d’organisations aide aussi la circulation des biens, des fonds financiers, ainsi que des informations entre le pays d’accueil et le pays d’origine.

Le but de cette recherche est de vérifier l’hypothèse qu’actuellement à Bruxelles se développe une communauté transnationale d’immigrés polonais illégaux. Cette communauté aide les migrants à exister en même temps dans les deux pays ;par exemple gagner de l’argent à Bruxelles et continuer la construction d’une maison dans le village natal, travailler en Belgique et élever des enfants qui sont en Pologne. Nous analysons la formation, les logiques de fonctionnement et l’évolution de la communauté transnationale polonaise implantée à Bruxelles ainsi que les organisations et les institutions, entre autres informelles, aidant les Polonais qui vivent sur le sol belge. Les questions liées à la problématique de l’emploi des immigrés polonais à Bruxelles constituent des éléments importants de notre recherche. L’accès des immigrés polonais au marché informel de l’économie belge, le fonctionnement du secteur du travail illégal, les métiers ethniques, la dynamique d’insertion des Polonais sur le marché de l’emploi bruxellois, les relations entre les patrons belges et les employés polonais ainsi que l’existence du secteur informel des entreprises polonaises nous semble particulièrement intéressant à développer dans le cadre de notre recherche.

Une analyse approfondie de la communauté polonaise de Bruxelles représente un intérêt non négligeable tant pour la Région de Bruxelles – Capitale que pour l’Etat belge, notamment à cause de l’ampleur de cette immigration. Les ressortissants polonais séjournant en Belgique constituent le premier groupe migrant parmi tous les immigrés originaires de l’Europe centrale et orientale. Dans ce contexte, il nous semble intéressant de connaître cette communauté qui se développe sur le sol belges depuis déjà 15 ans sans aucun statut officiel pendant plusieurs années.

Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales
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Depuis une trentaine d’années, des Églises pentecôtistes portées par des communautés en migration ou issues de celles-ci ont fait leur apparition dans la capitale européenne. Leur implantation et leur succès grandissants vont de pair avec l’intensification des flux migratoires de ces trois dernières décennies en provenance d’Afrique sub-saharienne et d’Amérique Latine. Cette thèse entend explorer l’enchevêtrement entre l’expérience religieuse et le parcours migratoire des acteurs pentecôtistes euro-africains et euro-latinoaméricains à Bruxelles. Dans ces espaces, les convertis travaillent collectivement à réaliser la transformation encouragée par le scénario religieux qui consiste à appliquer le « plan parfait de Dieu » dans leur vie. Porteurs d’ambitions missionnaires, les fidèles donnent des contenus inédits à leur posture identitaire en redéfinissant la place qui leur est assignée dans le contexte de la Belgique postcoloniale. L’affiliation religieuse joue comme un marqueur de distinction, processus qui est particulièrement saillant dans le domaine de la sexualité et des rapports de genre entretenus à l’intérieur même des assemblées./During the past thirty years, Pentecostal churches, mostly composed by followers from Subsaharan Africa and Latin America, blossomed in Brussels. Their presence and growing success go hand in hand with the intensification of the migratory flows, the last three decades, from these two continents. This thesis investigates the relationship between the religious experience and the migratory route of the euro-African and euro-Latin-American Pentecostal actors in Brussels. In these meeting spaces, the converts work collectively to realise the transformation process encouraged by the religious scenario which consists in applying the perfect " plan of God " to their life. Carriers of missionary ambitions, the believers give new contents to their identity by redefining the place which is assigned to them in the context of post-colonial Belgium. The religious membership operates as a marker of distinction, a process which is particularly striking in the field of sexuality and gender relation maintained within the assemblies.
Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales
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Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The migratory flow of Africans to South Africa form the north of Africa was restrained until the early 1990's. Before this period the political ideology of apartheid discriminated against African immigrants, while favouring the migration of people of European descent. Although numerous studies have drawn attention to the implications of the influx of African immigrants to South Africa and their socio-economic adaptation, not much research has been done on reasons for international migration as provided by the migrant. The demographic and economic implications of African migration not only dominate most of the work in this field, but it even seems to be the only concern of researchers investigating international immigration of Africans. The study focuses on factors underlying the decision of African immigrants to migrate to South Africa and who choose Cape Town as their place of destination. Data from in-depth interviews are analysed to determine the motivations for migration to Cape Town. Attention is being paid to the circumstances in the migrants' home countries that motivated their decision to emigrate, the role of social networks in providing information regarding the choice of destination and migration routes, the obstacles they encountered, their adaptation in Cape Town and their perceptions of Cape Town as a place of permanent residence. From the literature review on reasons for migration, is emerges that there are two dominant theoretical approaches (i.e. macro and micro theories) for explaining why international migration begins. The macro theories focus on migration stream, identifying the conditions under which large-scale movements take place and describing the demographic, economic and social characteristics of the migrants in aggregate terms. Micro theories focus on the socio-psychological factors that differentiate migrants from non-migrants, together with theories of motivation, decision-making, satisfaction and identification. Although each theory ultimately seeks to explain the same phenomenon, they employ different concepts, assumptions and frames of reference. The various explanations offered are not necessarily contradictory in nature but are, in fact, a reflection of how social realities could be studied and understood from various angles. This study employs an eclectic approach by using insights from both macro and micro levels of analysis. The study also considers the appropriateness of a qualitative research design in researching specific aspects of migration and employs a qualitative case study method. This method allows for a deeper reflection on the part of the individual on factors responsible for their decision to move. Semi-structured in-depth interviews have been conducted with four African immigrants in the central business district of Cape Town. The study found that in certain instances the immigrants migrate for different reasons, but under similar circumstances. It emerged from the case material that the same issues sometimes hold different significance for each migrant. One aspect shared by all four immigrants, is that it seems that circumstances in their countries of origin forced them to move and that they did have much of a choice - their lives were threatened. Their relatively high level of training and access to funding most probably assisted them in their move. Those people in not such a favourable position are left behind. The study also found that exchange and free flow of information and social networks directs destination of movement, rather than determine whether migration takes place. However, the information immigrants receive is not always correct and tends not to focus on the negative aspects of immigration. Once in Cape Town the immigrants felt isolated, experienced prejudice, and suffered hostility and discrimination at the hands of South Africans. It appears that many South Africans do not distinguish between asylum seekers, refugees and economic migrants. The common denominator of their "foreignness" appears to be all that is necessary for many to harbour negative attitudes. Xenophobia not only manifests itself in negative attitudes, but also increasingly in victimisation against the immigrants. Because of these factors and the problems they experience in finding jobs where they can apply their skills, the immigrants indicated that they do not intend staying permanently in South Africa.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die migrasie van inwoners van die noorde van Afrika na Suid-Afrika was tot die vroeë 1990s relatief beperk. Voor hierdie tydperk het die politieke ideologie van apartheid gediskrimineer teen inwoners van die res van Afrika, terwyl die migrasie van Europeërs aangemoedig is. Alhoewel verskeie studies die aandag gevestig het op die sosio-ekonomiese aanpassing en die implikasies van die invloei van immigrante uit Afrika na Suid- Afrika, bestaan daar weinige navorsing oor die redes vir internasionale migrasie soos verskaf deur die migrant self. Die demografiese en ekonomiese implikasies van immigrasie domineer nie slegs die meeste van die werk in hierdie verband nie, maar blyk ook die enigste besorgdheid te wees van navorsers wat die internasionale migrasie van Afrikane bestudeer. Die studie fokus op onderliggende faktore wat immigrante uit Afrika motiveer om na Suid-Afika te immigreer en Kaapstad as bestemming kies. Data van indiepte onderhoude word ontleed ten einde die motiverings vir migrasie na Kaapstad vas te stel. Aandag word gegee aan die omstandighede in die migrante se lande van oorsprong, die rol van sosiale netwerke in die verskaffing van inligting oor die keuse van 'n bestemming en migrasieroetes, die struikelblokke langs die pad, hulle aanpassing in Kaapstad en hulle persepsies oor Kaapstad as 'n permanente bestemming. Dit blyk uit die literatuuroorsig oor redes vir migrasie dat daar twee dominante teoretiese benaderings (makro en mikro benaderings) vir die verduideliking van internasionale migrasie bestaan. Die makro benaderings fokus op migrasiestroom en identifiseer die omstandighede waaronder grootskaaaise bewegings plaasvind en beskryf ook die demografiese, ekonomiese en sosiale eienskappe van die migrante in groepsverband. Daar teenoor fokus mikro teorieë op die sosiaal-sielkundige faktore wat migrante van nie-migrante onderskei, tesame met teorieë oor motivering, besluitneming, bevrediging en identifikasie. Alhoewel elke teorie uiteindelik dieselfde verskynsel verduidelik, word verskillende konsepte, aannames en verwysingsraamwerke toegepas. Hierdie studie gebruik 'n eklektiese benadering waarin insigte uit beide mikro- en makrovlak ontledings gebruik word. Die studie oorweeg ook die geskiktheid van 'n kwalitaitiewe navorsingsontwerp vir die bestudering van spesifieke aspekte van migrasie en maak gebruik van 'n kwalitatiewe gevallestudie metode. Die metode fasiliteer 'n dieper refleksie van individue betreffende die faktore wat bygedra het tot hulle besluit om te migreer. Semi-gestruktureerde indiepte onderhoude is met vier immigrante gevoer. Daar is vasgestel dat immigrante oor verskillende redes migreer, maar onder dieselfde omstandighede. Uit die materiaal van die gevallestudies blyk dit dat dieselfde kwessies partykeer uiteenlopende betekenis vir elke migrant het. Een aspek wat deur al vier immigrante gedeel word, is die feit dat omstandighede in hulle lande van herkoms hulle forseer het om te migreer - hulle lewens is bedreig. Hulle . relatiewe hoë opleidingspeil en toegang tot fondse het hulle heel waarskynlik daartoe in staat gestelom te trek. Diegene in 'n minderbevoorregte posise het agtergebly. Die studie bevind ook dat die uitruil en vrye vloei van inligting en sosiale netwerke eerder die plek van bestemming bepaal as om die besluit om te migreer beïnvloed. Dit blyk egter dat die inligting wat immigrante ontvang soms verkeerd is en nie op die negatiewe aspekte van migrasie fokus nie. Wanneer die immigrante eers in Kaapstad is, voel hulle geïsoleerd, ervaar hulle vooroordeel, vyandigheid en diskriminasie van Suid-Afrikaners. Dit wilook voorkom asof baie Suid-Afrikaners nie 'n onderskeid tref tussen asielsoekers, vlugtelinge en ekonomiese migrante nie. Net die feit dat hulle vanaf 'n ander Afrika land afkomstig is, maak baie mense negatief teenoor hulle. Xenofobie manifesteer egter nie slegs in negatiewe ingesteldhede nie, maar daar is ook toenemende viktimisasie. Weens hierdie faktore en die probleme wat hulle ondervind om werksgeleenthede te vind waarin hulle hul vaardighede kan toepas, dra daartoe by dat immigrante Suid-Afrika nie as 'n permanente tuiste beskou nie.

Thesis (MDF (Development Finance))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Meer en meer mense werk buite hul land van herkoms as ooit tevore, en die geld wat hulle stuur na hul tuislande kan bestempel word as ‘n belangrike ekonomiese krag. Hierdie geld kan ’n belangrike rol speel in die ekonomie wat die geld ontvang. Die geld wat reiswerkers tuis stuur word remise of geldsending genoem en oortref reeds Offisiële Ontwikkelingshulp en oortref selfs Buitelandse Investering in sommige lande. Hierdie navorsingsverslag fokus op Zimbabwe, ’n land waarvan die ekonomie volgens sommiges reeds lank gelede moes ineengestort het. Die studie ondersoek tot watter mate geldsending die Zimbabwe ekonomie beskerm teen ineenstorting. Die verslag gebruik ’n opname onder verskeie rolspelers om te wys hoe geldsending die Zimbabwe ekonomie beskerm teen internasionale uitsluiting en sanksies. Zimbabweërs wat die ekonomiese swaarkry vrygespring het in hul land van herkoms stuur voortdurend geld na vriende en familie. Remise word deels gebruik as investering in kleinsake, terwyl deel van die buitelandse valuta investeer word in komoditeite wat die land moeilik deur offisiële kanale sou kon bekom. Die studie het bevind dat geldsending in 2005 en 2006 ongeveeer 25.5% en 25 persent respektiewelik tot die Bruto Nasioanle Produk van Zimbabwe bygedra het. Die studie het verder ’n paar interresante bevindinge gemaak. Een van hierdie is die ongedokumenteerde verskynsel van defleksie van geldsending na meer stabiele ekonomieë of geldeenhede. Sulke remise word dan in die land gehou waar dit gegenereer is, of dit word gestuur in ’n stabiele geldeenheid, of dit word selfs in die vorm van produkte soos kos gestuur.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: More and more people are working outside their countries of citizenship than before. These people are now a major economic force to their countries of origin as they are sending a lot of money to relatives back home. This income plays a key role in receiving economies. The money migrants send home is referred to as remittances and the amount transferred globally has eclipsed official development assistance (ODA) and in some economies it is well ahead of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). This research focuses on Zimbabwe, a country whose economy has long been anticipated to collapse but has so far evaded that implosion. It explores to which extent remittances are cushioning Zimbabwe’s economy from collapse. This report uses a survey of a number of role players to show how remittances have cushioned that economy from the effects of international isolation and sanctions. Zimbabweans who “escaped” the economic hardships in their country of origin have been consistently sending money home to their friends and relations. Money received has partly been invested in small businesses and part of the forex has been used to procure commodities that the country has struggled to acquire through official channels. The study found that the amount of remittances sent for 2005 and 2006 has respectively contributed approximately 25.5 and 25 percent to the GDP of Zimbabwe. The study further made a number of interesting findings. One of these seems to be the undocumented phenomenon of the deflection of remittances to more stable economies or currencies. Such remittances would be kept in the country where it is generated, or it would be sent back in a stable country, or could even be in the form of products such as food.

Defence date: 27 October 1994
Examining board: Prof. Klaus Bade, Universität Osnabrück ; Prof. Herman Balthazar, Universiteit van Gent (co-supervisor) ; Prof. Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, Martin-Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg (supervisor) ; Prof. René Leboutte, European University Institute ; Prof. Jan Lucassen, Vrije Universiteit van Amsterdam ; Prof. Gerard Noiriel, Ecole Normale Supérieure
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017

M. Tech. Comparative Local Development
The number of immigrants in South Africa has been increasing in the last decade. This study investigates the effects of immigration on economic growth, unemployment, poverty and crime using secondary data mainly obtained from Statistics South Africa. The period under study is from 1995 to 2012. Only the impact of documented immigrants is investigated because that of illegal immigrants is not known. The theories of immigration and its economic and social effects will be reviewed. Studies done by other researchers in different countries will also be looked at. Xenophobic attacks in South Africa are as a result of the allegations by South Africans that immigrants are taking South Africans' jobs, increase poverty and crime. However, the positive contribution of these immigrants toward the South African economy is not much talked about. The research therefore seeks to identify if immigrants really cause some of the economic and social problems in South Africa. The results obtained show that an increase in immigration increases the number of unemployed people in South Africa, poverty as well as gross domestic product (economic growth). The effect on crime is different with each type of crime. Murder, burglary and common robbery decrease with an increase in immigration while the opposite is true for other crime types. The main cause of an increase in crime, poverty and the number of unemployed people is because immigration increases human population. The study concludes by suggesting policy recommendations.

Defence date: 16 January 2015
Examining Board: Professor Jérôme Adda, EUI & Bocconi University, Supervisor; Professor Árpád Ábrahám, EUI; Professor Jeremy Lise, University College London; Professor Ahu Gemici, Royal Holloway, University of London.
This thesis explores migration and education decisions in the context of a West African developing country, namely Burkina Faso. The first chapter provides descriptive empirical evidence on migration motives, internal and international migration patterns, and the role of gender and family in observed migration patterns. I rely on a unique and rich life history data set on locations and activity spells and cross-sectional information on 9,000 men and women in Burkina Faso. The empirical analysis reveals that internal and international migration movements attract very different types of migrants, with education playing a key role. While male migrants without education are more likely to migrate abroad (i.e. to Côte d'Ivoire), their peers with secondary or higher education move to urban centers. I argue that restricting the analysis either to internal or international migration leads to wrong conclusions. Chapter 2 studies migration, education and work choices in Burkina Faso in a dynamic life-cycle model. I estimate the model exploiting long panel data of migrants and non-migrants combined with cross-sectional data on permanent emigrants. I uncover that seemingly large returns to migration dwindle away once the risk of unemployment, risk aversion, home preference and migration costs are factored in. Similarly, I also show that returns to education are not as large as measures on wage earners would suggest. While education substantially increases the probability of finding a well-paid job in a medium-high-skilled occupation, I also find that the risk of unemployment for labour market entrants is inverse U-shaped in education, leading to a re-evaluation of net returns to education. Rural individuals need to move in order to reap returns to education, thus facing direct and indirect costs of migration which further lower net returns to education. The last chapter investigates the interaction of education and migration decisions by simulating different policy regimes using the framework developed in the previous chapter. I analyse the effect of education on migration behaviour and show how migration prospects affect educational outcomes. I find that higher education not only leads to a higher incidence of migration (probability of migration, number of moves) but also redirects migrants from going abroad to urban centers. This finding is insofar important as it indicates how migration patterns will change as a result of education policies aiming at improving educational attainment in rural regions. The chapter also addresses the question of how migration prospects change education incentives. I find that restricting emigration entails a positive (but small) effect on education, and a negative effect if restricting migration to urban centers.

Despite being the largest migratory movement between two states in modern history, the origins and operation of Mexican migration to the United States has not been a major research topic. We lack a comprehensive view of Mexican migration as it was established in early twentieth century and reproduced throughout the century as a system that reached from Texas borderlands to California and to western agricultural regions and beyond to Midwestern farming and industrial areas, a system that continued to be circular in nature even as permanent settlement increased, and which was in constant interaction with families, villages, and towns throughout Mexico. This interdisciplinary, bilingual, and transnational project is one of the first histories of the creation of migrant networks narrated from multiple geographic and institutional sites, analyzing the relationship between state agents, civic organizations, and migrants on both sides of the border. My project utilizes a statistical analysis of migration trends combined with qualitative research in order to show how migration arose as a mass phenomenon in Mexico and extended into the United States. This dissertation argues that large scale Mexican migration was created and operated through an interconnected transnational migrant economy made up of self-reinforcing local economic logics, information diffusion, and locally based social networks. I demonstrate that town-based interpersonal networks formed the engine that propelled and sustained large scale migration. Migrants needed transportation, capital, and information to travel north. Town-based networks provided all of these things. I follow the spread of migrant routes, explaining the creation of Mexican communities in the US Showing why communities were located where they are and their links to the larger economy of migrant labor before turning to Mexico and showing the effects of migration on sending communities. Migration evolved from a wave of mainly men into a broad based phenomenon, drawing in families and communities through remittances. I argue this is because a set of self-reinforcing economic logics were being created on both sides of the border. These logics are separate, but linked to the economic conditions that framed migration- the pull of the industrialization of the American West and the Mexican north with its relatively high wages- and the push of the chaos and violence of the Mexican revolution and Cristero Wars. Likewise, these logics could not have occurred without the demographic pressures of population growth in central Mexico, and the economic transformations of the Porfiriato. As more and more people participated in migration, they sent back information and remittances, which in turn made it easier for others to follow their path. Circular migration reinforced this dynamic as migrants returned home on a large scale, bringing back knowledge and experience. Together, these practices constituted the migrant economy and made central and central-north Mexico the engine of migration in the twentieth century. This new economy made it easier to move, but also tied many families and towns into continuous migrations in order to achieve economic stability. Ultimately this project shows the creation of the political economy of migrant labor between Mexico and the United States.

"September 2002"
Bibliography: leaves 320-343.
xiii, 363 leaves : ill., plates, maps ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geographical and Environmental Studies, 2003

Defence date: 12 July 2005
Examining board: Giovanni Facchini, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ; Eckhard Janeba, University of Mannheim ; Massimo Motta, Supervisor, European University Institute ; Francis Vella, European University Institute
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017
-- Bargaining over the transfer in preferential trade agreements : the case of a customs union with a common budget -- Who is against free migration? : lobbying, the non-traded sector and the choice between the customs union and the common market -- The effect of immigration on native wages in the traded and the non-traded sectors : an empirical investigation

by Chun Wai (May) Chan.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves [147-149]).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
Introduction --- p.1-3
The Historical Event
Intersection of History and Biography
Contemporary Emigration
Literature Review --- p.4-15
Conceptual and Theoretical Issues
"Types of Contemporary HK Emigrants, Emigration Strategies, & Emigration Adjustments"
"Rationales for Emigration, Return Emigration, and Settlement"
Politically Driven vs. Economically Driven Emigration
Middle Class Emigration vs. Working Class Emigration
The Meaning of the Contemporary Wave of Emigration
Research Method --- p.16-20
Research Aim
Framework of Analysis
Subject of Study
Research Design
Conducting the Interview
Data Analysis
Chapter Organization --- p.21-21
Chapter 1- The Setting
Chapter 2- The Search
Chapter 3- The Transition
Chapter 4- The Split
Chapter 5- The Scale
Chapter 6- The Meaning of the Contemporary Wave of Emigration from Hong Kong
Chapter Chapter 1- --- The Setting --- p.22-26
Chapter 1.1 --- History of Emigration
Chapter 1.2 --- The Contemporary Period
Chapter 1.2A --- Transformations in Hong Kong
Chapter 1.2B --- Immigration Policies of Overseas Destination Countries
Chapter 1.3 --- The Timeframe
Chapter Chapter 2- --- The Search --- p.27-48
Chapter 2.1 --- Forward
Chapter 2.2 --- Motivations for Emigration
Chapter 2.2A --- Overseas Educational Opportunities
Chapter 2.2B --- Overseas Living Environment
Chapter 2.2C --- Political Transition (97)
Chapter 2.3 --- 1997: Divergent Focus
Chapter 2.3A --- Shadow Past
Chapter 2.3B --- Ambiguous Future
Chapter 2.4 --- Non-Conventional Cases
Chapter 2.5 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 3- --- The Transition --- p.49-74
Chapter 3.1 --- Forward
Chapter 3.2 --- Economic and Social Transitions
Chapter 3.2A --- Economic
Chapter 3.2A. 1 --- Employment/ Career Adjustments
Chapter 3.2A. 1. a --- Experience and Education Route
Chapter 3.2A. 1 .b --- Experience Route
Chapter 3.2A. 1. c --- Further Education Route
Chapter 3.2A. 2 --- Economic Insecurity
Chapter 3.2.B --- Social
Chapter 3.2B.1 --- Expanded Living Environment
Chapter 3.2B.2 --- Detracted Sense of Belonging
Chapter 3.3 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 4- --- The Split --- p.75-107
Chapter 4.1 --- Forward
Chapter 4.2 --- Motivations for Return Emigration
Chapter 4.2A --- Lack of Extended Family Support & Contact Overseas
Chapter 4.2B --- Preference of Living in Hong Kong
Chapter 4.2C --- Economic/Career Opportunities in Hong Kong
Chapter 4.3 --- Conditional Return
Chapter 4.4 --- Tendency to Return to Destination Country
Chapter 4.5 --- Return Emigration Experiences
Chapter 4.6 --- Motivations for Settlement
Chapter 4.6A --- Overseas Living Environment/Lifestyle
Chapter 4.6B --- Opportunities for the Next Generation
Chapter 4.6C --- Timing/Inability to Overcome Barriers to Return Emigrate
Chapter 4.7 --- Perception of Passport
Chapter 4.8 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 5 --- The Scale --- p.108-118
Chapter 5.1 --- Forward
Chapter 5.2 --- The Losses
Chapter 5.3 --- The Gains
Chapter 5.4 --- The Balance
Chapter 5.5 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 6- --- The Meaning of the Contemporary Wave of Emigration from Hong Kong --- p.119-131
Appendix
Table I: Motivations for Emigration
Table II: Motivations for Return Emigration
Table III: Motivations for Settlement
Table IV: Occupation and Education Level
Table V: No. of Children
"Table VI: Current Age, Age at Time of Emigration, and Year of Emigration/ Return Emigration/Settlement"
Interview Schedule (Abridged)
Bibliography

Defence date: 8 July 2010
Examining Board: Maurizio Ambrosini (Univ. Milan); Margarita Gomez-Reino Cachafeiro, UNED, Madrid); Virginie Guiraudon (CERAPS-CNRS, Lille Centre for Politics) (External Co-Sipervisor); Peter Mair (EUI) (Supervisor)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
In the early 1990s, Italy and Spain, traditional labor exporters, started to acknowledge their new position as ‘immigration countries’. This dissertation examines how both states have coped with the consequences of this rapid and unexpected shift. Combining discourse and policy analysis, we look mainly at political elites’ (parties and their members) discourses and practices, during the first decade of the immigration turn (from early 1990s until the early 2000s). The literature has often treated Italy and Spain as examples of the same ‘Mediterranean’ group, also usually assuming that they have followed a very similar route towards immigrants’ criminalization and a populist mobilization of the immigration theme. Adopting an innovative analytical perspective, this thesis arrives at an original understanding of both immigrants’ representation and immigration politics in Italy and Spain. The predominant categories mobilized by Spanish and Italian political elites in the construction of the immigration ‘problem', as well as the strategies used to seize the (political) opportunities offered by the immigration theme are more diverse than they seem. While in Italy a ‘grammar’ of insecurity has been reiterated and institutionalized by nearly all political groups throughout the 1990s, in Spain, parties have mostly treated immigration as a matter (problem) of social integration, politicizing (‘criminalizing’) the issue quite late in the decade. This dissertation concludes moreover that the rising influx of immigrants during the 1990s has triggered a revival of particular ways of framing the Italian and Spanish ‘nations’ and nationhood, which have strongly marked political actors’ approach to immigrants and immigration politics. In this way, while in Italy the post-Fascist idea of a bounded Italianità, grounded on family ties and blood connections, have underlie immigration policy-making; the post-Franquist conception of a ‘new’, open and plural Spain has overruled in Spain. We show how these different national ‘mythologies’ were instrumental for legitimating quite similar (restrictive) policies.

Defence date: 13 May 2008
Examining Board: Prof. Heinz-Gerhard Haupt (EUI) - supervisor; Prof. Bartolomé Yun (EUI); Prof. Eric Vanhaute (Ghent University); Prof. Lewis Fischer (University of Newfoundland).
First made available online on 24 August 2018
Why, yet another study on the long 19th century European mass-migration movement to the US, when during the last decade migration historians have encouraged a shift away from the Atlanto-centrism and Modernization-centrism that has dominated the sub-discipline (Lucassen and Lucassen, 1996, 28-30; Hoerder, 2002, 10-18)? For many, the topic seems saturated, yet one particular and reoccurring question has not yet received a satisfying answer: how did the migrant trade evolve and influence the relocation of approximately thirty five million migrants across the Atlantic, of whom an ever increasing percentage returned and repeated the journey during the steamship era? More than half a century ago Maldwyn Jones, Frank Thistletwaite, and Rolf Engelsing drew attention to the fact that transatlantic migration was determined by trade routes (Jones, 1956, Engelsing, 1961; Thistletwaite, 1960). Migrants essentially became valuable cargo, on a shipping route made up of raw cotton, tobacco or timber from the New World; a route that had room to spare on the return leg of the journey. Rolf Engelsing in particular documented how the maritime business community reacted to this trade opportunity, by erecting inland networks, directing a continuous flow of human cargo to the port of Bremen during the sailship-era. Marianne Wokeck later stressed the Atlantic dimensions of these networks, by dating the origins of non-colonial mass migration movements to the 18th Century (Wokeck, 1999).

Talent management is a source of competitive advantage and will be achieved by those organisations that are able to attract, develop and retain best in class individuals. It is thus not just a human resources issue but rather an integral part of any organisation’s strategy. Due to negative perceptions about South Africa, skilled workers are immigrating to countries such as Australia to the detriment of the South African economy. This loss is not necessarily being replaced by graduates or through immigration. Government policies such as Broader- Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE), Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) and Affirmative Action (AA), compound the issue by then decreasing the pool of skilled applicants that may occupy skilled and senior posts in organisations. Globally there is a shortage of skills and due to employee mobility they can use any opportunity that presents itself. The objectives of this study was to determine the factors which lead to the emigration of skilled South African’s to Australia and then once these factors are known to propose retention strategies to role players to stem the emigration tide. To achieve these objectives a survey was prepared based on previous studies and a link to the web questionnaire was distributed to the population via an Australian immigration agent. The link was sent to all the agent’s clients around the world and thus consisted not only of South Africa respondents but also elicited international responses, which will be used for comparison purposes only. Only 48 South Africans responded to the survey and although limited, it was sufficient for the purposes of this study. The demographic profile was mainly male and dominated by Generation X. Using a Likert scale respondents were questioned on their levels of satisfaction in their country of origin and in Australia through an adaptation of a study by Mattes and Richmond (2000). The study of Hulme (2002) was adapted and incorporated into the questionnaire, where respondents were given the opportunity to rank considerations for leaving South Africa and factors that would draw them back. Respondents were provided with the opportunity for responses to open-ended questions to include other considerations for leaving and factors that would draw them back. Results from these survey items revealed that the primary reasons driving skilled South Africans to emigrate was safety and security, upkeep of public amenities, customer service and taxation. In contrast, South African migrants had high levels of satisfaction with safety and security, upkeep of public amenities and customer service in Australia. Respondents indicated that factors that would draw them back to South Africa would be improvements in safety and security and government, followed by family roots, good jobs and schools. The study also looked at the permanence of the move. If skilled individuals returned with new-found skills and experience then it could be a potential brain gain for South Africa. The results of this study found that 43% of respondents had no intention to return, 42% did not supply a response and only 10% were undecided on whether to return or not. To attract, retain and develop talent, the South African government and the private sector would need to work in partnership to develop policies that would satisfy the lower-order needs of individuals, such as physiological and safety needs.
Emigration of skilled South African migrants to Australia
Business Management
M.Tech. (Business Administration)

In any act of household migration, there are movers (the migrant) and stayers (those left behind), and both of these two groups have expectations. The movers expect to make some benefits at the destination while the stayers expect the migrant to send or do something at home of origin. Some work, though limited, has been done to improve our understanding of how potential migrants form their expectations of what they can get from the destination country in studies involving determinants of individual migration. But for those left behind very little is known about how they form their expectations of what they can get from the migrant. The few studies that have been done on this have only used observed flow of remittances to estimate what people left behind expect from migration. Hence these studies equate observed flow of remittances to expected flows. And by this equation, these studies also assume perfect information flow between migrants and relations left behind as well as perfect knowledge to help those left behind to form realistic expectations: expectations that reflects exactly what can be sent to them. Obviously these assumptions are not tenable. These untenable assumptions also leave a hole in our ability to explain why a household will choose to either continue supporting members for migration or not. This is because we cannot tell from observed data alone whether or not the desire to continue to support migration of a household or a family member is as a result of well-informed subjective expectations or not. The crust of the problem here is therefore that by relying on observed data alone we fail to account for the important role subjective expectations or beliefs of those left behind play in decisions for further migration movements, especially within the family. To be able to unravel this problem we need elicitation of subjective expectations of remittance flows from those left behind. Using data from a specially designed survey in two districts in Ghana, I construct time-adjusted subjective remittance expectations of migrant families at home of origin and analyse the factors that determine the formation of these expectations and how formation of these expectations can help us explain perpetuation of migration within a household. The key analytical models employed in these investigations are summarised below In order to understand the exogenous determinants of remittance expectations of migrant households, I first of all estimate factors that influence performance of migrant at home of origin and general flow of information between the migrants and the household members left behind. In order to see the effect of remittances on formation of subjective expectations, remittance flow was measured in terms of migrant performance by adjusting the flows to the time period during which the migrant could do what he or she has done. The items were limited to the popular ones people receive: money for living expenses, establishment of a house and business investment. The theoretical explanation for this adjustment is that if the observed trend in remittance flow has any effect on expectations it would be through individual household’s evaluation of what migrants have achieved within a certain number of years. In other words, all things being equal, families whose migrants took much longer period to achieve certain things would have lower levels of expectations than a comparable family whose migrant took relatively shorter period. This is because taking a long time to achieve something at home of origin would breed some kind of skepticism and uncertainty among those left behind as to what they can get from migration. And this skepticism can lead to low levels of expectations. This is also in line with the reference people left behind often make when talking about achievements of migrants at home of origin as they always point to what XYZ has done. Ordinary least squared regression is then used to estimate factors determining level of migrant performance at home of origin after the transformation of the dependent variable: migrant performance. Heckman selection model is also applied to control for possible effect of bias since some households have migrants who have done nothing at home. Kinship ties are the major factors under this investigation. To determine the main factors influencing information flow, ordinary least squared estimates are used while a generalised ordered logit model, with maximum likelihood method, is used to estimate the factors influencing the likelihood of a household getting higher categories of private/dedicated information from the migrant. Major factors for this investigation are kinship ties and performance of migrant at home of origin. Since information flow and remittance flows are suspected to have endogenous relationship, instrumental variables (IV) technique is employed to estimated impact of remittance flow on both private and public information flows. This is important for us to understand how information flow act as exogenous determinant of subjective remittance expectations, and resultant effect on perpetuation of migration. Once current information flow and performance of migrants have been examined and effects of their exogenous factors estimated, the next stage of the analysis is the examination of effects of these past performance and information flow on household subjective remittance expectations while controlling for other major exogenous factors such as kinship ties, level of education and household wealth. Ordinary least square regression technique is used to estimate major determinants of these levels of expectations. However, to control for possible bias resulting from the fact that a select group of households may not expect anything, Heckman selection model is applied. The final analysis is the estimation of impact household subjective remittance expectations on migration-support intentions. Due to the problem of endogenous relationship between expectations and migration decisions, ordinary maximum likelihood estimates would not be very effective in identifying the real impact expectations have on migration decisions. Hence I use maximum likelihood with endogenous repressors to estimate or identify the influence of expectation on potential migration decisions, applying the probit model with selection model (heckprob) technique. Ordered probit analysis is also used to investigate what determines household’s desire to support more than one person for migration. The results are summarised below. Summary of Findings Economics and sociology literature makes us aware that in order to understand formation of expectations of any kind we first have to investigate two important factors: past events and current information flow, because these are the two factors that hugely influence expectations. Hence, for us to understand remittance expectations, we first have to understand two issues: observed past flows of remittances and current flow of information between the migrant and relations left behind at home of origin. If remittance flows should influence household or family’s (including the extended family members) subjective expectations and the support to move abroad, it should largely do so in terms of what has been observed in the past. In Chapter Six, I investigated the influence of kinship ties on receipts of remittances. As expected, closer migrant relations such as spouse and head of family stand a much better chance of having better performance from migrant than distant kinship ties such as friendship. However when it comes to performance in individual items such as house or business investment, a household cannot rely only on kinship ties with migrant. It should also have some wealth. Specifically, among the kinship ties only spousal relationship was found to have positive effect on migrant performance in areas such as housing and business investment. Thus the influence of kinship ties on observed flow of remittances is mostly limited to money for living expenses, unless the family left behind is wealthy enough to enable allocation of what is sent into other things such as investment in housing and business. With kinship ties being very influential in the determination of past performance of migrants one would expect that these ties would also influence information flow if the assumption of remittance and information flow being together holds. It has always been assumed by cumulative causation theories of migration that together with the flow of remittances from migrant to relations back at home is the flow of information that connects migrant, potential migrants and those left behind (Massey et al, 1993). If this is the case then relationship should be a key factor in determining information flow from the migrants, because these ties influence flow of remittances. Results from the 2SLS model show that remittance flow has impact only at the lower levels of private information flow, reinforcing the point that information that comes with remittance flow may just be social issues such as size of family, marital status, and not economic ones. In spite of their strong effect on remittance flow or migrant performance, all the types of kinship ties generally have negative effects on private information flow. Thus kinship ties are not enough for those left behind to get more private information from the migrant relations residing abroad. It should not be surprising that remittance flows do not lead to higher levels of information flow from the migrants to those left behind. This is because remittances are mostly made up of monetary transfers for living expenses which may not carry much information with it as, in most cases, migrants do not require monitoring. And with electronic transfers of these days, it becomes more implausible to assume that remittance flows, which are mostly limited to monetary transfers, would generate private information as the interpersonal exchanges in these transfers become more and more reduced. But since the lower levels of private information flows only contain pieces of information such as marital status, household size and education levels, it follows that remittance flow may not be the best channel through which relations get important information about the socioeconomic conditions of the migrant. Perhaps this assumption was more plausible about 30 years ago when migrants mostly relied on methods such as using other migrants going home. Families left behind have to rely on their wealth or good level of education to be able to source information from the migrants. On the other hand, remittance flow or migrant performance has highly significant and positive influence on public information flow, suggesting that what migrants do at home influence some perceived knowledge of the migrants’ socioeconomic conditions. It is also interesting to note that factors such as average household education and wealth that have significant positive effect on private information flow have negative effect on public information flow. One can therefore deduce that the more families are able to access information from the migrants themselves, the less they rely on migration information from nonmigrant sources or the general public in the community of origin. Unfortunately remittance flow is unable to help those left behind to get more information from the migrant. Hence most of them will have to rely on public information. With the flow of crucial information such as economic conditions of migrants lacking or being inadequate, it can be concluded that there would be some level of uncertainty about conditions. And this level of uncertainty may lead to some guess-work or reliance on information from other sources in the formation of remittance expectations. That is, would their inability to access crucial information on economic conditions of the migrants “push” them to rely on information reaching them from other sources in the formation of expectations? Also if the wealthy and the more educated families are more likely to know more about the migrants, and if knowing more about the migrant is most likely to temper high expectations with realism as hypothesized in this study, would it be fair to conclude that wealthier and more educated families may have ambivalent, if not negative expectation levels? Results from Chapter Seven show that families would use their experience of what migrants have done at home of origin as a starting point in the formation of their remittance expectations in terms of whether or not they should expect something. But once their expectation status is assured, families are much more influenced by other factors than migrant performance in the formation of their subjective remittance expectation levels. In other words at lower levels of information, remittance expectations seem to be more adaptive to past trends of observed remittance flows. Kinship ties become very significant in this respect in spite of its insignificant influence on information flow. This raises a question of whether or not the effect of kinship ties on formation of remittance expectations is informed by information from the migrants. All the results point to the contrary. The effects of kinship ties on subjective remittance expectations are informed more by past experience of remittance receipts than current dedicated/ private flow of information between the families and the migrants. When kinship ties are interacted with private information their effects on remittance expectations are, however, significantly reduced, indicating that when people take private or dedicated information into consideration their high expectations are very much checked. What are the implications of subjective remittance expectations form under low levels of dedicated information flow for migration decisions? Chapter Eight sought to provide the answer to this question. The results confirmed the hypothesis that subjective remittance expectations formed under inadequate flow of dedicated information would lead to increasing desire to support more migration from the family and the opposite should also true. That is under inadequate information flow, subjective remittance expectations have highly positive effect on desire to perpetuate migration more than the demonstrative effect of migrant performance, emphasizing the importance of expectations in perpetuation of migration. However, the strong effect of expectations and kinship ties on desire to support migration could be reduced if high levels of dedicated information are taken into consideration. Further investigation into why some families with remittance expectations would still not want to support members to migrate revealed that, in addition to private or dedicated information flow, average household education level is a major factor that discourages families with remittance expectations from further supporting members to migrate. This is in sharp contrast with the generally accepted view that education selects families and individuals into migration, especially international migration. This is true in the general population. When only migrant families are sampled, as in this study, the effects of education on migration are tempered with information flow. Education allows the family to access more and more of private/dedicated information which has negative effect on remittance expectations. It is therefore not surprising that education may discourage families with expectations to continue supporting migration. But since most people do not get the private information or do not even consider it as, expectations which are hugely informed by past performance, public information and mere kinship ties would continue to drive perpetuation of migration, at least, at the household level.

With South Africa attaining democratic status in 1994 and the establishment of diplomatic relations with the People‟s Republic of China a “new wave” of Chinese migration into the country began (Park, 2009). Although the Chinese migrants and their business enterprises are visible on the streets of Durban's city centre and surrounding towns, their lives seem shrouded with secrecy. This study was therefore conducted with the aim of understanding the social and economic lives of the Chinese traders living and working in the city of Durban. Interviews and participant observation methods were utilised in order to obtain qualitative data. The analysis of the data indicates that the main priority of traders is to grow their business in order to prosper; therefore their social and economic activities revolve round the activity of trading. Although crime and language barriers deter Chinese migrants from being more active within South African society, their "Chinese shops‟ serve as spaces where they negotiate relationships with diverse people, including their workers and customers. Social, distribution and supply networks are also found to be imperative in order for migrants to effectively conduct their business. It was also noted that social networks, knowledge of the English language, positive experiences in the host country and length of time spent in the country contributes to traders adapting to South Africa. This study also indicates that the future of Chinese migrants in South Africa hinges on the micro and macro conditions of the host country, traders overcoming language barriers as well as maintenance of social networks that provide support to the migrant trader.
Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

The aim of this study was to analyse teacher migration between South Africa (SA) and the United Kingdom (UK). An understanding of teacher migration and migration patterns is of vital importance especially to SA. As a developing country, SA is losing valuable assets, namely professionals (teachers, doctors, nurses) to developed countries. There is a return stream as evident in a cohort of teacher migrants returning to SA. However, increased mobility is a direct occurrence of the forces of globalisation, and neither the loss of professionals (brain drain) nor the brain gain is unique to SA. Nevertheless, the need to understand migrant teachers' decision-making is salient: firstly, as a step in creating avenues for discourse on addressing the flight of 'home-grown' professionals and attracting ex-patriots back to their home country. Secondly, in furthering an understanding of global labour migration, and finally in developing and expanding on existing migration theories in a globalised world. This study was multi-layered. It investigated two distinct cohorts of teachers: ninety experienced teachers (part of the teaching fraternity) and thirty novice teachers (student teachers in their final year of study at Edgewood College of Education in SA). Within the category of experienced teachers, three separate divisions of teachers were identified for examination, namely premigrants (teachers about to embark on their first migration), post-migrants (SA teachers already teaching in the UK) and return-migrants (teachers who had returned to SA after a period of teaching in the UK). Various theories influenced the study: economic theories of migration, identity theories in education and Marxist labour theory. Within this theoretical framing the influence of globalisation as a process in facilitating cross border mobility was emphasized. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used in the study. Teachers' voices were favoured in the study as an expression of the complexity of their thinking, attitudes, behaviour and hence, identities. The study commenced by examining the reasons for novice and experienced teachers exiting the SA teaching fraternity, to work in schools in London in the UK. Then it explored the latter teachers' experiences in those schools and society with a view to revealing their integration into new socio-cultural and political milieus, and highlighting their transnational identities. Finally, experienced teachers' reasons for returning to SA were probed. In tracing teachers' trajectory from pre-migration (before migration) to post-migration (in the host country) to return migration (back to the home country), the study attempted to analyse patterns of transnational migration in a globalised context. The study identified the emergence of a new breed of teachers: transnational teacher-travellers. These are teachers who traverse a country's national boundaries at will. They are at ease trading their services in a global market, all in the pursuit of attaining a kaleidoscope of goals simultaneously. SA teachers were generally leaving their home country for multiple reasons of finance, travel opportunities and career progression. None of these reasons were mutually exclusive of each other. Migrant teachers' experiences in the UK were extensive, from professional growth to salary satisfaction and travel. However, teacher stress from incidents of reduced classroom discipline and loneliness stemming from family separation impacted on migrant teachers abroad, and contributed to return migration. An evaluation of the data on migrant teachers' motivations, experiences and goals led to the development of a model to understand the transnational migration patterns of teachers traversing from developing to developed countries. The model is sculptured from Demuth's (2000) three phases of migration: pre-migration, post-migration and return-migration. A basic tenet of the suggested model is that teacher migration is a non-linear process. It is initiated and sustained by complex, concurrent push or pull factors in the home country and pull or push factors in the host country. Further, teacher migration is propelled and perpetuated by the influences of globalisation and socio-cultural networks between countries.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

Migration is a major global issue of the 21st century (Martin & Widgren, 2002) [...] In recent years there has been an upsurge of African Diaspora returning home (Thomas, 2008). Notwithstanding anecdotal and editorial coverage, very little academic research exists on international migration to Africa (Ammassari, 2006). The focus of migration studies related to Africa has largely centred on outward migration and measures of the extent and cost benefits of the drain or gain and the ensuing debate on macro policy implications (Heenan, 2005). This research offers a new perspective on migration by exploring reasons and deeper motivations behind why African Diaspora mid-career professionals migrate to Africa, specifically South Africa and Nigeria. [Abbreviated Abstract. Open document to view full version]
MT2016

The phenomenon of migration has given rise to prolific research emphasising the psychological adaptation of persons post-immigration. This study focuses on psychological preparation pre-immigration. Literature study and empirical research establish that an immigrant's adaptation is influenced by migration motivation and expectations. Several phases of adaptation occur, during which time individual stress is influenced by one's perception of the balance between the stresses of the new environment and one's personal and external resources. Various migration stressors could be identified in the sample group of South Africans living in Australia. Personal and external resources include effective coping strategies, a positive, committed outlook, strong self-esteem as well as a cohesive family and an acquired support system. Finally, guidelines were produced reflecting that the preparation for immigration is a complex and highly individualised task comprised of providing information, encouraging self-assessment and supplying training to improve the coping startegies of the individual.
Educational Studies
M. Ed. (Guidance and Counseling)

This dissertation traces Chinese migration to and settlement in Colombia from the 1890s through 2020, and situates immigrants' experiences within a larger racially-attuned economic story of a commercially integrating transpacific Caribbean immediately before and after the consolidation of American hegemony. It specifically traces Chinese migration and commercial activities in key sites and regions increasingly drawn into financial and trade systems shaped by the US, including: the Colombian Pacific port of Buenaventura; Panama and the interoceanic canal which connected transpacific Caribbean communities and commerce; the Colombian Caribbean port cities of Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta; and Bogotá, the political seat of power which oversaw externally-oriented national economic development and international trade. Though they were racially and economically marginalized and their entry and movements were restricted in Colombia as elsewhere in the Americas, Chinese were nevertheless able to carve out commercial and migration opportunities that connected regions of nations together. Bridging Anglophone and Spanish-speaking, agricultural and industrial, Pacific and Atlantic, their particular migration paths and economic niches enabled them to play unrecognized but integral integrative roles in larger commercial integration processes—whether as merchants who connected the Colombian Pacific to markets in the United States and Europe; truck farmers whose production of food for domestic consumption supported agricultural export and industrialization efforts; or restauranteurs whose expansion of Chinese restaurants from the Caribbean coast to the western coffee axis and Andean interior later became the basis for a new import-export role of distributing goods cheaply made in China within Colombia’s urban centers. Continually adapting to new structural constraints and opportunities, Chinese created a persisting and evolving migrant and migration economy sustained by and sustaining familial and commercial connections that spanned what I term a transpacific Caribbean. Their (often serial) transpacific and circum-Caribbean historical migration trajectories took them from villages, cities, and counties mostly in the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong province and Hong Kong to the Greater Caribbean region (Panama, Trinidad, Cuba, Jamaica, Venezuela, etc.), the United States, and the coastal Caribbean, Pacific, and Andean interior regions of Colombia. What facilitated such migrations (and what attracted Chinese migrants)—the anticipated economic opportunities that followed the building of integrative transportation and trade infrastructure that connected interior to port cities and port cities to international (mainly US) markets—is as important to Colombian economic development history and US overseas commercial expansion as to Chinese immigration history. By showing how Chinese built a migrant and migration economy within this broader imperial and national economic structure, “A Transpacific Caribbean: Chinese Migration, US Imperialism, and the Making of Modern Colombia” weaves these interconnected strands of history together.

Through an ethnographic examination of two New York City South Asian organizations, Worker's Awaaz and the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO), this study attends to the classed subjects produced at the different points of convergence of neoliberal policy in India and the United States. The project is concerned with the workings of South Asian organizations as the demographic profile of this population changes due to new migration patterns marked by gender, class, nationality and status, and new subjectivities borne of organizing and activism that have emerged around these. With attention to the nexus of capital, labor and rights, I argue that each organization represents two sides of neoliberal tendencies, and that this materializes in the subjects of worker and diasporic entrepreneur that are mobilized in Worker's Awaaz and GOPIO, respectively. Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) in South Asia compelled the migration of the low-wage female membership Worker's Awaaz. Once in the United States, where carework has become increasingly privatized, many of these women find employment as domestic workers whose labor is necessary to the households of upper-middle class and wealthy South Asians. SAPs also opened up South Asian markets to direct foreign investment. Needing outside capital for schemes of privatization and deregulation, the government of India turned to the diaspora, and deployed financial investment by overseas Indians as diasporic duty. This is a role that GOPIO has been at the forefront of organizing. I specifically explore how economic beings constructed through neoliberal discourse of human capital inhabit, rework, and contest these very discourses and practices. In Worker's Awaaz debates regarding who constituted a worker were contestations over the meanings of class and labor rooted in global migration flows. Within GOPIO the class inflected subjectivity of entrepreneur found nationalist luster as the articulation of entrepreneurialism was cast as a trait of Indian diasporic culture. The subject positions borne from these activities produced different struggles over the terms of national belonging and rights. The dissertation understands these positions as generated from the disjunctive tendencies of neoliberalism, and as sites that give insight into the workings of current capital regimes.
text

Since the publication of David Wyman's seminal monograph on the American immigration policy during the Second World War— Paper Walls: America and the refugee crisis—the historiography has been framed by a fundamental assumption: that, at its heart, decisions on refugee immigration policy were motivated by anti-Semitism. By examining many of the same primary sources used by Wyman and the historians who have followed him, my thesis argues that the claim that anti-Semitism was the primary, or even major, motivation is not supported by the evidence, and that the shaping of policy was much the product of general xenophobia and nativism.

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Journalism at the University of the Witwatersrand, 2016
Economic migrants to South Africa face a hostile reception; periodic displays of widespread xenophobia have highlighted the myths and stereotypes that still abound about foreigners - that they are job-stealers, criminals and a threat to our nation’s well-being. The Department of Home Affairs recently brought in new immigration laws that raise the barriers to entry and participation in the South African economy and society. Yet a back door has been left wide open for economic migrants, often unskilled and with no other options, to enter South Africa, live and work. For six consecutive years South Africa was the number one destination for asylum seekers globally and the influx has caused the refugee determination process to become clogged and corrupt, leaving genuine refugees vulnerable and hundreds of thousands of foreigners in an unhappy limbo. The accompanying narrative long form journalism piece highlights some of the fault lines in the government’s uncoordinated and inconsistent migration policy. Overall the project seeks to personalize some of the key challenges and contentious issues faced by migrants to South Africa. It aims to puts a human face to a bureaucratic process by accessing the stories of marginalized migrants, giving them a voice to articulate their experiences in South Africa. The accompanying method document outlines some of the academic research underpinning the study.
GR2017

Migration from non-SADe countries to South Africa has become the new trend of population movement in Southem Africa. This research was conducted with Ethiopian immigrants in Durban in an attempt to shed some insights into this new nexus. The aim of the study was to understand the experiences of Ethiopian immigrants before, during and after their migration. In-depth interviews were conducted with 15 Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa. The decision to migrate was mainly motivated by economic reasons. There were many contributing fac tors in making the decision to migrate. These included social networks, cost of travel, accessibility and availability of opportunities in South Africa. Ethiopian immigrants have used different travel routes and entry points to enter South Africa, both legally and illegally. They selected Durban as their destination city because of the availability of economic opportunities and the relatively less bureaucracy in government offices compared to other cities. Various literatures suggest that immigrants in South Africa and other parts of the world share the experiences of Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa in many ways. The findings of this research suggest that most Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa are involved in the informal economic sector. The target of their economic activities is mainly South Africans in the townships and Ethiopian immigrants themselves. This research also found that Ethiopian immigrants have not integrated with the local community. The study further explains some of the challenges Ethiopian immigrants face during their travel and stay in South Africa. Most of the Ethiopian immigrants stated that they do not intend to stay in South Africa for long. Most of them plan to go to economically more affluent countries like the United States of America.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2007.

This dissertation contains three essays in History and Spatial Economics with Big Data. As a part of my dissertation, I develop a modern machine-learning based approach to connect large datasets. Merging several massive databases and matching the records within them presents challenges — some straightforward and others more complex. I employ artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies to link and then analyze massive amounts of historical US federal census, Department of Labor, and Bureau of Labor Statistics data. The transformation of the US economy during this time period was remarkable, from a rural economy at the beginning of the 19th century to an industrial nation by the end. More strikingly, after lagging behind the technological frontier for most of the nineteenth century, the United States entered the twenty-first century as the global technology leader and the richest nation in the world. Results from this dissertation reveal how people lived and how the business operated. It tells us the past that led us to where we are now in terms of people, geography, prices and wages, wealth, revenue, output, capital, numbers, and types of workers, urbanization, migration, and industrialization. As a part of this endeavor, the first chapter studies how the benefits of improving urban mass transit infrastructures in cities are shared across workers with different skills. It exploits a unique historical setting to estimate the impact of urban transportation infrastructure: the introduction of mass-public transit infrastructure in the late nineteenth and twentieth-century New York City. I linked individual-level US census data to investigate how urban transit infrastructure differentially affects the welfare of workers with heterogenous skill. My second chapter measures immigrants' role in the US rise as an economic power. Especially, this chapter focuses on a potential mechanism by which immigrants might have spurred economic prosperity: the transfer of new knowledge. This is the first project to use advances in quantitative spatial theory along with advanced big-data techniques to understand the contribution of immigrants to the process of U.S. economic growth. The key benefit of this approach is to link modern theory with massive amounts of microeconomic data about individual immigrants—their locations and occupations—to address questions that are extremely difficult to assess otherwise. Specifically, the dataset will help the researchers understand the extent to which the novel ideas and expertise immigrants brought to U.S. shores drove the nation’s emergence as an industrial and technological powerhouse. My third chapter exploits advances in data digitization and machine learning to study intergenerational mobility in the United States before World War II. Using machine learning techniques, I construct a massive database for multiple generations of fathers and sons. This allows us to identify “land of opportunities": locations and times in American history where kids had chances to move up in the income ladder. I find that intergenerational mobility elasticities were relatively stable during 1880-1940; there are regional disparities in terms of giving kids opportunities to move up, and the geographic disparities of intergenerational mobility have evolved over time.

M.Comm.
The general conclusion arrived at in this dissertation is that the quality of infrastructure in South Africa has resulted in a large and increasing inflow of students from the other African countries. The ensuing influx of international students has been sustained through the activities of networks based on kin, acquaintance and the support of the source country governments. This has resulted in a large inflow of foreign revenue and growth of employment opportunities and income for South Africa. Although the revenue from the inflow of international students in South Africa is impressive, it is still trivial in comparison to what other countries such as the USA, the UK, Australia and China receive. Another advantage is that the presence of international students offers a potential boost to the skills shortage in South Africa. The direct benefits from international students to South Africa have the capacity to be further enhanced but a proper policy for facilitating such inflow is lacking. Certain administrative processes and practices in South Africa aggravate the situation. These procedures include visa application difficulties, university registration bureaucracy, and police behaviour. Worse still, crime and xenophobia in South Africa are common and they present some of the greatest threats to the continued inflow of international students.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, June 2017.
Tourism contributes to economic development in both developed and developing countries. Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) travel is one of the largest forms of tourism on a global level. However, there has been limited research over the past decades on VFR travel. In recent times, VFR travel has attracted the attention of researchers due to increasing rate of migration resulting in the promotion of regional tourism through VFR travel. Despite the influx of migrants in South Africa, research on international VFR travel has been limited as most research on VFR travel has been on local level from one province to another. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the expenditure pattern of Zimbabweans travelling to and from South Africa for VFR purposes. Furthermore, the study seeks to identify the benefits of VFR travel to individual households in Zimbabwe. Using a quantitative framework, 200 questionnaires were distributed to Zimbabweans and a Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) was used as an analysis tool. The theory of consumer behaviour was implemented to discuss and analyse the findings, revealing that VFR travellers from South Africa spend more than VFR travellers to South Africa on transport cost, food and beverages, entertainment and financial remittances. The expenditure is based on socio-demographic and travel-related characteristics. As a result of VFR travellers’ expenditure, the benefits, which are directed to individual households in Zimbabwe, include household upkeep, education, business investment, health and other reasons. Thus this study focuses attention on international VFR travel and its contribution to the tourism economy in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Key Words: Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR), Tourism, Migration, Expenditure, Regional Tourism, South Africa, Zimbabwe.
XL2018

Nurses constitute the largest professional group in South Africa's health care services. Factors contributing to South African nurses' emigration were studied qualitatively by analysing expatriate nurses' responses to open-ended questions, and quantitatively by analysing newly registered nurses' responses to structured questionnaires. These results were contextualised within Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory, revealing that nurses' inability to meet their physiological needs, due to inadequate remuneration, was the major factor contributing to nurses' emigration potential. While improved salaries might enable more nurses to remain in South Africa, expatriate nurses would not return to South Africa unless certain esteem and self-actualisation needs could also be satisfied. Improving nurses' salaries is essential to address South African nurses' emigration potential. However, improved working conditions, enhanced workplace security, improved levels of job satisfaction and the appointment of nurses into currently frozen posts are also necessary, as is governmental and public recognition of the value of the profession. The South African nursing profession, health care services, Government and society should urgently address factors contributing to South African nurses' emigration potential; otherwise a serious shortage of nurses could cause the collapse of this country's health care services.
Health Studies
DLITT ET PHIL (HEALTH ST)

The expansion of fruit, vegetable and horticultural (FVH) production in California and Andalucia has been contemporaneous with a decline in 'native' farm labor and restrictions on lower-skilled migration. Resulting increases in the populations of unauthorized farmworkers have contributed to mounting tension over the rights and numbers of migrants in Spain and the United States. Yet, the similarities in farm labor outcomes contrast with the distinct geographical, temporal, sociocultural and institutional conditions in which these labor markets have evolved. Using Californian and andaluz FVH as exemplars, the dissertation explores the problem and problematization of unauthorized migration in the United States and Spain from 1985 through 2005. Four primary themes -uncovered in interviews with migration researchers, advocates, union representatives, employers and migrants -guide assessment of the relationship between the reproduction of illegality and the regulation of migration and FVH production: the (1) recruitment and (2) retention of unauthorized farmworkers and the role of (3) interest groups and (4) the state in migration and farm labor policymaking. Legislation, mass media and US and Spanish census and survey data illustrate demographic, economic and political shifts over this period. The study illuminates the primary, but not always direct, role of policies and politics in the magnitude and composition of migration and settlement patterns in both countries. Laissez faire regulation and symbolic enforcement have shaped the ethnic, legal and gender composition of the farm labor market. Political and structural constraints, as well as economic pressures, have institutionalized illegality in FVH agriculture, subverting the cost of human rights to the price of food. Coupled with economic growth, this outsourcing in situ has spurred labor market intermediation and fostered poverty in rural communities; agreement on a farm labor fix has been limited, although not eclipsed, by public contestation over illegal migration.

This thesis examined husband immobility and the international migration of married women from Zimbabwe. Data was collected from husbands and wives in married couple households where the wife had migrated alone. Face-to-face semi structured interviews were conducted with migrant women’s husbands in Zimbabwe while migrant women were interviewed in countries of destination telephonically. Empirical results showed that migrant women and their husbands were middle aged. Preferred countries of destination were in the region and the United Kingdom. Having a wife’s own social contacts in the preferred destination encouraged migration by reducing financial and emotional costs. Husbands' immobility facilitated wifely migration. Many wives exercised agency in migration decision making with more wives than husbands having initiated the discussion on migration. There were also cases of joint and wife sole decision making. With a few exceptions decision making was consensual. The women migrated as a survival strategy. In several households remittances were the primary source of income. Husbands were the main recipients of remittances. Some wives gave instructions on how the remittances should be used. Overall, remittances were used for paying fees, buying assets and for household upkeep. Some of the women had not visited their families since their migration. The physical separation of spouses had caused emotional distress in some marital relationships. The majority of respondents cited loss of consortium as a major problem.
Sociology
D. Phil.

The study investigated the impact of remittances on financial development in Africa using the dynamic generalised methods of moments (GMM) and other panel data analysis methods with data from 2003 to 2015. Using the same econometric estimation methods, the study also explored the influence of the complementarity between remittances and economic growth on financial development in Africa. Literature on the relationship between remittances and financial development is mixed, inconclusive and indecisive. The desire to contribute towards literature on the influence of remittances on financial development in the African context prompted this study. In Africa, personal remittances had an insignificant positive impact on financial development across all the econometric estimation approaches in all the four models, in line with some empirical studies on the subject matter. African countries are urged therefore to avoid wasting their time developing and implementing remittances, foreign aid and human capital development enhancement policies as a way of spearheading financial development. Using both broad money (as % of GDP) and domestic private credit ratio as measures of financial development, the interaction between remittances and economic growth was found to have a non-significant negative effect on financial development in Africa. The policy implication is that Africa needs to avoid over relying on economic growth as a channel through which financial development can happen
Die studie het die impak van betalings op finansiële ontwikkeling in Afrika ondersoek – deur middel van die dinamiese veralgemeende momentemetode (GMM) en ander metodes van paneeldata-ontleding, met data van 2003 tot 2015. Dieselfde ekonometriese beramingsmetodes is ook ingespan om die invloed van die komplementariteite tussen betalings en ekonomiese groei op finansiële ontwikkeling in Afrika te ondersoek. Die literatuur oor die verwantskap tussen betalings en finansiële ontwikkeling is gemeng, onoortuigend en vaag. Die begeerte om tot die literatuur oor die invloed van betalings op finansiële ontwikkeling in die Afrika-konteks by te dra, het tot hierdie studie aanleiding gegee. In Afrika het persoonlike betalings ʼn onbeduidende positiewe impak op finansiële ontwikkeling in al die benaderings tot ekonometriese beraming in al vier modelle gehad, wat strook met sommige empiriese studies oor die onderwerp. Afrika-lande word dus gemaan om nie hul tyd te mors met die ontwikkeling en implementering van betalings en buitelandse hulp en beleide om mensekapitaalontwikkeling te verbeter as ʼn manier om finansiële ontwikkeling te lei nie. Daar is bevind dat sowel breë geldvoorraad (as ʼn persentasie van BBP) en die binnelandse private kredietverhouding as maatstawwe van finansiële ontwikkeling, die wisselwerking tussen betalings, en ekonomiese groei ʼn nie-beduidende negatiewe uitwerking op finansiële ontwikkeling in Afrika het. Die beleidsimplikasie is dat Afrika moet waak teen oorafhanklikheid van ekonomiese groei as ʼn kanaal waardeur finansiële ontwikkeling kan plaasvind.
Ucwaningo beluphenya umthelela wezimali ezibhadalwayo mayelana nokuthuthukiswa komkhakha wezezimali e-Afrika ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezifanayo zezikhathi (GMM) kanye nezinye izindlela zokuhlaziywa idatha yephaneli ngokusebenzisa idatha yonyaka ka 2003 ukufikela ku 2015. Ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezifanayo zohlelo lokulinganisa isimo somnotho (econometric estimation), ucwaningo futhi luye lwahlola umthelela wousebenzisana okuphakathi kwezimali ezibhadalwayo kanye nokuhluma komnotho mayelana nokuthuthukiswa ngezimali e-Afrika. Umbhalo wobuciko mayelana nobudlelwano phakathi kwezimali ezibhadalwayo kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwezinhlaka zezimali uxutshwe ndawonye, awunaso isiphetho futhi awukwazi ukuthatha izinqumo. Isidingo sokufaka igalelo embhalweni wobuciko mayelana nomthelela wezimali ezibhadalwayo kwihlelo lokuthuthukiswa kwezimali ngaphansi kwesizinda sase-Afrika, ykho okuphembelele ukuthi kube nalolu cwaningo. E-Afrika, izimali ezibhadalwa abantu ziye zaba nomthelela omuhle kwintuthuko yezimali kuzo zonke izindlela zokulinganisa izinga lentuthuko yezomnotho kuwo wonke amamodeli amane, ngokuhambisana nezinye izifundo zocwaningo oluphathekayo lwalesi sifundo. Ngalokho-ke amazwe ase-Afrika ayanxenxwa ukuthi agweme ukumosha isikhathi sawo athuthukisana futhi asebenzisa uhlelo lokuthumela izimali futhi agweme ukuqinisa imigomo yoncedo oluvela emazweni angaphandle kanye nokuthuthukisa abantu ngokwamakhono omsebenzi, njengento yokuhlahla indlela yohlelo lokuthuthukiswa kwezimali. Ukusethenziswa kokubili imali ebanzi (njengephesenti le-GDP) kanye njengesilinganiso sesikweletu, phecelezi-domestic private credit ratio sisebenza njengesilinganiso sezinga lokutthuthuka ngokwezimali, ukusebenzisana phakathi kwezimali ezibhadalwayo kanye nokuhluma komnotho kutholakele ukuthi kube nomthelela ongabalulekile omubi phezu kwezinga lentuthuko yezimali e-Afrika. Ngokomgomo lokhu kuchaza ukuthi i-Afrika idinga ukuthi igweme ukwencika kakhulu ukusebenzisa uhlelo lokuthuthukiswa komnotho njengomgudu lapho kungathuthukiswa komnotho.
Financial Accounting
M. Com. (Business Management)

This dissertation was carried out to try to understand the role of social capital in the migration of Zimbabwean migrants to Botswana. It describes elements and types of social capital Zimbabwean undocumented migrants used to come to Botswana. Questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used to obtain data from respondents. Though the influence of macro factors initially pushed migrants to migrate, there was evidence of the existence of social networks. Findings showed the use of social networks by Zimbabwean undocumented migrants. Though kinship networks were dominant in the initial migration stages there was a wane in the destination as migrants reverted to friendship networks for flexibility. Linking existed at both the place of origin and destination. Social control, channelling and negative social capital were discovered among migrants. Migrants developed mechanisms to counter the Botswana’s enforcement policy.
Sociology

M. Tech. Business Administration
The aim of this research is to investigate how immigrant entrepreneurs make use of family support as an enabler for entrepreneurial activity to lead business success. It also looks at the role of the family in the business.

This study aimed to determine the applicability of western migration models to the movement patterns of foreign migrant traders at the Hartebeespoort Dam. After reflecting on theoretical dimensions of migration and the informal sector, an overview was provided of the historical development of migration patterns to and within South Africa. The complex nature of migration phenomena ensures the application of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. A snowball sampling technique was used to select 30 respondents for the purpose of the questionnaire survey. Information obtained from this survey was supplemented by five in-depth interviews. Descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyse the information obtained from the survey. The study concluded that western migration models do not offer adequate explanation for the migration patterns observed among foreign migrant traders at the Hartebeespoort Dam. The study also established the merit of the combined use of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies in migration studies.
Geography
M.A. (Geography)