Journal articles on the topic 'Behavioural processes'
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Kleszczewska-Albińska, Angelika. "Selected cognitive-behavioural models of behavioural addictions." Psychiatria i Psychologia Kliniczna 22, no. 1 (April 29, 2022): 10–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.15557/pipk.2022.0002.
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The paper discusses behavioural addiction in the context of cognitive-behavioural model of therapy. Behavioural addiction can be diagnosed based on the six main criteria: (1) preoccupation with activity, (2) mood modification resulting from involvement in behaviour, (3) increased level of tolerance for the addictive activity, (4) withdrawal symptoms, (5) increased number of conflicts, and (6) relapses. According to research conducted in a representative sample of Polish population aged 15 years and older, the most popular behavioural addictions in our country include workaholism, shopaholism, internet addiction, social media addiction, smartphone addiction, and gambling. Cognitive-behavioural therapy is one of the most effective therapeutic strategies for behavioural addictions. This approach is based mostly on Beck’s and Ellis’s traditional models. The models of cognitive-behavioural therapy include identification of early maladaptive experiences resulting in negative core beliefs. They also refer to psychopathological factors that were developed later in lifetime. Furthermore, they incorporate description of negative automatic thoughts that trigger addictive behaviours, and allow to observe the vicious circle and entanglement in addictive activity, which initially perceived as a way for reducing the tension, used in excess contributes to increased individual’s discomfort. Cognitive-behavioural therapy in behaviourally addicted patients usually includes an analysis of four phases: (1) antecedent phase, (2) triggering phase, (3) the phase of satisfying the needs connected to the addiction, and (4) the phase following the accomplishment of the addictive behaviour. Cognitive-behavioural therapy includes various methods of work based on the knowledge about cognitive processes. Interventions in this approach are structuralised and limited in time. There are three basic phases of cognitive-behavioural therapy: (1) behaviour modification, (2) cognitive restructuring, and (3) harm reduction.
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Corr, Philip J. "Automatic and Controlled Processes in Behavioural Control: Implications for Personality Psychology." European Journal of Personality 24, no. 5 (August 2010): 376–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.779.
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This paper highlights a number of unresolved theoretical issues that, it is argued, continue to impede the construction of a viable model of behavioural control in personality psychology. It is contended that, in order to integrate motivation, emotion, cognition and conscious experience within a coherent framework, two major issues need to be recognised: (a) the relationship between automatic (reflexive) and controlled (reflective) processing and (b) the lateness of controlled processing (including the generation of conscious awareness)—phenomenally, such processing seems to ‘control’ behaviour, but experimentally it can be shown to postdate the behaviour it represents. The implications of these two major issues are outlined, centred on the need to integrate theoretical perspectives within personality psychology, as well as the greater unification of personality psychology with general psychology. A model of behavioural control is sketched, formulated around the concept of the behavioural inhibition system (BIS), which accounts for: (a) why certain stimuli are extracted for controlled processing (i.e. those that are not ‘going to plan’, as detected by an error mechanism) and (b) the function of controlled processing (including conscious awareness) in terms of adjusting the cybernetic weights of automatic processes (which are always in control of immediate behaviour) which, then, influence future automatically controlled behaviour. The relevance of this model is illustrated in relation to a number of topics in personality psychology, as well related issues of free–will and difficult–to–control behaviours. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Rodgers and Cooper. "Endorphins, Opiates and Behavioural Processes." International Clinical Psychopharmacology 5, no. 4 (October 1990): 295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-199010000-00008.
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Robbins, Trevor. "Endorphins, opiates and behavioural processes." Biological Psychology 31, no. 2 (October 1990): 193–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-0511(90)90017-q.
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Voorhoeve, P. E. "Endorphins, opiates and behavioural processes." Journal of the Neurological Sciences 86, no. 1 (August 1988): 112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-510x(88)90012-3.
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A.J. Goudie, Dr. "Endorphins, opiates and behavioural processes." Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 9, no. 8 (August 1988): 305–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-6147(88)90017-x.
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Guilbaud, G. "Endorphins, opiates and behavioural processes." Neuropsychologia 27, no. 3 (January 1989): 373–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(89)90027-4.
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Hill, R. G. "Endorphins, opiates and behavioural processes." Pain 35, no. 2 (November 1988): 237–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(88)90271-0.
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Ewert, Benjamin, Kathrin Loer, and Eva Thomann. "Beyond nudge: advancing the state-of-the-art of behavioural public policy and administration." Policy & Politics 49, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 3–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/030557320x15987279194319.
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This Special Issue features theoretical, methodological, and empirical advancements of the state-of-the-art in behavioural public policy and administration. In this introduction, we develop a behaviourally-informed, integrated conceptual model of the policy process that embeds individual attitudes and behaviour into context at the meso and macro level. We argue that behavioural approaches can be situated within a broader tradition of methodological individualism. Despite focusing on the micro level of policy processes, the contributions in this issue demonstrate that the behavioural study of public policy and administration can go beyond the individual level and give important insights into policy and societal outcomes. Our model enables us to draw more substantial lessons from behavioural research by moving beyond the verification of individual behaviour change. If based on a broad conceptual design and methodological pluralism, behavioural policies bear the potential to better understand, investigate and shape social outcomes.
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Herrera, James, and Charles L. Nunn. "Behavioural ecology and infectious disease: implications for conservation of biodiversity." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374, no. 1781 (July 29, 2019): 20180054. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0054.
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Behaviour underpins interactions among conspecifics and between species, with consequences for the transmission of disease-causing parasites. Because many parasites lead to declines in population size and increased risk of extinction for threatened species, understanding the link between host behaviour and disease transmission is particularly important for conservation management. Here, we consider the intersection of behaviour, ecology and parasite transmission, broadly encompassing micro- and macroparasites. We focus on behaviours that have direct impacts on transmission, as well as the behaviours that result from infection. Given the important role of parasites in host survival and reproduction, the effects of behaviour on parasitism can scale up to population-level processes, thus affecting species conservation. Understanding how conservation and infectious disease control strategies actually affect transmission potential can therefore often only be understood through a behavioural lens. We highlight how behavioural perspectives of disease ecology apply to conservation by reviewing the different ways that behavioural ecology influences parasite transmission and conservation goals. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation’.
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Schaller, Mark. "The behavioural immune system and the psychology of human sociality." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1583 (December 12, 2011): 3418–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0029.
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Because immunological defence against pathogens is costly and merely reactive, human anti-pathogen defence is also characterized by proactive behavioural mechanisms that inhibit contact with pathogens in the first place. This behavioural immune system comprises psychological processes that infer infection risk from perceptual cues, and that respond to these perceptual cues through the activation of aversive emotions, cognitions and behavioural impulses. These processes are engaged flexibly, producing context–contingent variation in the nature and magnitude of aversive responses. These processes have important implications for human social cognition and social behaviour—including implications for social gregariousness, person perception, intergroup prejudice, mate preferences, sexual behaviour and conformity. Empirical evidence bearing on these many implications is reviewed and discussed. This review also identifies important directions for future research on the human behavioural immune system—including the need for enquiry into underlying mechanisms, additional behavioural consequences and implications for human health and well-being.
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Bouhuys, A. L., E. Geerts, P. P. A. Mersch, and J. A. Jenner. "An interpersonal view on depression." Acta Neuropsychiatrica 7, no. 2 (June 1995): 30–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0924270800037480.
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Cognitive and behavioural processes may constitute a risk for onset and persistence of depression. People who become depressed frequently show enduring negative cognitions which predispose them to depression. In addition, interpersonal processes are supposed to contribute to the etiology and maintenance of depression. Depression-prone persons are presumed to display deficient or problematic social behaviours that elicit negative reactions in others, finally resulting in withdrawal by family and friends.About 60% of human communication is non-verbal. An ethological approach may therefore contribute to reveal behavioural and cognitive vulnerability factors for depression onset or persistence. Various studies support this presumption: High levels of patients' observed behaviour indicating involvement in the interaction between depressives and clinicians at admission are related with persistence of depression.
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Leach, David J. "The Contribution of Behavioural Approaches to Children's Education and Development." Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist 8, no. 1 (May 1991): 14–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s081651220002633x.
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Behavioural approaches to instructional consultation, problem-solving and teaching children have their base in operant psychology. In their modern forms they appear variously under labels such as Applied Behaviour Analysis (Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1986), Direct Instruction (Englemann & Carnine, 1982) and Precision Teaching (Haring, Lovitt, Eaton & Hansen, 1978). They involve the systematic application of scientifically-based processes and procedures which produce learning to a sequence of chosen facts and concepts (‘knowing about’) and behaviours and skills (‘knowing how’). Three illustrative intervention studies which highlight some key characteristics of behavioural approaches to working with children are presented. These permit useful comparisons between a behavioural approach and some current ‘developmental’ and ‘educational’ orientations.
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Horrell, Ian, and Jane Hodgson. "Behavioural Processes underlying Retardation of Growth in Fostered Piglets." Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Production (1972) 1986 (March 1986): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0308229600015294.
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Fostering piglets at 7 days of aye influences the behaviour of ootn piglets and foster sow in many ways (ilorrell, 1932) and retards growth over the next week (Horrell & Bennett, 1981). The growth retardation is persistent and can occur to lesser degree in piglets fostered at 1 day and in resident piglets in the recipient litter (Horrell, Hodgson & LUNB, 1985). This investigation was designed to determine (a) tne behavioural effects in greater detail, and (b) the behavioural mechanisms retardation underlying the growth Pairs of sows-(Landrace/Large White derived hyurid) which had farrowed 3-12 piglets within 14 h of each other had equal numbers of piglets exchangeu between them. They were then observed for 3 n immediately afterwards and for 1.5 h on each of 1, 3 and 7 d later.
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Golab, Maria J., Szymon Sniegula, and Tomas Brodin. "Cross-Latitude Behavioural Axis in an Adult Damselfly Calopteryx splendens (Harris, 1780)." Insects 13, no. 4 (March 31, 2022): 342. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13040342.
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Behavioural variation is important for evolutionary and ecological processes, but can also be useful when predicting consequences of climate change and effects on species ranges. Latitudinal differences in behaviour have received relatively limited research interest when compared to morphological, life history and physiological traits. This study examined differences in expression of three behavioural axes: activity, courtship and boldness, and their correlations, along a European latitudinal gradient spanning ca. 1500 km. The study organism was the temperate damselfly Calopteryx splendens (Harris). We predicted that the expression of both behavioural traits and behavioural syndromes would be positively correlated to latitude, with the lowest values in the southern populations, followed by central and the highest in the north, because animals usually compensate behaviourally for increasing time constraints and declining environmental conditions. We found that behavioural expression varied along the latitudinal cline, although not always in the predicted direction. Activity was the only behaviour that followed our prediction and gradually increased northward. Whereas no south-to-north gradient was seen in any of the behavioural syndromes. The results, particularly for activity, suggest that climatic differences across latitudes change behavioural profiles. However, for other traits such as courtship and boldness, local factors might invoke stronger selection pressures, disrupting the predicted latitudinal pattern.
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Bro-Jørgensen, Jakob, Daniel W. Franks, and Kristine Meise. "Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374, no. 1781 (July 29, 2019): 20190008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0008.
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The impact of environmental change on the reproduction and survival of wildlife is often behaviourally mediated, placing behavioural ecology in a central position to quantify population- and community-level consequences of anthropogenic threats to biodiversity. This theme issue demonstrates how recent conceptual and methodological advances in the discipline are applied to inform conservation. The issue highlights how the focus in behavioural ecology on understanding variation in behaviour between individuals, rather than just measuring the population mean, is critical to explaining demographic stochasticity and thereby reducing fuzziness of population models. The contributions also show the importance of knowing the mechanisms by which behaviour is achieved, i.e. the role of learning, reasoning and instincts, in order to understand how behaviours change in human-modified environments, where their function is less likely to be adaptive. More recent work has thus abandoned the ‘adaptationist’ paradigm of early behavioural ecology and increasingly measures evolutionary processes directly by quantifying selection gradients and phenotypic plasticity. To support quantitative predictions at the population and community levels, a rich arsenal of modelling techniques has developed, and interdisciplinary approaches show promising prospects for predicting the effectiveness of alternative management options, with the social sciences, movement ecology and epidemiology particularly pertinent. The theme issue furthermore explores the relevance of behaviour for global threat assessment, and practical advice is given as to how behavioural ecologists can augment their conservation impact by carefully selecting and promoting their study systems, and increasing their engagement with local communities, natural resource managers and policy-makers. Its aim to uncover the nuts and bolts of how natural systems work positions behavioural ecology squarely in the heart of conservation biology, where its perspective offers an all-important complement to more descriptive ‘big-picture’ approaches to priority setting. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation’.
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Gersick, Andrew S., and Daniel I. Rubenstein. "Physiology modulates social flexibility and collective behaviour in equids and other large ungulates." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372, no. 1727 (July 3, 2017): 20160241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0241.
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Though morphologically very similar, equids across the extant species occupy ecological niches that are surprisingly non-overlapping. Occupancy of these distinct niches appears related to subtle physiological and behavioural adaptations which, in turn, correspond to significant differences in the social behaviours and emergent social systems characterizing the different species. Although instances of intraspecific behavioural variation in equids demonstrate that the same body plan can support a range of social structures, each of these morphologically similar species generally shows robust fidelity to its evolved social system. The pattern suggests a subtle relationship between physiological phenotypes and behavioural flexibility. While environmental conditions can vary widely within relatively short temporal or spatial scales, physiological changes and changes to the behaviours that regulate physiological processes, are constrained to longer cycles of adaptation. Physiology is then the limiting variable in the interaction between ecological variation and behavioural and socio-structural flexibility. Behavioural and socio-structural flexibility, in turn, will generate important feedbacks that will govern physiological function, thus creating a coupled web of interactions that can lead to changes in individual and collective behaviour. Longitudinal studies of equid and other large-bodied ungulate populations under environmental stress, such as those discussed here, may offer the best opportunities for researchers to examine, in real time, the interplay between individual behavioural plasticity, socio-structural flexibility, and the physiological and genetic changes that together produce adaptive change. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Physiological determinants of social behaviour in animals’.
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Tyrrell, Zoe. "A cognitive behavioural model for maintaining processes in burnout." Cognitive Behaviour Therapist 3, no. 1 (January 29, 2010): 18–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1754470x10000024.
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AbstractCan a cognitive behavioural approach offer a fresh understanding of the maintaining processes in burnout? This paper considers the enduring nature of burnout symptoms over time. It examines the hypothesis that some of the actions associated with ‘coping’ in burnout may conversely serve to perpetuate burnout symptoms. This model is considered in the context of mental-health workers and is discussed in the light of current research. It implies the need to adopt an approach to burnout that incorporates the challenging of burnout-related cognitions and the elimination of safety behaviours, rather than having a sole focus on self-care strategies.
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No authorship indicated. "Review of Endorphins, Opiates and Behavioural Processes." Contemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews 35, no. 5 (May 1990): 506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/028660.
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Arnot, Megan, Eva Brandl, O. L. K. Campbell, Yuan Chen, Juan Du, Mark Dyble, Emily H. Emmott, et al. "How evolutionary behavioural sciences can help us understand behaviour in a pandemic." Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 2020, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 264–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/emph/eoaa038.
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Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has brought science into the public eye and to the attention of governments more than ever before. Much of this attention is on work in epidemiology, virology and public health, with most behavioural advice in public health focusing squarely on ‘proximate’ determinants of behaviour. While epidemiological models are powerful tools to predict the spread of disease when human behaviour is stable, most do not incorporate behavioural change. The evolutionary basis of our preferences and the cultural evolutionary dynamics of our beliefs drive behavioural change, so understanding these evolutionary processes can help inform individual and government decision-making in the face of a pandemic. Lay summary: The COVID-19 pandemic has brought behavioural sciences into the public eye: Without vaccinations, stopping the spread of the virus must rely on behaviour change by limiting contact between people. On the face of it, “stop seeing people” sounds simple. In practice, this is hard. Here we outline how an evolutionary perspective on behaviour change can provide additional insights. Evolutionary theory postulates that our psychology and behaviour did not evolve to maximize our health or that of others. Instead, individuals are expected to act to maximise their inclusive fitness (i.e, spreading our genes) – which can lead to a conflict between behaviours that are in the best interests for the individual, and behaviours that stop the spread of the virus. By examining the ultimate explanations of behaviour related to pandemic-management (such as behavioural compliance and social distancing), we conclude that “good of the group” arguments and “one size fits all” policies are unlikely to encourage behaviour change over the long-term. Sustained behaviour change to keep pandemics at bay is much more likely to emerge from environmental change, so governments and policy makers may need to facilitate significant social change – such as improving life experiences for disadvantaged groups.
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Hertz, Uri. "Learning how to behave: cognitive learning processes account for asymmetries in adaptation to social norms." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1952 (June 2, 2021): 20210293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.0293.
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Changes to social settings caused by migration, cultural change or pandemics force us to adapt to new social norms. Social norms provide groups of individuals with behavioural prescriptions and therefore can be inferred by observing their behaviour. This work aims to examine how cognitive learning processes affect adaptation and learning of new social norms. Using a multiplayer game, I found that participants initially complied with various social norms exhibited by the behaviour of bot-players. After gaining experience with one norm, adaptation to a new norm was observed in all cases but one, where an active-harm norm was resistant to adaptation. Using computational learning models, I found that active behaviours were learned faster than omissions, and harmful behaviours were more readily attributed to all group members than beneficial behaviours. These results provide a cognitive foundation for learning and adaptation to descriptive norms and can inform future investigations of group-level learning and cross-cultural adaptation.
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Reményi, Tamás. "Prevention and treatment of behavioural and learning disorders with sensory integration therapy." Gyermeknevelés 10, no. 2–3 (October 4, 2022): 86–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.31074/gyntf.2022.3.86.109.
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Sensory integration disorders, which are often hidden in the background of learning and/or behavioural disorders, can cause serious difficulties in the daily activities of the students, in the implementation of learning and/or behaviour. Upon hearing the term ‘sensory integration’, two interpretations appear in the minds of professionals. On interpretation refers to the integration, sensory interconnection coordination and interdependence of sensory systems as a typical, neurological maturation process that provides the basis for subsequent learning and behavioural organisation processes. Based on a second interpretation, ‘sensory integration’ is a therapeutic methodology, diagnostic, and therapeutic procedure that provides assistance to people who are lagging behind in the maturation of sensing systems and perception processes. Learning and/ or behavioural disorders can be caused by impaired information acquisition processes, sensory modulation, and integration in the nervous system. The following study comprehensively presents the diagnostic process and the relationship between the learning and behavioural differences related to sensory integration disorders.
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Riccio, Emanuela, Roberto Cerchione, and Piera Centobelli. "The Application of PLS-SEM in Knowledge Management Processes in Higher Education Institutions." European Conference on Knowledge Management 23, no. 2 (August 25, 2022): 1473–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.34190/eckm.23.2.818.
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This paper aims to investigate knowledge management (KM) processes in higher education institutions and shed light on the factors that influence the dynamics behind these processes. We focused on understanding how the perceptions about the involvement in KM activities can influence two of the knowledge management skills defined in the literature: absorptive capacity and desorptive capacity. Our work is based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour because it has the power to analyse and explain, through its constructs (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control), the attitudes of individuals and their perceptions about the implementation of a particular behaviour. The methodology adopted for the empirical investigation is PLS-SEM (Partial Least Squares -Structural Equation Model). The necessary data was collected through a questionnaire sent by email to the potential academics interviewed. The results suggest that the factor impacting the relationship between KM and absorptive and desorptive capacity processes is the behavioural control perceived by academics. In addition, they demonstrate that the organizational climate within the university is an essential predictor of the behavioural intention of academics. The limitations, including the limited number of respondents and suggestions for future developments, are the conduction of a multi-group analysis and building a second-order PLS (Partial least square) model.
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Caro, Tim, and Joel Berger. "Can behavioural ecologists help establish protected areas?" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374, no. 1781 (July 29, 2019): 20180062. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0062.
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Protecting wild places is conservation's most pressing task given rapid contemporary declines in biodiversity and massive land use changes. We suggest that behavioural ecology has a valuable, albeit limited, role to play in this agenda. Behaviourally based empiricism and modelling, especially of animal movements and habitat preferences have enjoyed wide applicability in delineating reserve boundaries. In protected areas that sanction exploitation, it may also be important to understand individuals' behavioural and life-history responses to management decisions. We also argue, however, that the in-depth studies of behavioural ecologists may have an important role in conservation by elevating species’ status from mundane to charismatic and often sparking public empathy, and their mere presence in field generates local (or broader) intrigue. More generally behavioural ecologists will only be listened to, and their contributions considered of conservation importance, if they become more involved in decision-making processes as witnessed by several prominent examples that have supported the establishment of protected areas. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation’.
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Soman, Dilip. "Human Resource Management: For Humans." NHRD Network Journal 14, no. 2 (February 14, 2021): 173–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2631454120982115.
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Marketing departments, governments and policymakers all around the world have increasingly started embracing the field of behavioural sciences in improving the design of products and services, enhancing communications, improving managerial decision-making, encouraging desired behaviour by stakeholders and, more generally, creating a human-centric marketplace. Within organisations, the human resources management (HRM) function is perhaps the one place that acknowledges that humans are central to the organisation’s success, so it is critical that HRM too actively embraces the insights and methods of behavioural sciences. In this article, I provide an overview of the behavioural sciences, discuss how HRM can benefit from an in-depth knowledge of the science and illustrate specific examples from recruitment processes, training and communications, incentive design, employee-oriented processes, and diversity and inclusion initiatives that could benefit from evidence from behavioural sciences.
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Wells, Amy E., Laura M. Hunnikin, Daniel P. Ash, and Stephanie H. M. van Goozen. "Children with Behavioural Problems Misinterpret the Emotions and Intentions of Others." Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 48, no. 2 (November 4, 2019): 213–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00594-7.
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Abstract Research indicates that the misinterpretation of other’s emotions or intentions may lead to antisocial behaviour. This study investigated emotion and intention recognition in children with behavioural problems and examined their relationship and relations with behaviour problem severity. Participants were 7–11 year old children with behavioural problems (n = 93, mean age: 8.78, 82.8% male) who were taking part in an early intervention program and typically developing controls (n = 44, mean age: 9.82, 79.5% male). Participants completed emotion recognition and Theory of Mind tasks. Teachers and parents rated children’s emotional and behavioural problems. Children with behavioural problems showed impaired emotion and intention recognition. Emotion recognition and intention recognition were positively related and inversely associated with behavioural problem severity and, independently of one another, predicted behavioural problems. This study is the first to show that children with behavioural problems are impaired in identifying others’ emotions as well as intentions. These social cognitive processes were found to be related and inversely associated with severity of behavioural problems. This has important implications for intervention and prevention programmes for children with behavioural difficulties.
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Bloch, Guy, and Christina M. Grozinger. "Social molecular pathways and the evolution of bee societies." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1574 (July 27, 2011): 2155–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0346.
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Bees provide an excellent model with which to study the neuronal and molecular modifications associated with the evolution of sociality because relatively closely related species differ profoundly in social behaviour, from solitary to highly social. The recent development of powerful genomic tools and resources has set the stage for studying the social behaviour of bees in molecular terms. We review ‘ground plan’ and ‘genetic toolkit’ models which hypothesize that discrete pathways or sets of genes that regulate fundamental behavioural and physiological processes in solitary species have been co-opted to regulate complex social behaviours in social species. We further develop these models and propose that these conserved pathways and genes may be incorporated into ‘social pathways’, which consist of relatively independent modules involved in social signal detection, integration and processing within the nervous and endocrine systems, and subsequent behavioural outputs. Modifications within modules or in their connections result in the evolution of novel behavioural patterns. We describe how the evolution of pheromonal regulation of social pathways may lead to the expression of behaviour under new social contexts, and review plasticity in circadian rhythms as an example for a social pathway with a modular structure.
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Van den Bergh, Roger, and Shilpi Bhattacharya. "The Contribution of Management Studies to Understanding Firm Behaviour and Competition Law." World Competition 37, Issue 4 (December 1, 2014): 517–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/woco2014046.
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Notwithstanding criticisms, behavioural economics has found a place in competition policy discussions. This paper explores how contributions from the field of management studies may strengthen behavioural theories of the firm and competition law. Various linkages may be drawn between management studies and the behavioural theory of the firm, which can inform existing debates within behavioural antitrust. Both disciplines relate a firm's internal processes to its competitive position in the market. Further, both disciplines emphasize the cognitive limitations of managers and the effect of organizational structures on firm behaviour. The empirical findings of management studies supplement behavioural theories of the firm. This paper examines the insights from management studies and behavioural theories of the firm with the objective of determining whether these insights can lead to a better understanding of firm behaviour, which in turn may be able to inform the normative debate in competition law.
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NYBERG, FRED, and CHRISTER LARSSON. "β-CASOMORPHINS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES." Clinical Neuropharmacology 15 (1992): 54A—55A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002826-199201001-00030.
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Turley, Stuart, and Mahbub Zaman. "Audit committee effectiveness: informal processes and behavioural effects." Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 20, no. 5 (September 18, 2007): 765–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513570710779036.
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Cools, Roshan, Angela C. Roberts, and Trevor W. Robbins. "Serotoninergic regulation of emotional and behavioural control processes." Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12, no. 1 (January 2008): 31–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.10.011.
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Hart, Daniel, Debra Burock, Bonita London, Robert Atkins, and Gloria Bonilla‐Santiago. "The relation of personality types to physiological, behavioural, and cognitive processes." European Journal of Personality 19, no. 5 (August 2005): 391–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.547.
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Three personality types, labeled resilient, over‐controlled, and under‐controlled, were identified through cluster analysis of classroom observations of 63 children, and used to understand biological, cognitive, and behavioural processes that influence academic achievement and aggression. Resilient children were found to be high in trait cortisol and high in academic achievement. Under‐controlled and over‐controlled children showed the greatest change in cortisol levels under stress, low levels of academic achievement, and attributed hostility to others in ambiguous situations. Under‐controlled children also exhibited high levels of externalizing behaviour in the classroom. The findings suggest that the single processes or traits assessed in this study do not mediate the associations of personality types to academic achievement and behaviour. The implications of the findings for the personality type construct and for personality processes are discussed. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Naspi, Federica, Marco Arnesano, Francesca Stazi, Marco D’Orazio, and Gian Marco Revel. "Measuring Occupants’ Behaviour for Buildings’ Dynamic Cosimulation." Journal of Sensors 2018 (November 26, 2018): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/2756542.
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Measuring and identifying human behaviours are key aspects to support the simulation processes that have a significant role in buildings’ (and cities’) design and management. In fact, layout assessments and control strategies are deeply influenced by the prediction of building performance. However, the missing inclusion of the human component within the building-related processes leads to large discrepancies between actual and simulated outcomes. This paper presents a methodology for measuring specific human behaviours in buildings and developing human-in-the-loop design applied to retrofit and renovation interventions. The framework concerns the detailed building monitoring and the development of stochastic and data-driven behavioural models and their coupling within energy simulation software using a cosimulation approach. The methodology has been applied to a real case study to illustrate its applicability. A one-year monitoring has been carried out through a dedicated sensor network for the data recording and to identify the triggers of users’ actions. Then, two stochastic behavioural models (i.e., one for predicting light switching and one for window opening) have been developed (using the measured data) and coupled within the IESVE simulation software. A simplified energy model of the case study has been created to test the behavioural approach. The outcomes highlight that the behavioural approach provides more accurate results than a standard one when compared to real profiles. The adoption of behavioural profiles leads to a reduction of the discrepancy with respect to real profiles up to 58% and 26% when simulating light switching and ventilation, respectively, in comparison to standard profiles. Using data-driven techniques to include the human component in the simulation processes would lead to better predictions both in terms of energy use and occupants’ comfort sensations. These aspects can be also included in building control processes (e.g., building management systems) to enhance the environmental and system management.
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Wrzus, Cornelia, and Matthias R. Mehl. "Lab And/Or Field? Measuring Personality Processes and Their Social Consequences." European Journal of Personality 29, no. 2 (March 2015): 250–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.1986.
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How can researchers study personality processes and their social consequences? In our methodology overview, we first introduce ambulatory assessment methods, which repeatedly measure experiences, physiology and behaviour in people's daily lives based on real–time assessments of self–reports, physiological activity and behavioural observations. Then, we describe methods suitable for assessing personality processes in laboratory settings: self–reports on interpersonal perception, physiological measurements and behavioural observation. We discuss the combination of field and laboratory assessment methods based on their respective strengths and limitations and then highlight ethical issues surrounding the use of these methods. Finally, we propose future avenues for how developments in mobile technology can be used to advance personality research. The increasing availability and the decreasing costs of smartphones, wearable sensors and Internet connectivity offer unique potentials for further understanding the processes underlying how personality exerts broad and important social consequences. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
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Saunders, Benjamin T., Jocelyn M. Richard, and Patricia H. Janak. "Contemporary approaches to neural circuit manipulation and mapping: focus on reward and addiction." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 370, no. 1677 (September 19, 2015): 20140210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0210.
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Tying complex psychological processes to precisely defined neural circuits is a major goal of systems and behavioural neuroscience. This is critical for understanding adaptive behaviour, and also how neural systems are altered in states of psychopathology, such as addiction. Efforts to relate psychological processes relevant to addiction to activity within defined neural circuits have been complicated by neural heterogeneity. Recent advances in technology allow for manipulation and mapping of genetically and anatomically defined neurons, which when used in concert with sophisticated behavioural models, have the potential to provide great insight into neural circuit bases of behaviour. Here we discuss contemporary approaches for understanding reward and addiction, with a focus on midbrain dopamine and cortico-striato-pallidal circuits.
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McLennan, D. A., Daniel R. Brooks, and J. D. McPhail. "The benefits of communication between comparative ethology and phylogenetic systematics: a case study using gasterosteid fishes." Canadian Journal of Zoology 66, no. 10 (October 1, 1988): 2177–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z88-325.
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Early comparative ethologists stressed both phylogenetic (historical) and environmental (selection) factors when searching for explanations of behavioural evolution. The last two decades have witnessed a narrowing of ethologists' evolutionary perspective to questions concerning environmentally based maintenance of behaviours. This approach, with its reliance on subjective, a priori assumptions concerning the temporal sequence of ethological modifications, dissociates character evolution from underlying phylogenetic relationships. This, in turn, is responsible for the tendency of many researchers to confuse character maintenance (stasis) with character origin and divergence (evolution). The decline of phylogenetically based explanations of behavioural evolution is mirrored by the decline in the utilization of behavioural data in systematic analyses. Yet, since behaviour is closely intertwined with development, physiology, and morphology and thus subject to the same evolutionary processes and constraints, it should change in ways that reflect underlying phylogenetic relationships. Communication between comparative ethologists and systematists is restricted. As an example of the potential benefits of interdisciplinary communication, a phylogenetic systematic analysis of the teleostean family Gasterosteidae (sticklebacks) based solely upon behavioural characters is presented. The phylogenetic tree derived from this analysis has a consistency index of 90.3%. In this particular case, the behavioural data provide a less ambiguous picture than the morphological data. The phylogenetic tree, in turn, is a hypothesis of the temporal sequence of behavioural evolution. From this hypothesis, it is possible to trace the origin, divergence, and interrelationships of agonistic, sexual, and parental behaviours in gasterosteids, and to compare this macroevolutionary patterning with predictions of character evolution based on microevolutionary studies. Examination of behavioural evolution within a phylogenetic framework provides a more robust characterization of evolutionary history. By analyzing and comparing structural (biochemical, morphological) and functional (ecological, behavioural) aspects of the phenotype, future phylogenetic studies will enable us to develop a more comprehensive picture of the patterns of biological evolution.
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Montes-Gonzalez, F., T. J. Prescott, and J. Negrete-Martinez. "Minimizing Human Intervention in the Development of Basal Ganglia-Inspired Robot Control." Applied Bionics and Biomechanics 4, no. 3 (2007): 101–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2007/751842.
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A biologically inspired mechanism for robot action selection, based on the vertebrate basal ganglia, has been previously presented (Prescottet al. 2006, Montes Gonzalezet al. 2000). In this model the task confronting the robot is decomposed into distinct behavioural modules that integrate information from multiple sensors and internal state to form ‘salience’ signals. These signals are provided as inputs to a computational model of the basal ganglia whose intrinsic processes cause the selection by disinhibition of a winning behaviour. This winner is then allowed access to the motor plant whilst losing behaviours are suppressed. In previous research we have focused on the development of this biomimetic selection architecture, and have therefore used behavioural modules that were hand-coded as algorithmic procedures. In the current article, we demonstrate the use of genetic algorithms and gradient–descent learning to automatically generate/tune some of the modules that generate the model behaviour.
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Toates, Frederick. "On giving a more active and selective role to consciousness." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18, no. 4 (December 1995): 700–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00040668.
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AbstractAn active role for conscious processes in the production of behaviour is proposed, involving top level controls in a hierarchy of behavioural control. It is suggested that by inhibiting or sensitizing lower levels in the hierarchy conscious processes can play a role in the organization of ongoing behaviour. Conscious control can be more or less evident, according to prevailing circumstances.
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Fernández, Tomás, Alex Lancaster, Claudio A. Moraga, Sergio Radic-Schilling, Achaz von Hardenberg, and Paulo Corti. "Behavioural Indicators of Intra- and Inter-Specific Competition: Sheep Co-Grazing with Guanaco in the Patagonian Steppe." Animals 11, no. 11 (November 22, 2021): 3333. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11113333.
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In extensive livestock production, high densities may inhibit regulation processes, maintaining high levels of intraspecific competition over time. During competition, individuals typically modify their behaviours, particularly feeding and bite rates, which can therefore be used as indicators of competition. Over eight consecutive seasons, we investigated if variation in herd density, food availability, and the presence of a potential competitor, the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), was related with behavioural changes in domestic sheep in Chilean Patagonia. Focal sampling, instantaneous scan sampling, measures of bite and movement rates were used to quantify behavioural changes in domestic sheep. We found that food availability increased time spent feeding, while herd density was associated with an increase in vigilant behaviour and a decrease in bite rate, but only when food availability was low. Guanaco presence appeared to have no impact on sheep behaviour. Our results suggest that the observed behavioural changes in domestic sheep are more likely due to intraspecific competition rather than interspecific competition. Consideration of intraspecific competition where guanaco and sheep co-graze on pastures could allow management strategies to focus on herd density, according to rangeland carrying capacity.
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Dion, Emilie, Sarah Erika Polin, Jean-Christophe Simon, and Yannick Outreman. "Symbiont infection affects aphid defensive behaviours." Biology Letters 7, no. 5 (April 13, 2011): 743–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0249.
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Aphids harbour both an obligate bacterial symbiont, Buchnera aphidicola , and a wide range of facultative ones. Facultative symbionts can modify morphological, developmental and physiological host traits that favour their spread within aphid populations. We experimentally investigated the idea that symbionts may also modify aphid behavioural traits to enhance their transmission. Aphids exhibit many behavioural defences against enemies. Despite their benefits, these behaviours have some associated costs leading to reduction in aphid reproduction. Some aphid individuals harbour a facultative symbiont Hamiltonella defensa that provides protection against parasitoids. By analysing aphid behaviours in the presence of parasitoids, we showed that aphids infected with H. defensa exhibited reduced aggressiveness and escape reactions compared with uninfected aphids. The aphid and the symbiont have both benefited from these behavioural changes: both partners reduced the fitness decrements associated with the behavioural defences. Such symbiont-induced changes of behavioural defences may have consequences for coevolutionary processes between host organisms and their enemies.
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Martin, Paul R. "Trends in Behaviour Therapy: Progression or Regression?" Behaviour Change 2, no. 2 (June 1985): 119–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0813483900008937.
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Trends in behaviour therapy are considered from the advent of cognitive behaviour modification to the more recently suggested emphases on affective and unconscious processes. The thrust towards integrating different schools of psychotherapy is also briefly reviewed. The gains and losses associated with the trends are discussed. Some suggestions for the future are offered with respect to potentially profitable directions for behaviourally orientated researchers, practitioners and teachers to follow. A general theme of the paper is that behaviour therapy appears to be fractionating at an accelerating rate, and whilst this carries the potential for some very significant advances, it also carries the potential for destroying the unique contribution of the behavioural approach.
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O'Neill, Sue, and Jennifer Stephenson. "Teacher Involvement in the Development of Function-Based Behaviour Intervention Plans for Students With Challenging Behaviour." Australasian Journal of Special Education 33, no. 1 (August 1, 2009): 6–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/ajse.33.1.6.
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AbstractThis article examines literature published since 1997 on functional behaviour assessment (FBA) and behaviour intervention plans (BIPs), involving school-based personnel, for children identified as having or being at risk of emotional/behavioural disorder (E/BD) in school settings. Of interest was the level of involvement of school-based personnel in the FBA and BIP processes, intervention efficacy, the social validity of assessment and intervention, and intervention treatment integrity. Results indicate that involvement of school-based personnel in all FBA processes and BIP design was not common practice. FBA-based BIPs were found to be effective in reducing problem behaviours targeted for change for the majority of student participants. Social validity and treatment integrity measures, when reported, were high. Issues of training and barriers to successful application are discussed.
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Lay, Belinda Po Pyn, and Shaun Yon-Seng Khoo. "Associative processes in addiction relapse models: A review of their Pavlovian and instrumental mechanisms, history, and terminology." Neuroanatomy and Behaviour 3 (February 23, 2021): e18. http://dx.doi.org/10.35430/nab.2021.e18.
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Animal models of relapse to drug-seeking have borrowed heavily from associative learning approaches. In studies of relapse-like behaviour, animals learn to self-administer drugs then receive a period of extinction during which they learn to inhibit the operant response. Several triggers can produce a recovery of responding which form the basis of a variety of models. These include the passage of time (spontaneous recovery), drug availability (rapid reacquisition), extinction of an alternative response (resurgence), context change (renewal), drug priming, stress, and cues (reinstatement). In most cases, the behavioural processes driving extinction and recovery in operant drug self-administration studies are similar to those in the Pavlovian and behavioural literature, such as context effects. However, reinstatement in addiction studies have several differences with Pavlovian reinstatement, which have emerged over several decades, in experimental procedures, associative mechanisms, and terminology. Interestingly, in cue-induced reinstatement, drug-paired cues that are present during acquisition are omitted during lever extinction. The unextinguished drug-paired cue may limit the model’s translational relevance to cue exposure therapy and renders its underlying associative mechanisms ambiguous. We review major behavioural theories that explain recovery phenomena, with a particular focus on cue-induced reinstatement because it is a widely used model in addiction. We argue that cue-induced reinstatement may be explained by a combination of behavioural processes, including reacquisition of conditioned reinforcement and Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer. While there are important differences between addiction studies and the behavioural literature in terminology and procedures, it is clear that understanding associative learning processes is essential for studying relapse.
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Cuthill, Innes. "The study of function in behavioural ecology." Animal Biology 55, no. 4 (2005): 399–417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157075605774840923.
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AbstractIn 1963, a landmark paper by Niko Tinbergen laid out the aims and methods of ethology and, in so doing, extended and clarified Julian Huxley's classification of the different ways in which one can investigate biological processes. I discuss the status of one of these "four Why questions", that of function or survival value, and the relationship of Tinbergen's ethology to behavioural ecology, the main field asking functional questions about animal behaviour today. Function itself can be defined in many different ways and behavioural ecologists themselves use it both in the context of current utility and selective history. I review these definitions in the light of analyses by philosophers of science, behavioural ecologists and, of course, Tinbergen's own use of the word. I defend the view, accepted by many philosophers of science, that the definition of 'function' must have a historical component, both to avoid teleology and to retain the everyday sense of questioning 'What is it for?' That said, in reviewing the different methods that can be used to determine function, I defend the view that investigations of current utility, as practised by behavioural ecologists, can provide the most important clues to the selective forces that have shaped behaviours. Finally, I consider the evolution of the discipline of behavioural ecology, its current status and future prospects.
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Dzyakau, D. R. "CULTURAL-HISTORICAL APPROACH AS A METHODOLOGICAL BASIS FOR COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOTHERAPY." Ukrainian Psychological Journal, no. 1 (13) (2020): 72–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/upj.2020.1(13).5.
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The article argues that the methodology applied by the cultural-historical approach and cognitive behavioural psychotherapy reveals uniformity of their ideas about an object, methods and units of analysis of the psyche. Cognitive behavioural psychotherapy, as well as cultural-historical psychology, understands development as acquisition of cultural methods, tools for substantive, communicative and intellectual tasks, mastering of thinking and mental activities as a whole and internalizing these tools. This goal is realized through specially organized education. From the point of view of cultural-historical psychology, psychological problems and disorders are rightly regarded as lack of instruments for organization, as well as self-regulation of an individual’s mental activities and behaviour, and psychotherapy is a method for compensation of revealed corresponding deficit. The strategic goal of cognitive behavioural therapy is the formation of an arsenal of psychological and behavioural tools improving an individual’s self-regulation. At the same time such therapy realizes the basic provisions of L.S. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical approach: the ideas of a dynamically developing unity of intellect and affect, the central role of mental activity and its internalization during personal development. The ways of managing thoughts, optimizing it, testing thoughts, beliefs, the methods detecting cognitive distortions, planning and modelling behavioural changes, the ways of emotional self-regulation can be regarded as cultural tools optimizing human mental processes and behaviour, forming awareness and arbitrariness of these processes. The article substantiates that the development of a cognitive behavioural model helps take into account and specifically reorganize the influence of an individual’s own thoughts on him/her for his/her benefit.
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Wallace, Douglas G., and Stephen B. Fountain. "An Associative Model of Rat Serial Pattern Learning in Three-Element Sequences." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B 56, no. 3b (August 2003): 301–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724990244000304.
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Hypotheses ranging from subsymbolic to symbolic have been proposed to account for rat sequential behaviour, and in the subsymbolic domain alone there are multiple proposed subsymbolic processes or factors thought to affect serial behaviour. A behavioural study and computer simulations were conducted to evaluate these hypotheses, and a new computational associative model based on pairwise associations and generalization was evaluated. Seven 3-element sequences were selected for study that systematically (1) varied sequence discriminability, (2) varied reward magnitude, and (3) manipulated the order of food quantities. Neither element discriminability nor response enhancement subsymbolic processes in isolation were able to account for the behavioural data; however, simulations from the computational model known as the sequential pairwise associative memory (SPAM) model with a log-linear mapping of stimulus dimension items to food quantities correlated well with the behavioural data. SPAM accounts for differential element anticipation in different sequences by appealing to pairwise association of sequence events and generalization between cues as the principal factors mediating pattern tracking in three-element sequences.
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Seth, Anil K. "The ecology of action selection: insights from artificial life." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 362, no. 1485 (April 11, 2007): 1545–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2052.
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The problem of action selection has two components: what is selected and how is it selected? To understand what is selected, it is necessary to distinguish between behavioural and mechanistic levels of description. Animals do not choose between behaviours per se ; rather, behaviour reflects interactions among brains, bodies and environments. To understand what guides selection, it is useful to take a normative perspective that evaluates behaviour in terms of a fitness metric. This perspective, rooted in behavioural ecology, can be especially useful for understanding apparently irrational choice behaviour. This paper describes a series of models that use artificial life (AL) techniques to address the above issues. We show that successful action selection can arise from the joint activity of parallel, loosely coupled sensorimotor processes. We define a class of AL models that help to bridge the ecological approaches of normative modelling and agent- or individual-based modelling (IBM). Finally, we show how an instance of apparently suboptimal decision making, the matching law, can be accounted for by adaptation to competitive foraging environments.
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Vermeir, Iris, and Gudrun Roose. "Visual Design Cues Impacting Food Choice: A Review and Future Research Agenda." Foods 9, no. 10 (October 19, 2020): 1495. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods9101495.
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This review aims to tackle the challenge of understanding how visual design cues can affect behavioural outcomes in a food context. The review answers two key questions: (1) What are the effects of the most important visual design cues on behavioural outcomes and how can they be explained? (2) What are the research gaps in this area? We start from a comprehensive taxonomy of visual design cues delineating the most important visual design cues. Next, we evaluate the extant research based on a structured, narrative literature review on visual design cues in the food domain. We differentiate between object processed and spatially processed visual design cues in food choice contexts and show how they affect behavioural outcomes through a range of psychological processes (attention, affective-, cognitive- and motivational reactions, food perceptions and attitudes). We end with recommendations which take into account the current food store context, the state-of-art in measuring psychological processes and behavioural outcomes and the specific food-, person- and context-related moderators. This review offers guidance for research to untangle the complexity of the effect of visual design cues in a food choice context.
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Rafferty, Anna N., Matei Zaharia, and Thomas L. Griffiths. "Optimally designing games for behavioural research." Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 470, no. 2167 (July 8, 2014): 20130828. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2013.0828.
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Computer games can be motivating and engaging experiences that facilitate learning, leading to their increasing use in education and behavioural experiments. For these applications, it is often important to make inferences about the knowledge and cognitive processes of players based on their behaviour. However, designing games that provide useful behavioural data are a difficult task that typically requires significant trial and error. We address this issue by creating a new formal framework that extends optimal experiment design, used in statistics, to apply to game design. In this framework, we use Markov decision processes to model players' actions within a game, and then make inferences about the parameters of a cognitive model from these actions. Using a variety of concept learning games, we show that in practice, this method can predict which games will result in better estimates of the parameters of interest. The best games require only half as many players to attain the same level of precision.
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Schweinfurth, Manon K., and Josep Call. "Reciprocity: Different behavioural strategies, cognitive mechanisms and psychological processes." Learning & Behavior 47, no. 4 (November 1, 2019): 284–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13420-019-00394-5.
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Abstract Reciprocity is probably one of the most debated theories in evolutionary research. After more than 40 years of research, some scientists conclude that reciprocity is an almost uniquely human trait mainly because it is cognitively demanding. Others, however, conclude that reciprocity is widespread and of great importance to many species. Yet, it is unclear how these species reciprocate, given its apparent cognitive complexity. Therefore, our aim was to unravel the psychological processes underlying reciprocity. By bringing together findings from studies investigating different aspects of reciprocity, we show that reciprocity is a rich concept with different behavioural strategies and cognitive mechanisms that require very different psychological processes. We reviewed evidence from three textbook examples, i.e. the Norway rat, common vampire bat and brown capuchin monkey, and show that the species use different strategies and mechanisms to reciprocate. We continue by examining the psychological processes of reciprocity. We show that the cognitive load varies between different forms of reciprocity. Several factors can lower the memory demands of reciprocity such as distinctiveness of encounters, memory of details and network size. Furthermore, there are different information operation systems in place, which also vary in their cognitive load due to assessing the number of encounters and the quality and quantity of help. We conclude that many species possess the psychological processes to show some form of reciprocity. Hence, reciprocity might be a widespread phenomenon that varies in terms of strategies and mechanisms.