Academic literature on the topic 'Bearded dragons'

Isospora amphiboluri is a common coccidian found in captive bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). To minimize the impact of this parasite, it is important to characterize its pathogenesis so that we can develop appropriate methods for diagnosis and treatment. Forty-five juvenile bearded dragons were used for this two-part study. In the first part, ten bearded dragons were infected with 20,000 oocysts per os, while a control group of five animals received only water. Feces were collected over 45 days and screened for oocysts. In the second part, thirty bearded dragons were used to characterize the pathogenesis of I. amphiboluri. Twenty-five bearded dragons were infected as described previously, while five animals served as controls. Five infected bearded dragons and one control were humanely euthanized on days 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 post-infection for complete necropsies. The pre-patent period for I. amphiboluri was found to be 18.6 ± 1.9 days (range 15–22 days). Histopathology confirmed that I. amphiboluri follows a homoxenous life cycle. Infections begin in the duodenum and progress to the colon over time. The findings of this study can be used to develop better quarantine and treatment protocols for captive bearded dragons.

Viral pathogens are being increasingly described in association with mass morbidity and mortality events in reptiles. However, our knowledge of reptile viruses remains limited. Herein, we describe the meta-transcriptomic investigation of a mass morbidity and mortality event in a colony of central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) in 2014. Severe, extensive proliferation of the respiratory epithelium was consistently found in affected dragons. Similar proliferative lung lesions were identified in bearded dragons from the same colony in 2020 in association with increased intermittent mortality. Total RNA sequencing identified two divergent DNA viruses: a reptile-infecting circovirus, denoted bearded dragon circovirus (BDCV), and the first exogeneous reptilian chaphamaparvovirus—bearded dragon chaphamaparvovirus (BDchPV). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that BDCV was most closely related to bat-associated circoviruses, exhibiting 70% amino acid sequence identity in the Replicase (Rep) protein. In contrast, in the nonstructural (NS) protein, the newly discovered BDchPV showed approximately 31%–35% identity to parvoviruses obtained from tilapia fish and crocodiles in China. Subsequent specific PCR assays revealed BDCV and BDchPV in both diseased and apparently normal captive reptiles, although only BDCV was found in those animals with proliferative pulmonary lesions and respiratory disease. This study expands our understanding of viral diversity in captive reptiles.

Animals have long appeared as the subjects and characters in digital games, but game studies scholars have rarely considered animals as players of digital games. This paper examines the mobile digital game Ant Smasher and YouTube videos of bearded dragons playing the game. This article advocates for the inclusion of these bearded dragons in gamerspace as not only a personification of the gamer within the space but as a conduit for play, a channel for gamers to breach the boundaries of gamerspace – the cultural and discursive space surrounding digital games that negotiates the relationship between the digital game and its impact on the world at large. Through an analysis of 50 YouTube videos representing these play experiences, this article considers the place of these videos within gamerspace. The implications of this work serve to better understand the relationships between digital gaming, play, and human and non-human actors in interaction with haptic media. This example also expands upon our understandings of play as a whole.

The aim of this study was to evaluate intravenous anaesthesia with alfaxalone for tracheal tube insertion in three species of agamid lizards. Alfaxalone, at a dose rate of 5 mg/kg, was administered intravenously to 80 inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), 10 Rankin’s dragons (Pogona henrylawsoni) and 10 Chinese water dragons (Physignathus cocincinus) following 24 h of fasting. The righting reflex in inland bearded dragons, Rankin’s dragons and Chinese water dragons was lost within 12–45 s (17.52 ± 8.80 s), 15–40 s (24.60 ± 9.61 s) and 12–40 s (21.70 ± 9.53 s), respectively. The mean tracheal tube insertion time for inland bearded dragons, Rankin’s dragons and Chinese water dragons was 23.61 ± 10.91 s, 35.30 ± 14.71 s and 32.00 ± 14.32 s, respectively. Intravenous use of alfaxalone proved to be a suitable method for safe tracheal tube insertion and induction to inhalation anaesthesia in agamid lizards.

The aim of this clinical retrospective study was to analyse the prevalence of common disorders in 529 captive bearded dragons that were presented to three exotic animal clinics in Central Europe (Austria and Czech Republic) over a period of three years. A diagnosis was made on the basis of the presenting clinical signs and physical examination in 30.8% of the cases, whereas various additional diagnostic tests were performed in the other cases (69.2%). These included diagnostic imaging (radiography, ultrasound and computed tomography), examination of faecal samples for the presence of parasites, a blood-profile analysis, histological, as well as bacteriological and mycological examinations and necropsy. Gastrointestinal diseases (42.67%) like endoparasitism, constipation, sand ingestion, tympany and meteorism were the most common disorders. In 51.92% of the cases of constipation, endoparasites were present, whereas in 38.46% of the cases of constipation, metabolic bone diseases and imbalances in calcium and phosphorus levels were detected. Most of the analysed faecal samples (83.27%) were positive for the presence of endoparasites (48.7% pinworms, 25.39% coccidians and 16.06% flagellates). Dermatological problems (22.4%) contained skin tumours, which were observed in adult lizards (age range from three to eight years) and included spindle cell tumour on the eyelid, as well as spindle cell sarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma on the trunk. Osteodystrophy, limb fractures and various types of necrosis on the limbs and tail were frequently observed musculoskeletal disorders (18.93%). Over half of all animals (57.14%) that underwent a blood test, showed a deviation in the calcium-phosphorus ratio, 63.98% showed hypocalcaemia and 26.71% hyperphosphataemia. Diseases of the urogenital system (9.47%) included renal diseases and dystocia. Neoplastic diseases besides skin tumours included two cases of leukaemia in 4-year-old bearded dragons, one of these with lymphoma in kidneys, lungs and liver and one ganglioneuroma in the body cavity of a bearded dragon of unknown age. Orthopaedic surgeries were most frequently performed to amputate the limbs or tail, whereas soft-tissue surgeries most often included the treatment of skin wounds and correction of cloacal prolapse, in addition to ovariectomy, salpingotomy or salpingectomy in female bearded dragons. Similar to the situation in Australia and the USA, infectious as well as non-infectious diseases are common in captive bearded dragons in Central Europe. Due to the high occurrence of endoparasitism, skin diseases and metabolic bone diseases in this present study, regular veterinary controls in bearded dragons including parasitological faecal examinations and optimisation of feeding and housing are necessary to improve the standard of health of bearded dragons kept as pet lizards in Europe.

Objectives To evaluate the association between plasma metabolites, biochemical analytes, diagnostic imaging findings, and the histologic diagnosis of hepatic lipidosis in bearded dragons. To assess the effects of gemfibrozil therapy on hepatic lipid accumulation and associated diagnostic tests. Animals Fourteen bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) with varying severity of hepatic lipid accumulation (with and without hepatic lipidosis) were included. Procedures Animals underwent coelomic ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scans, and coelioscopic hepatic biopsies. Clinical pathology tests included lipidologic tests, hepatic biomarkers, and mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. Animals were medicated with gemfibrozil 6mg/kg orally once a day for 2 months in a randomized blinded clinical trial prior to repeating previous diagnostic testing. Results Hounsfield units on CT were negatively associated with increased hepatic vacuolation, while ultrasound and gross evaluation of the liver were not reliable. Beta-hydroxybutyric-acid (BHBA) concentrations were significantly associated with hepatic lipidosis. Metabolomics and lipidomics data found BHBA and succinic acid to be potential biomarkers for diagnosing hepatic lipidosis in bearded dragons. Succinic acid concentrations were significantly lower in the gemfibrozil treatment group. There was a tendency for improvement in the biomarkers and reduced hepatic fat in bearded dragons with hepatic lipidosis when treated with gemfibrozil, though the improvement was not statistically significant. Conclusions These findings provide information on the antemortem assessment of hepatic lipidosis in bearded dragons and paves the way for further research in diagnosis and treatment of this disease.

Two male juvenile central bearded dragons ( Pogona vitticeps) were submitted for postmortem examination after dying at their respective homes. Dragon 1 had marked hemopericardium with restrictive epicarditis. The inner aspect of the distended pericardial sac was lined by a fibrinoheterophilic membrane. In addition, granulomas abutted the testes. Dragon 2 had acute hemopericardium and granulomatous arteritis of the great vessels exiting the heart. Histologically, both animals had granulomatous arteritis of the large arteries with intrahistiocytic gram-positive, slightly elongated, up to 2 μm long microorganisms that contained a vacuole. These microorganisms were also present in the paratesticular granulomas. On transmission electron microscopy, the microorganisms were identified as microsporidians given the presence of exospore, endospore, vacuole, nucleus, and a filament with 4–6 coils. The microsporidia were identified as Encephalitozoon pogonae based on sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 1 of the ribosomal RNA genes. Microsporidia are agents of disease in bearded dragons. Intrapericardial arteritis of large arteries with hemopericardium or restrictive epicarditis is a fatal manifestation of this infection.

Thermoregulatory indices are based on an estimation of the preferred body temperature range (Tset), but few studies have compared the different methods of measuring Tset or how these methods influence our understanding of the relationship between thermoregulation and physiological performance. For the bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps, T sets were measured within a thermal gradient and shuttle box. Additionally, performance curves were determined for relative sprint speed and gut passage time. The shuttle box Tset was broader than the Tsets from the thermal gradient. Of the indices examines, only the effectiveness of thermoregulation may remain unaffected by differing methods of measuring Tset. The optimal Tbs for both performances were best described by the 50% Tb distribution. The Tb distributions were negatively skewed, suggesting support for net energy gain being maximized by thermoregulation. This study highlighted the need for more meaningful measures of thermoregulation than those provided only by temperature-dependent performances.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária
A área de Clínica de Novos Animais de Companhia é um ramo da medicina Veterinária que tem vindo a crescer exponencialmente nos últimos anos. Como tal, há uma maior afluência de espécies exóticas à consulta, criando uma necessidade de obter uma maior quantidade de material de referência em diversas áreas da medicina para estabelecer diagnósticos. A Cardiologia em répteis é uma das áreas que sofre de limitação de material publicado. Apesar da morfologia e fisiologia cardíaca em répteis estar bem documentada, há uma falta de valores de referência para uma grande parte das espécies, que é essencial para a obtenção de diagnósticos fiáveis e definitivos. O principal objectivo do trabalho efectuado foi realizar um estudo preliminar dos valores de referência ecocardiográficos em dragões barbudos (Pogona vitticeps). A amostra utilizada consistiu em 17 animais clinicamente saudáveis, submetidos a maneio correcto, de ambos os sexos, juvenis e adultos. Durante este estudo foram obtidas as medidas longitudinais e transversais dos átrios e ventrículo de cada animal e foram calculadas as áreas ventriculares, fracções de ejecção e encurtamento, tanto em sístole como em diástole. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos a análise estatística e comparados com bibliografia existente. Este estudo demonstrou a viabilidade do método e técnica ecocardiográfica através dos acessos axilares esquerdo e direito no dragão barbudo, assim como a capacidade em obter uma quantidade satisfatória de parâmetros, com recurso a sonda sectorial com alcance de 4,0 a 10,5 MHz de frequência. Foi detectada e avaliada a presença de líquido no saco pericárdico em 9 animais (taxa de incidência de 52,9%). Um dos animais apresentava uma silhueta cardíaca alterada, do qual foi impossível obter medições atriais, e 3 animais apresentavam alterações durante a sístole atrial. Devido ao tamanho reduzido da amostra não foi possível estabelecer intervalos de referência, mas foram determinados valores médios, mínimos, máximos e intervalos de confiança para vários parâmetros, assim como uma caracterização obedecendo á estratificação por sexo. Apesar de várias limitações associadas a este estudo, pode concluir-se que o mesmo foi efectuado com sucesso, indo ao encontro dos objectivos propostos.
ABSTRACT - Standardization of normal heart parameters through echocardiography in Pogona vitticeps - The area of Exotic Pet Practice is a Veterinary Medicine branch that has been growing exponentially in the last decade. As such, there is a growing case load of exotic species, creating a demand for more reference material in a variety of areas, to correctly establish a diagnosis. Cardiology in reptiles is one of the areas that suffers from limited published material. Even though the cardiac morphology and physiology is well studied and documented, there is a lack of reference values for most species, which is essential in obtaining a trustworthy and definitive diagnosis. The main objective of this study was to conduct a preliminary study of the echocardiographic reference intervals in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). The sample for this study consisted in 17 clinically healthy animals, with appropriate care conditions, from both genders and age range from juvenile to adult. During this study, transversal and longitudinal atrial and ventricular measurements were obtained, both during systole and diastole, and the ventricular area, ejection fraction and fractional shortening were calculated. The data obtained was submitted to statistical analysis and compared with existing bibliography. This study demonstrated the viability of the echocardiographic method and technique, through the bearded dragon’s left and right axillary windows, as well as the ability to obtain a satisfactory number of heart parameters, using a sectorial probe with a 4,0 to 10,5 MHz frequency range. Pericardial fluid was detected and evaluated in 9 animals (incidence rate of 52,9%). One of the animals had an abnormal cardiac silhouette, which made it impossible to obtain atrial measurements, and 3 animals showed abnormalities during atrial systole. Due to the small sample size, it wasn’t possible to establish reference intervals, but mean, minimum, maximum values and confidence intervals were calculated, as well as a correlation to the animal’s gender. Although there were several limitations associated with this study, it was concluded with success, meeting all the objectives that were set.
N/A

There is a global effort to research the impacts of habitat fragmentation and degradation on wildlife. There is, however, still a need for greater understanding of ecological processes at work in fragmented and degraded habitat in peri-urban and agricultural areas. The study was undertaken in order to enable insights to be gained to provide a basis for management of fragmented habitat, using a single species as a focus. Eastern Bearded Dragon Pogona barbata is a reptile icon in Australia, but which is regarded anecdotally as being in decline, and for which little is known of the ecology. The aim of the study was to research the biology and spatial ecology of a species that had a dependent relationship on structural habitat of the nature of that found in peri-urban areas. Pogona barbata was selected as being an appropriate species in being terrestrial l /arboreal, having a territorial social structure, being an ecological generalist species, and being of a suitable size for study in relation to the size of fragmented habitat in western Sydney. Wild populations in relatively undisturbed habitat in the peri-urban area of western Sydney, Australia, were observed from 2000 to 2002, with additional data gained from museum collections and road-killed animals. Morphometrics were analysed by taking the ratio of a character to snout-vent length, and plotting that value against snout-vent length in order to more clearly see allometric change. Detailed tracking of animals using spool threads was used to collect data on microhabitat use, spatial activity and home range. The distribution of P. barbata across its range coincided with open forest and woodland habitat, which in some areas is subject to intensive urban and agricultural impacts. Pogona barbata is found to be insectivorous as a juvenile and omnivorous as an adult. As hatchlings grow, the relative length of the tail increases (positive allometry) until sexual maturity, and this coincides with an insectivorous diet. The onset of sexual maturity occurs just after the diet becomes omnivorous, and the relative tail length decreases (negative allometry) to a value that can be less than that of hatchlings. The gracile body form of juveniles is different from the robust body form of adults, and this is consistent with the difference in diet and microhabitat use. Factors affecting the persistence of the species were identified. Eggs were eaten by foxes on a regular basis, and hatchlings and juveniles were very rare, indicating an unbalanced demographic structure. The apparent rarity of hatchlings and juveniles may be due to crypsis. Road death was found to remove important breeding individuals from the population. An improved method of estimating testis volumes in lizards using three dimensions was used, which showed that the anatomy of P. barbata testes is bilaterally asymmetrical. It is currently assumed that reptile testes are at least bilaterally regular, but this is not the case in P. barbata. The outcome of this finding is that reproductive and other studies that rely on measurement of a single testis in two dimensions may miss significant data. Testis volumes for P. barbata in western Sydney in the past 20 years are highly abnormal, which coincides with increasing air pollution in the area. Extremes of testis condition were absent testes, very small testes, and extreme differences of testis size in individual animals. Resource partitioning was found, with microhabitat use, to be significantly different for juveniles, males and females. Juveniles and hatchlings used dense habitat with a high incidence of fine and coarse woody debris. The fine matter in the habitat upon which adult females also rely is lost in frequent fires that are used to control bushfire hazard. Pogona barbata is generally regarded as a sit-and-wait predator, on the basis of its being commonly observed on obvious perches. This study demonstrates that such perches are not the most important component of its habitat and that its foraging mode is that of a grazing omnivore. This study appears to be the first that addresses a seasonal shift in microhabitat use for a reptile in general terms. The pattern of daily activity changes with season, and changes in daily habitat preference based on age, sex and season, indicated that P. barbata required a diverse structural habitat. This habitat is affected by frequent hazard reduction fires. A new method of estimating animal home range is presented. The method consists of daily spool trace polygons collected by GPS and analysed in ArcView 3.2, with a spatial analysis output that indicates an estimated total home range and a confidence interval for that estimate. A typical result is an acceptable estimate within 20-30 sequential days of tracking an animal. That outcome is a considerable improvement on the currently accepted minimum of 50 independent days, being at least 100 calendar days. Pogona barbata ‘breaks the rules’ for a number of concepts in the biology of reptiles, and in this study has displayed some new insights in testis morphology, ontology and ecology. It was rare in the areas studied, lending support to the perception that the species is in decline. Reproductive suppression was suspected to affect the population in western Sydney. Pogona barbata has shown a range of characteristics that makes it useful as an umbrella species for the purpose of managing fragmented and degraded habitat in peri-urban and agricultural areas. A range of biological and ecological measures is required to enable effective habitat management of any species, and this study has provided some appropriate techniques for that purpose.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

There is a global effort to research the impacts of habitat fragmentation and degradation on wildlife. There is, however, still a need for greater understanding of ecological processes at work in fragmented and degraded habitat in peri-urban and agricultural areas. The study was undertaken in order to enable insights to be gained to provide a basis for management of fragmented habitat, using a single species as a focus. Eastern Bearded Dragon Pogona barbata is a reptile icon in Australia, but which is regarded anecdotally as being in decline, and for which little is known of the ecology. The aim of the study was to research the biology and spatial ecology of a species that had a dependent relationship on structural habitat of the nature of that found in peri-urban areas. Pogona barbata was selected as being an appropriate species in being terrestrial l /arboreal, having a territorial social structure, being an ecological generalist species, and being of a suitable size for study in relation to the size of fragmented habitat in western Sydney. Wild populations in relatively undisturbed habitat in the peri-urban area of western Sydney, Australia, were observed from 2000 to 2002, with additional data gained from museum collections and road-killed animals. Morphometrics were analysed by taking the ratio of a character to snout-vent length, and plotting that value against snout-vent length in order to more clearly see allometric change. Detailed tracking of animals using spool threads was used to collect data on microhabitat use, spatial activity and home range. The distribution of P. barbata across its range coincided with open forest and woodland habitat, which in some areas is subject to intensive urban and agricultural impacts. Pogona barbata is found to be insectivorous as a juvenile and omnivorous as an adult. As hatchlings grow, the relative length of the tail increases (positive allometry) until sexual maturity, and this coincides with an insectivorous diet. The onset of sexual maturity occurs just after the diet becomes omnivorous, and the relative tail length decreases (negative allometry) to a value that can be less than that of hatchlings. The gracile body form of juveniles is different from the robust body form of adults, and this is consistent with the difference in diet and microhabitat use. Factors affecting the persistence of the species were identified. Eggs were eaten by foxes on a regular basis, and hatchlings and juveniles were very rare, indicating an unbalanced demographic structure. The apparent rarity of hatchlings and juveniles may be due to crypsis. Road death was found to remove important breeding individuals from the population. An improved method of estimating testis volumes in lizards using three dimensions was used, which showed that the anatomy of P. barbata testes is bilaterally asymmetrical. It is currently assumed that reptile testes are at least bilaterally regular, but this is not the case in P. barbata. The outcome of this finding is that reproductive and other studies that rely on measurement of a single testis in two dimensions may miss significant data. Testis volumes for P. barbata in western Sydney in the past 20 years are highly abnormal, which coincides with increasing air pollution in the area. Extremes of testis condition were absent testes, very small testes, and extreme differences of testis size in individual animals. Resource partitioning was found, with microhabitat use, to be significantly different for juveniles, males and females. Juveniles and hatchlings used dense habitat with a high incidence of fine and coarse woody debris. The fine matter in the habitat upon which adult females also rely is lost in frequent fires that are used to control bushfire hazard. Pogona barbata is generally regarded as a sit-and-wait predator, on the basis of its being commonly observed on obvious perches. This study demonstrates that such perches are not the most important component of its habitat and that its foraging mode is that of a grazing omnivore. This study appears to be the first that addresses a seasonal shift in microhabitat use for a reptile in general terms. The pattern of daily activity changes with season, and changes in daily habitat preference based on age, sex and season, indicated that P. barbata required a diverse structural habitat. This habitat is affected by frequent hazard reduction fires. A new method of estimating animal home range is presented. The method consists of daily spool trace polygons collected by GPS and analysed in ArcView 3.2, with a spatial analysis output that indicates an estimated total home range and a confidence interval for that estimate. A typical result is an acceptable estimate within 20-30 sequential days of tracking an animal. That outcome is a considerable improvement on the currently accepted minimum of 50 independent days, being at least 100 calendar days. Pogona barbata ‘breaks the rules’ for a number of concepts in the biology of reptiles, and in this study has displayed some new insights in testis morphology, ontology and ecology. It was rare in the areas studied, lending support to the perception that the species is in decline. Reproductive suppression was suspected to affect the population in western Sydney. Pogona barbata has shown a range of characteristics that makes it useful as an umbrella species for the purpose of managing fragmented and degraded habitat in peri-urban and agricultural areas. A range of biological and ecological measures is required to enable effective habitat management of any species, and this study has provided some appropriate techniques for that purpose.

The genes in alpha ({u03B1})- and beta ({u03B2})- globin clusters constitute a functional haemoglobin molecule, crucial for oxygen transportation. In most fish and amphibians, {u03B1}- and {u03B2}-globin genes are located together, whereas in amniotes (birds and mammals), there are two distinct clusters. Several complex models have been proposed to explain the evolution of these gene clusters. However, there was a lack of data for key positions in amniote phylogeny to discern which one was most parsimonious. Therefore, the main aims of this project were to characterise {u03B1}- and {u03B2}-globin clusters and their regulatory regions in a monotreme Ornithorhynchus anatinus (Australian duck-billed platypus) and two reptilian species Pogona vitticeps (Australian bearded dragon) and Anolis carolinensis (green anole lizard), to gain insight into globin loci evolution. This thesis is presented as a collection of research papers covering each topic, and a review and discussion that summarises my research. The first paper (Chapter 2) reports a comprehensive study on the characterisation, expression and evolution of {u03B1}- and {u03B2}-globin gene clusters in the platypus, using a combination of molecular and bioinformatics approaches. The most important findings from this work leading to the development of a new and simple model for globin gene evolution concerned the discovery of a {u03B2}-like globin gene within the a-globin cluster and genomic context analysis of {u03B1}- and {u03B2}-globin clusters across vertebrates. I showed that the amniote a-globin cluster is in fact the same as the a-{u03B2} cluster found in fish and amphibians, and both clusters share common flanking genes (C16orf35 and LUC7L). I proposed a transposition model in which a copy of {u03B2}-globin gene was inserted into a cluster of olfactory receptors (flanked by RRMl, CCKBR and ILK) in the ancestor of amniotes, thus originating the amniote {u03B2}-globin cluster. To elaborate this model further, my second paper (Chapter 3) reviews some events that could have led to this transposition, and their effects on the current fate of regulation. Information on the organization of globin genes in reptiles was required to test this transpositional model. I looked into the globin gene organization in the green anole using a bioinformatics approach and in the bearded dragon using a molecular approach. The results are reported in Chapter 4 and my third paper, which describe how fragmentary data from the green anole genome sequence assembly and mapping data from bearded dragon provided further evidence to support my proposed model for the evolution of the {u03B2}-globin gene cluster in amniotes. I also studied the evolution of regulatory regions of the platypus {u03B1}- and {u03B2}-globin clusters to address the question whether the translocation of the {u03B2}-globin locus resulted in a transposition of its regulatory region, or whether a new regulatory region evolved as a result of this translocation (reported in the fourth paper, Chapter 5). By using some novel techniques, I showed that the platypus a-globin has a major regulatory element that is conserved with other jawed vertebrates, whereas the regulatory regions of their {u03B2}-globin cluster do not show any conservation at the sequence level to those of birds and therian mammals. This suggested that the regulatory regions of amniote {u03B2}-globin genes evolved either more rapidly (more substitutions) or more extensively (e.g. more rearrangements) from a common ancestral regulatory region. Alternatively, these regulatory regions may have independent origins in different amniote lineages. In my final chapter, I discuss the overall implications of my findings on this area of research. I highlight the special value of studying non-model species mammals and reptiles, by which researchers are able to gain novel information about globin evolution and regulation.

A working definition of the classical drakōn is established: ‘a large snake and something more’, i.e. a snake with a supernatural quality or affinity, and often too with additional or exceptional physical or behavioural attributes. This model, which will serve as the baseline for the investigation, draws on the author’s two previous volumes on the subject, whilst new points of substance are made on, inter alia, the origin of the dragon’s beard and the form of Typhon. The principal dragon-fight traditions of myth are reviewed, those of the Dragon of Ares, Nemea, the Hesperides (Ladon) and Colchis, Python and the Hydra. The principal dragon-gods of cult are similarly surveyed: Asclepius, Zeus Meilichios, and Agathos Daimon. Note is made of six core narrative motifs, to be significant throughout the study: marauding, fieriness, pestilential breath, cave-lairs, water-sources, and generation from a corpse.

The final chapter explores several prominent fifth- through seventhcentury female saints who do not have surviving medieval vitae but who help broaden our understanding of the complexity and empowering aspects of female religious experience in medieval Ireland. Three have early modern adaptations of medieval Lives or legends. Lasair was so renowned for her wisdom that Finnian of Clonard’s own Life claims her as his student. She also shows that women could unleash some seriously righteous wrath, while also being a source of comfort and healing. Attracta, said to be a contemporary and associate of Patrick, was particularly active in County Sligo, where she is well-remembered in several churches and wells. Her legend celebrates her ability to slay dragons and resurrect the dead. Cranat emphasizes connections with the earth, as her eyes are said to have become trees, one devoured piece by piece by the desperate hopes of Ireland’s emigrants in the mid-nineteenth-century, as it was said to protect the bearer from drowning; another survived and indeed thrived into the last century. Cranat sacrificed her eyes to retain control over her body and fate, to remain a nun rather than become a wife. Gobnait inspired many legends attesting to her great holiness and harmony with animals and nature, but none survive from the medieval period. Medieval litanies and calendars invoked her protection and honored her memory, but her preservation is primarily a credit to the importance that her monastic site, Ballyvourney, retained through the centuries as well as to oral traditions and cultural customs that accompanied her cult. The chapter finishes with Dígde, the probable poet behind one of Ireland’s most celebrated poems, Aithbe damsa bés mara, or “The Lament of the Old Woman of Beare.” Her poem may preserve an authentic echo of a medieval Irishwoman’s perspective; its haunting, complex, and evocative beauty and frank sensuality challenge assumptions about gender and sanctity and provides striking contrast to claims made by hagiographers.