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Journal articles on the topic 'Baseballs'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 4 March 2023

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1

Chalmers, Peter, Rocco Bassora, Chris Inzerillo, Andrew Beharrie, Anthony Romeo, and Brandon Erickson. "Training with Lighter Baseballs Increases Velocity Without Increasing Injury Risk." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 8, no. 7_suppl6 (2020): 2325967120S0034. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120s00341.

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Objectives: Pitch velocity has become an increasingly popular metric by which pitchers are graded and compared. Training programs that utilize weighted balls have been effective in increasing velocity but at the cost of increased injury risk. The purpose of this study was to determine if a baseball pitcher-training program utilizing lighter baseballs could increase fastball velocity without increasing injury risk. The author’s hypothesized that the training program with lighter baseballs would increase fastball velocity without causing injuries during the training program to the participants Methods: All baseball pitchers who participated in a 15-week pitching mechanic and velocity training program were included. Training program was broken down into three phases, and each participant went through the same program. Lighter balls (4oz and 3oz) and standard baseballs (5oz) were utilized as part of the training program. Weighted (heavier) balls were not used. Velocity was measured at four time points throughout the program. Injury rates for all players were recorded throughout the entire program. Results: 48 male pitchers aged 10-17 (average age: 14.7 +/- 1.8) years started the program and 44 had complete data and were included in the analysis. No pitcher sustained a baseball-related injury while participating in the training program (one player broke his ankle playing basketball, one player moved, one did not have baseline velocity data, and one experienced biceps soreness after participating in back to back showcases against recommendations). Fastball velocity increased by an average of 4.8mph (95% confidence intervals 4.1 - 5.5mph). Overall 43/44 players (98%) had an increase in fastball velocity over the course of the program. Conclusions: A 15-week baseball pitcher-training program with lighter baseballs significantly improved pitching velocity without significantly increasing injuries. Lighter baseballs should be considered instead of weighted baseballs when attempting to increase a pitcher’s velocity.

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Williams, Joseph, and Rich Edgeman. "Quality Control And Home Runs: An Examination Of Appropriate Metrics For Quality Control." Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR) 7, no. 4 (2011): 112. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v7i4.6213.

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The issue of appropriate quality control metrics is discussed in the context of the production of baseballs. Specifically, Major League Baseball players stroked record numbers of home runs in 1987, generating what is commonly known as the lively ball explanation for the unusual power output. The Commissioners office released a study proving that the 1987 baseball was not unusually lively. However, after examination of the quality control metrics used by MLB; we demonstrate that (1) it is quite possible that baseballs were indeed lively and (2) that acceptance sampling alone does not properly address the quality control problem.

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McGrain, Peter, James Van Dyke, and James Mastro. "Coefficients of Restitution of Balls Used in Team Sports for the Visually Impaired." International Journal of Sport Biomechanics 3, no. 1 (1987): 63–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsb.3.1.63.

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This study examined the coefficients of restitution (e) of selected balls used in team sports for the visually impaired: beep baseball and goal ball. Specifically, a basketball was compared to two men's standard goal balls, and a softball was compared to three different types of beep baseballs. The e for all balls was calculated by dropping each ball five times from heights of 6 ft (1.83 m) and 19.25 ft (5.88 m). A Sony reel-to-reel videotape recorder was used to record rebound heights on a background scale for each ball dropped. Reliability tests of the procedures yielded correlation coefficients (r) of 0.996 and 0.998 for the 6 ft (1.83 m) and 19.25 ft (5.88 m) drops, respectively. Two two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests yielded significant differences across ball type and height of drop for the basketball and goal balls and for the softball and beep baseballs, respectively (p < 0.001). The es for the more recently developed beep baseballs are close to that of the standard softball, indicating a possible danger to visually impaired participants in beep baseball.

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Fleisig, Glenn S., Alek Z. Diffendaffer, Kyle T. Aune, Brett Ivey, and Walter A. Laughlin. "Biomechanical Analysis of Weighted-Ball Exercises for Baseball Pitchers." Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 9, no. 3 (2016): 210–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1941738116679816.

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Background: Weighted-ball throwing programs are commonly used in training baseball pitchers to increase ball velocity. The purpose of this study was to compare kinematics and kinetics among weighted-ball exercises with values from standard pitching (ie, pitching standard 5-oz baseballs from a mound). Hypothesis: Ball and arm velocities would be greater with lighter balls and joint kinetics would be greater with heavier balls. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Twenty-five high school and collegiate baseball pitchers experienced with weighted-ball throwing were tested with an automated motion capture system. Each participant performed 3 trials of 10 different exercises: pitching 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-oz baseballs from a mound; flat-ground crow hop throws with 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-oz baseballs; and flat-ground hold exercises with 14- and 32-oz balls. Twenty-six biomechanical parameters were computed for each trial. Data among the 10 exercises were compared with repeated measures analysis of variance and post hoc paired t tests against the standard pitching data. Results: Ball velocity increased as ball mass decreased. There were no differences in arm and trunk velocities between throwing a standard baseball and an underweight baseball (4 oz), while arm and trunk velocities steadily decreased as ball weight increased from 5 to 32 oz. Compared with values pitching from a mound, velocities of the pelvis, shoulder, and ball were increased for flat-ground throws. In general, as ball mass increased arm torques and forces decreased; the exception was elbow flexion torque, which was significantly greater for the flat-ground holds. There were significant differences in body positions when pitching on the mound, flat-ground throws, and holds. Conclusions: While ball velocity was greatest throwing underweight baseballs, results from the study did not support the rest of the hypothesis. Kinematics and kinetics were similar between underweight and standard baseballs, while overweight balls correlated with decreased arm forces, torques, and velocities. Increased ball velocity and joint velocities were produced with crow hop throws, likely because of running forward while throwing. Clinical Relevance: As pitching slightly underweight and overweight baseballs produces variations in kinematics without increased arm kinetics, these exercises seem reasonable for training pitchers. As flat-ground throwing produces increased shoulder internal rotation velocity and elbow varus torque, these exercises may be beneficial but may also be stressful and risky. Flat-ground holds with heavy balls should not be viewed as enhancing pitching biomechanics, but rather as hybrid exercises between throwing and resistance training.

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5

Erickson, Brandon J., Thomas R. Atlee, Peter N. Chalmers, et al. "Training With Lighter Baseballs Increases Velocity Without Increasing the Injury Risk." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 8, no. 3 (2020): 232596712091050. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120910503.

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Background: Pitch velocity has become an increasingly popular metric by which pitchers are graded and compared. Training programs that utilize weighted balls have been effective in increasing velocity but at the cost of an increased injury risk. No studies have evaluated training with lighter baseballs with regard to increasing pitch velocity and the injury risk. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to determine whether a training program utilizing lighter baseballs could increase fastball velocity without increasing the injury risk to participants. We hypothesized that a training program with lighter baseballs would increase fastball velocity but not increase the injury risk. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: All baseball pitchers who participated in a 15-week program at a single location, with the same coaches, and aimed to improve pitching mechanics and increase velocity were included. The training program was broken down into 3 phases, and each participant went through the same program. Lighter baseballs (3 and 4 oz) and standard baseballs (5 oz) were utilized as part of the training program. Weighted (heavier) balls were not used. Velocity was measured at 4 time points throughout the program with the pitcher throwing 5 fastballs using a standard 5-oz ball at maximum velocity (sessions 3, 10, 17, and 25). Injuries for all players were recorded throughout the entire program. Results: A total of 44 male pitchers aged 10 to 17 years (mean age, 14.7 ± 1.8 years) completed the training program and were available for analysis. No pitcher sustained a shoulder or elbow injury during the course of the training program. Fastball velocity increased by a mean of 4.8 mph (95% CI, 4.0-5.6 mph) ( P < .001). Overall, 43 of 44 players (98%) had an increase in fastball velocity over the course of the program. Conclusion: A 15-week pitching training program with lighter baseballs significantly improved pitching velocity without causing any injuries, specifically to the shoulder or elbow. Lighter baseballs should be considered as an alternative to weighted baseballs when attempting to increase a pitcher’s velocity.

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Caldwell, Jon-Michael E., Frank J. Alexander, and Christopher S. Ahmad. "Weighted-Ball Velocity Enhancement Programs for Baseball Pitchers: A Systematic Review." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 7, no. 2 (2019): 232596711882546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967118825469.

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Background: Weighted-implement training utilizing over- or underweight baseballs has increased in popularity at all levels in competitive baseball. However, there is no consensus on the efficacy or safety of these training methods. Hypothesis: This systematic review was intended to answer the following questions: Does weighted-ball training improve pitching velocity? Does weighted-ball training increase the risk of injury? Study Design: Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: Searches were conducted with MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the ProQuest Physical Education Index. Articles were included if the study population consisted of adult, adolescent, or youth baseball pitchers training with under- or overweight baseballs, with velocity as a measured outcome. Articles were excluded if they were review articles, examined sports other than baseball, utilized weighted implements other than baseballs, or were not published in peer-reviewed journals. Included articles were at least level 4 evidence. Data extracted for qualitative analysis included training protocol parameters (such as ball weight, number of pitches, duration of training), velocity change, and injuries or complications reported. Results: A total of 4119 article titles were retrieved, of which 156 were selected for abstract review. After manual removal of duplicates, 128 abstracts were reviewed. Of these, 17 met the inclusion criteria, and the full text was obtained. After full-text review, 7 additional articles were excluded, leaving 10 articles that met inclusion criteria and were included for analysis. Conclusion: Weighted-implement training increased pitching velocity in the majority of the included studies. However, the quality of available evidence was determined to be very poor, and there was marked heterogeneity in training protocols, ball weights, and study populations. There was inadequate evidence reported to determine the risk of injury with this type of training.

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Wen, Bor-Jiunn, Che-Rui Chang, Chun-Wei Lan, and Yi-Chen Zheng. "Magnus-Forces Analysis of Pitched-Baseball Trajectories Using YOLOv3-Tiny Deep Learning Algorithm." Applied Sciences 12, no. 11 (2022): 5540. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12115540.

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This study analyzed the characteristics of pitched baseballs from TV broadcast videos to understand the effects of the Magnus force on a pitched-baseball trajectory using aerodynamic theory. Furthermore, an automatic measurement and analysis system for pitched-baseball trajectories, ball speeds, and spin rates was established, capturing the trajectory of the baseball thrown by the pitcher before the catcher catches it and analyzing its related dynamic parameters. The system consists of two parts: (1) capturing and detecting the pitched baseball in all frames of the video using the YOLOv3-tiny deep learning algorithm and automatically recording the coordinates of each detected baseball position; (2) automatically calculating the average speed and spin rate of the pitched baseball using aerodynamic theory. As the baseball thrown by the pitcher is fast, and live-action TV videos like sports and concerts are typically at least 24 fps or more, this study used YOLOv3-tiny algorithm to speed up the calculation. Finally, the system automatically presented pitching data on the screen, and the pitching information in the baseball game was easily obtained and recorded for further discussion. The system was tested using 30 videos of pitched baseballs and could effectively capture the baseball trajectories, throw points, catch points, and vertical displacements. Compared with the values from the TV broadcast, the average errors on the calculated ball speed and spin rate were 1.88% and 7.51%, respectively. Using the ratio of the spin rate and ball speed as a parameter to analyze the pitching state of the pitcher’s four-seam fastball in the Nippon Professional Baseball and Major League Baseball matches, it was observed that when this ratio increased, the Magnus displacement of the ball increased, thereby decreasing its late break. Therefore, the developed system provides scientific pitching data to improve the performance of baseball pitchers.

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8

Dunham, Paul. "Coincidence-Anticipation Performance of Adolescent Baseball Players and Nonplayers." Perceptual and Motor Skills 68, no. 3_suppl (1989): 1151–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1989.68.3c.1151.

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10 adolescent baseball players and 10 nonplayers made estimates of baseballs' arrival at the front edge of a home plate. Balls were projected 45 ft. by a pitching machine at speeds of 35, 40, 45, and 50 mph. Subjects made estimates with the dominant and nondominant eye closest to the oncoming ball. Analysis indicated that players were no more accurate than nonplayers but did respond significantly earlier and with consistency. Eye dominance had no effect on performance.

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9

Cava, Robert J. "Superconductors and baseballs." Nature 364, no. 6435 (1993): 297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/364297a0.

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10

Golding, Jordan, Aaron Johnson, and Andrew T. Sensenig. "Experimental Manipulation of Psychological Momentum in Baseball Pitching: No Evidence for Short-Term Psychological Momentum in Baseball Throw Speeds." Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology 11, no. 2 (2017): 158–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2016-0009.

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Psychological momentum in sports is a series of high or low human performances that seem to defy statistical randomness, and instead is often attributed to a positive feedback system in the athlete’s physiology and psyche. Quantitative approaches have found some evidence of psychological momentum. We measured the throw speeds and accuracy of adult males throwing baseballs while subjecting them to verbal criticism (positive or negative). Our study of short-term momentum suggested evidence of psychological momentum only in top-performing university baseball players, and not in the lower-performing players or in nonathletes.

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11

Earl J. Wilcox. "Catching Baseballs and Poems." NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture 19, no. 1 (2010): 119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/nin.2010.0010.

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12

Noble, Larry, and Hugh Walker. "Baseball Bat Inertial and Vibrational Characteristics and Discomfort Following Ball–Bat Impacts." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 10, no. 2 (1994): 132–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.10.2.132.

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This study examined the relationship between selected mechanical characteristics of aluminum baseball bats and sensations on the hands resulting from impacts. Sixteen skilled male Little League baseball players held each of two bats while they were impacted at the following locations by baseballs at speeds of approximately 27 m/s: near barrel end, center of percussion (COP), distal node of the fundamental mode, and 4 in. toward the hands from the COP. Results of a questionnaire regarding annoyance and discomfort were correlated with selected bat characteristics and vibrational characteristics associated with each impact condition. Results indicated that perceptions of annoyance and discomfort were related to the level of excitation of the fundamental mode and first overtone mode and that annoyance and discomfort were less with impacts on the COP and fundamental vibrational node.

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13

Alaways, LeRoy W., Sean P. Mish, and Mont Hubbard. "Identification of Release Conditions and Aerodynamic Forces in Pitched-Baseball Trajectories." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 17, no. 1 (2001): 63–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.17.1.63.

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Pitched-baseball trajectories were measured in three dimensions during competitions at the 1996 Summer Olympic games using two high-speed video cameras and standard DLT techniques. A dynamic model of baseball flight including aerodynamic drag and Magnus lift forces was used to simulate trajectories. This simulation together with the measured trajectory position data constituted the components of an estimation scheme to determine 8 of the 9 release conditions (3 components each of velocity, position, and angular velocity) as well as the mean drag coefficient CD and terminal conditions at home plate. The average pitch loses 5% of its initial velocity during flight. The dependence of estimated drag coefficient on Reynolds number hints at the possibility of the drag crisis occurring in pitched baseballs. Such data may be used to quantify a pitcher’s performance (including fastball speed and amount of curve-ball break) and its improvement or degradation over time. It may also be used to understand the effects of release parameters on baseball trajectories.

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Beer, John, and Paula Fleming. "Eye Color and Motor Performance in Physical Education Activities in Elementary School Children." Perceptual and Motor Skills 64, no. 3 (1987): 963–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1987.64.3.963.

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251 elementary school children in Grades 1 to 6 performed a variety of motor tasks in physical education classes to investigate whether eye color was associated with performance on the expectation that dark-eyed individuals generally perform better at reactive type tasks (boxing, hitting a baseball, defensive football) while light-eyed individuals perform better at self-paced tasks (bowling, golf, pitching baseballs). Eye color was not associated with standing-long jump, soft-ball throw, or 50-, 75-, 100-yd. dashes. Boys generally performed better than girls and older children in upper grades generally performed better than younger children in lower grades. As measured, all motor performances cannot be classified as either self-paced or reactive.

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15

Mamula, Paul W. "Lighter Baseballs and Youth Injuries." Physician and Sportsmedicine 32, no. 7 (2004): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3810/psm.2004.07.432.

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16

Walton, Douglas. "Baseballs and arguments from fairness." Artificial Intelligence and Law 22, no. 4 (2013): 423–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10506-013-9151-1.

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17

Hathaway, Ted. "From Baseballs to Brassieres: The Use of Baseball in Magazine Advertising, 1890-1960." NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture 10, no. 1 (2001): 64–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/nin.2001.0057.

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Reinold, Michael M., Leonard C. Macrina, Glenn S. Fleisig, Monika Drogosz, and James R. Andrews. "Acute Effects of Weighted Baseball Throwing Programs on Shoulder Range of Motion." Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 12, no. 5 (2020): 488–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1941738120925728.

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Background: Baseball pitching injuries are increasing at an alarming rate. While weighted ball throwing programs may be effective at increasing pitching velocity, previous research has identified a 24% injury rate and a 3.3° increase in shoulder external rotation (ER) range of motion (ROM) after performing a 6-week program. However, previous research has not investigated, separately, the immediate effects of throwing underloaded and overloaded balls on ROM. The purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of throwing differently weighted baseballs on shoulder ROM. By analyzing these differences, it may be possible to determine the specific weight range that may lead to the greatest increase in ROM and potential injury risk. Hypothesis: Throwing with weighted balls will result in an increase in shoulder ER ROM. Study Design: Randomized controlled trial. Level of Evidence: Level 2. Methods: A total of 16 male high school baseball pitchers agreed to participate in this study. The participants were (mean ± SD) 17.1 ± 1.0 years of age, 1.81 ± 0.09 m tall, and had a mass of 79.2 ± 11.1 kg. Each participant was tested on 3 different days, 1 week apart, with 3 different conditions in random order: (1) underload throwing, using regulation 5-oz baseballs and 4- and 2-oz balls; (2) overload throwing, using 5-, 6-, and 9-oz balls; and (3) extreme overload throwing, using 5-, 16-, and 32-oz balls. Each testing session began by measuring passive shoulder ROM (external rotation and internal rotation) using standard goniometric measurements. Participants then performed 3 throws with each weighted ball from 3 different positions (kneeling, rocker, and run-and-gun) for a total of 27 throws each test session. ROM measurements were repeated at the end of each test session. The effect of each throwing condition on ROM was compared from pre- to posttraining using a paired t test ( P ≤ 0.05). Results: There was no significant difference in ER after throwing at underloaded weights. The overload condition showed a statistically significant increase of 3.3° in external rotation ( P = 0.05). The extreme overload condition showed a statistically significant increase in ER of 8.4° ( P < 0.001). There were no differences in internal rotation for any group. Conclusion: A significant increase in shoulder ER was observed immediately after throwing overload weighted balls. This effect increased as the weights of the balls increased. Clinical Relevance: Throwing with overload weighted baseballs causes an immediate increase in shoulder ER ROM. It is unknown why these changes occur; however, the results may explain both the increase in velocity and injury rates previously observed from throwing weighted balls. The current study results may be used to develop more scientifically validated weighted ball programs. Heavier balls should be used with caution, and ROM should be monitored during implementation of these programs.

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Smith, Lloyd V. "Hygrothermal effects of baseballs and softballs." Sports Engineering 17, no. 3 (2013): 123–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12283-013-0143-x.

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Chambers, Frederick, Brian Page, and Clyde Zaidins. "Atmosphere, Weather, and Baseball: How Much Farther Do Baseballs Really Fly at Denver's Coors Field?" Professional Geographer 55, no. 4 (2003): 491–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/0033-0124.5504007.

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21

Nicholls, Rochelle Llewelyn, Karol Miller, and Bruce C. Elliott. "Modeling Deformation Behavior of the Baseball." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 21, no. 1 (2005): 18–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.21.1.18.

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Regulating ball response to impact is one way to control ball exit velocity in baseball. This is necessary to reduce injuries to defensive players and maintain the balance between offense and defense in the game. This paper presents a model for baseball velocity-dependent behavior. Force-displacement data were obtained using quasi-static compression tests to 50% of ball diameter (n = 70 baseballs). The force-displacement curves for a very stiff baseball (Model B) and a softer type (Model C) were characterized by a Mooney-Rivlin model using implicit finite element analysis (ANSYS software, version 6.1). Agreement between experimental and numerical results was excellent for both Model B (C10 = 0, C01 = 3.7e6 Pa) and Model C (C10 = 0, C01 = 2.6e6 Pa). However, this material model was not available in the ANSYS/LSDYNA explicit dynamic software (version 6.1) used to quantify the transient behavior of the ball. Therefore the modeling process was begun again using a linear viscoelastic material. G∞, the long-term shear modulus of the material, was determined by the same implicit FEA procedure. Explicit FEA was used to quantify the time-dependent response of each ball in terms of instantaneous shear modulus (G0) and a decay term (β). The results were evaluated with respect to published experimental data for the ball coefficient of restitution at five velocities (13.4–40.2 ms–1) and were in agreement with the experimental values. The model forms the basis for future research on baseball response to impact with the bat.

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SAKAI, Shinobu, Daisuke YASUTOMI, Jin-Xing SHI, Akira URAKAMI, and Masato MIZOGUCHI. "Study on restitution characteristics of new/old rubber baseballs and metal baseball bat adapting to the new rubber baseball." Transactions of the JSME (in Japanese) 85, no. 877 (2019): 19–00118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/transjsme.19-00118.

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23

Hendee, Shonn P., Richard M. Greenwald, and Joseph J. Crisco. "Static and Dynamic Properties of Various Baseballs." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 14, no. 4 (1998): 390–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.14.4.390.

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In this study we investigated the compressive quasi-static mechanical properties and dynamic impact behavior of baseballs. Our purpose was to determine if static testing could be used to describe dynamic ball impact properties, and to compare static and dynamic properties between traditional and modified baseballs. Average stiffness and energy loss from 19 ball models were calculated from quasi-static compression data. Dynamic impact variables were determined from force–time profiles of balls impacted into a flat stationary target at velocities from 13.4 to 40.2 m/s. Peak force increased linearly with increasing ball model stiffness. Impulse of impact increased linearly with ball mass. Coefficient of restitution (COR) decreased with increasing velocity in all balls tested, although the rate of decrease varied among the different ball models. Neither quasi-static energy loss nor hysteresis was useful in predicting dynamic energy loss (COR2). The results between traditional and modified balls varied widely in both static and dynamic tests, which is related to the large differences in mass and stiffness between the two groups. These results indicate that static parameters can be useful in predicting some dynamic impact variables, potentially reducing the complexity of testing. However, some variables, such as ball COR, could not be predicted with the static tests performed in this study.

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Alam, Firoz, Harun Chowdhury, Nurdalila Husni, and Lloyd Smith. "An Experimental Study of Baseballs and Softballs." Procedia Engineering 60 (2013): 467–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.07.006.

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Lyu, Bin, Jeff Kensrud, and Lloyd Smith. "Investigation of the Aerodynamic Drag of Baseballs with Gyro Spin." Proceedings 49, no. 1 (2020): 162. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020049162.

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The following considers drag measurements of baseballs with backspin (spin axis horizontal and normal to trajectory) and gyro spin (spin axis parallel to trajectory) orientations. Balls were propelled through still air in a laboratory setting at 36 m/s and spin ranging from 1250 rpm to 1750 rpm. Balls were projected with backspin and gyro spin in the two- and four-seam orientations. Speed and position sensors measured the speed and location of the balls at three locations from which the coefficient of drag and lift were found. Drag was observed to depend on spin rate, spin axis and seam orientation. The largest and smallest coefficient of drag was found with the gyro four-seam and two-seam spin orientation, respectively. Drag was observed to correlate with seam height with back spin, but not with gyro spin. Lift was observed for baseballs with back spin, but not with gyro spin.

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Phillips, Randy, Andrew Shatley, Shawn Drake, Glenn S. Fleisig, and James W. Farris. "Kinematic Comparison of Youth Pitching Using Lighter Baseballs." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 36, Supplement (2004): S136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-200405001-00647.

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Phillips, Randy, Andrew Shatley, Shawn Drake, Glenn S. Fleisig, and James W. Farris. "Kinematic Comparison of Youth Pitching Using Lighter Baseballs." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 36, Supplement (2004): S136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200405001-00647.

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Baltay, Charles, and Steven Girvin. "Robert K. Adair: Explorer of strange particles—and baseballs." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 4 (2021): e2026037118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2026037118.

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SAGAE, Satoshi, Masahiro FUJIKAWA, Hiroyuki NAITO, Kenichi TOKIEDA, Seishi FUJIHARA, and Kazuyoshi ARAI. "2027 NUMERICAL SIMULATION MODELING AND IMPACT CHARACTERISTICS OF BASEBALLS." Proceedings of Conference of Kanto Branch 2012.18 (2012): 637–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmekanto.2012.18.637.

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OOKA, Shohei, and Masato MAEDA. "230 The trajectory of baseballs pitched under game conditions." Proceedings of the Symposium on sports and human dynamics 2012 (2012): 330–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmeshd.2012.330.

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Meyer, Edmund R., and John L. Bohn. "Influence of a humidor on the aerodynamics of baseballs." American Journal of Physics 76, no. 11 (2008): 1015–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.2955796.

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Kensrud, Jeffrey R., Alan M. Nathan, and Lloyd V. Smith. "Oblique collisions of baseballs and softballs with a bat." American Journal of Physics 85, no. 7 (2017): 503–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4982793.

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Rex, A. F. "The effect of spin on the flight of batted baseballs." American Journal of Physics 53, no. 11 (1985): 1073–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.14034.

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Aguirre-López, Mario A., O. Díaz-Hernández, Filiberto Hueyotl-Zahuantitla, Javier Morales-Castillo, F. Javier Almaguer, and Gerardo J. Escalera Santos. "A cardioid-parametric model for the Magnus effect in baseballs." Advances in Computational Mathematics 45, no. 4 (2019): 2097–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10444-019-09694-w.

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Fleet, David Van, Len White, and Ella W. Van Fleet. "Baseballs or Cricket Balls: On the Meanings of Bullying and Harassment." Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies 06, no. 01 (2018): 131–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2018.61032.

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Borg, John P., and Michael P. Morrissey. "Aerodynamics of the knuckleball pitch: Experimental measurements on slowly rotating baseballs." American Journal of Physics 82, no. 10 (2014): 921–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4885341.

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Reinold, Michael M., Leonard C. Macrina, Glenn S. Fleisig, Kyle Aune, and James R. Andrews. "Effect of a 6-Week Weighted Baseball Throwing Program on Pitch Velocity, Pitching Arm Biomechanics, Passive Range of Motion, and Injury Rates." Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 10, no. 4 (2018): 327–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1941738118779909.

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Background: Emphasis on enhancing baseball pitch velocity has become popular, especially through weighted-ball throwing. However, little is known about the physical effects or safety of these programs. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of training with weighted baseballs on pitch velocity, passive range of motion (PROM), muscle strength, elbow torque, and injury rates. Hypothesis: A 6-week weighted ball training program would result in a change in pitching biomechanical and physical characteristics. Study Design: Randomized controlled trial. Level of Evidence: Level 1. Methods: During the baseball offseason, 38 healthy baseball pitchers were randomized into a control group and an experimental group. Pitch velocity, shoulder and elbow PROM, shoulder strength, elbow varus torque, and shoulder internal rotation velocity were measured in both groups. The experimental group then performed a 6-week weighted ball throwing program 3 times per week using balls ranging from 2 to 32 ounces while the control group only used a 5-ounce regulation baseball. Both groups performed a strength training program. Measurements were then repeated after the 6-week period. Injuries were tracked over the 6-week training program and the subsequent baseball season. The effect of training with a weighted ball program was assessed using 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance at an a priori significance level of P < 0.05. Results: Mean age, height, mass, and pretesting throwing velocity were 15.3 ± 1.2 years (range, 13-18 years), 1.73 ± 0.28 m, 68.3 ± 11 kg, and 30.3 ± 0.7 m/s, respectively. Pitch velocity showed a statistically significant increase (3.3%) in the experimental group ( P < 0.001). There was a statistically significant increase of 4.3° of shoulder external rotation in the experimental group. The overall injury rate was 24% in the experimental group. Four participants in the experimental group suffered elbow injuries, 2 during the training program and 2 in the season after training. No pitchers in the control group were injured at any time during the study. Conclusion: Performing a 6-week weighted ball throwing program increased pitch velocity. However, the program resulted in increased shoulder external rotation PROM and increased injury rate. Clinical Relevance: Although weighted-ball training may increase pitch velocity, caution is warranted because of the notable increase in injuries and physical changes observed in this cohort.

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Escamilla, Rafael F., Kevin P. Speer, Glenn S. Fleisig, Steven W. Barrentine, and James R. Andrews. "Effects of Throwing Overweight and Underweight Baseballs on Throwing Velocity and Accuracy." Sports Medicine 29, no. 4 (2000): 259–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200029040-00004.

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Drane, Patrick, Prachi Dhavale, Christopher Hansen, Ryan Kelley, and Jacob Burke. "A Study of the Interaction between Batting Cage Baseballs and Pitching Machine." Proceedings 2, no. 6 (2018): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2060203.

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Kagan, David, and David Atkinson. "The Coefficient of Restitution of Baseballs as a Function of Relative Humidity." Physics Teacher 42, no. 6 (2004): 330–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.1790337.

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Ijiri, Takashi, Atsushi Nakamura, Akira Hirabayashi, Wataru Sakai, Takeshi Miyazaki, and Ryutaro Himeno. "Automatic spin measurements for pitched Baseballs via consumer-grade high-speed cameras." Signal, Image and Video Processing 11, no. 7 (2017): 1197–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11760-017-1075-x.

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42

Bodin, Kerri, Georgia Teare, Jordan T. Bakhsh, and Marijke Taks. "An Innovative Approach to Increasing Youth Sport Participation: The Case of Baseball5™." Case Studies in Sport Management 10, S1 (2021): S24—S29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/cssm.2020-0027.

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Youth sport participation preferences are evolving and shifting toward unorganized, nontraditional types of sport participation. This trend has left more traditional sports with decreasing participation numbers. Baseball Canada noticed a similar trend and therefore implemented an innovative approach to increase interest and participation in baseball. This case study follows Alex, the Manager of Sport Development at Baseball Canada, as they develop and evaluate Baseball5™, an innovative street version of the traditional sport of baseball. This alternative form of baseball needs to be tested and evaluated in five pilot programs throughout Canada. Alex collects survey, interview, and focus group data following each of the pilot programs to determine whether the approach is viable for increasing interest in baseball long term. After reading the case, students are tasked with analyzing the collected data and designing the Baseball5™ program for long-term implementation. The case is ideal for upper year undergraduate students who have the skills and knowledge necessary to execute program evaluations and build holistic program implementation plans, and for undergraduate courses in research methods or data analysis.

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Miller, Lori K., P. Joanne Rowe, and Jacalyn Lund. "Correlation of Eye Color on Self-Paced and Reactive Motor Performance." Perceptual and Motor Skills 75, no. 1 (1992): 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1992.75.1.91.

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Researchers continue to examine the distinctiveness of motor performance by dark- versus light-eyed individuals. Dark-eyed individuals generally perform better at reactive type tasks (boxing, hitting a ball, defensive positions in football, rotary pursuit), while light-eyed individuals perform better at self-paced tasks (bowling, golf, pitching baseballs). Subjects performed two tasks, rotary pursuit and ball tossing (with light and dark background). Eye color (light or dark) and accuracy of performance were recorded for each subject. No significant difference was found between eye color and performance on the pursuit rotor (reactive activity). A significant difference was found between men's and women's performance in throwing a ball (self-paced activity) at a light-colored background.

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Smith, Lloyd, and Warren Faber. "The effect of temperature and humidity on the performance of baseballs and softballs." Procedia Engineering 13 (2011): 200–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.05.073.

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Chen, Yuan-Shao, Ying-Chieh Kao, Ching-Hui Hsieh, and Chiang Liu. "THE COMPARISON OF PITCHING TRAJECTORY OF NEW-MODEL BASEBALLS WITH AND WITHOUT SPIN." Journal of Biomechanics 40 (January 2007): S604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-9290(07)70592-4.

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Yamamoto, Loren G., Alson S. Inaba, Daryl M. Okamura, Julienne A. Yamamoto, and Joelle B. Yamamoto. "Injury Reduction and Bounce Characteristics of Safety Baseballs and Acceptability by Youth Leagues." Clinical Pediatrics 40, no. 4 (2001): 197–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000992280104000403.

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Johnson, Arthur T. "Regulating the National Pastime: Baseball and Antitrust. By Jerold J. Duquette. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999. 154p. $59.95." American Political Science Review 95, no. 1 (2001): 212–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003055401342016.

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Major league baseball, unlike other professional sports in the United States, has been exempt from antitrust laws for nearly a century. The reason lies with early state and federal court decisions, of which the most frequently cited is the Supreme Court's Federal Baseball Club of Baltimore v. National League opinion, authored by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes in 1922. Baseball's legal status has been the subject of numerous law review articles and commentaries, historical narratives, and scholarly analyses. Nevertheless, Jerold Duquette claims that there has been no integrated and comprehensive examination of "baseball's unregulated monopoly."

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Link, M. S., B. J. Maron, P. J. Wang, N. G. Pandian, B. A. VanderBrink, and N. A. M. Estes. "Reduced Risk of Sudden Death From Chest Wall Blows (Commotio Cordis) With Safety Baseballs." PEDIATRICS 109, no. 5 (2002): 873–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.5.873.

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Classie, Justin A., Laura M. Distel, and James R. Borchers. "Safety Baseballs and Chest Protectors: A Systematic Review on the Prevention of Commotio Cordis." Physician and Sportsmedicine 38, no. 1 (2010): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3810/psm.2010.04.1765.

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Polumbaum, Judy. "News for the Culture: Why Editors Put Strong Men Hitting Baseballs on Page One." Newspaper Research Journal 21, no. 2 (2000): 23–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073953290002100203.

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Newspaper editors recognize cultural priorities and preoccupations embedded in stories and, to the extent that their judgments embody assessments of audience receptivity, quite consciously act as agents of cultural interpretation and transmission.

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