Academic literature on the topic 'Barren inflorescence173'

In plants, small groups of pluripotent stem cells called axillary meristems are required for the formation of the branches and flowers that eventually establish shoot architecture and drive reproductive success. To ensure the proper formation of new axillary meristems, the specification of boundary regions is required for coordinating their development. We have identified two maize genes, BARREN INFLORESCENCE1 and BARREN INFLORESCENCE4 (BIF1 and BIF4), that regulate the early steps required for inflorescence formation. BIF1 and BIF4 encode AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID (Aux/IAA) proteins, which are key components of the auxin hormone signaling pathway that is essential for organogenesis. Here we show that BIF1 and BIF4 are integral to auxin signaling modules that dynamically regulate the expression of BARREN STALK1 (BA1), a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcriptional regulator necessary for axillary meristem formation that shows a striking boundary expression pattern. These findings suggest that auxin signaling directly controls boundary domains during axillary meristem formation and define a fundamental mechanism that regulates inflorescence architecture in one of the most widely grown crop species.

Zea mays L. is one of the world’s most agronomically important crop. The understanding of the molecular basis of inflorescences architecture and seed development may be useful for agronomic purposes. The major goal of this research is to investigate different aspect of maize development to shed light on the genetic mechanisms involved in the formation of maize inflorescences as well as seed development. In the first part of my thesis, the mechanisms regulating inflorescences development have been investigated by studying a new barren mutant, barren inflorescence173 (bif173). The recessive mutant bif173 is affected in the formation of axillary meristems, showing defects in inflorescences development, such as a reduction in the number of spikelets and branches in the tassel and smaller and more disorganized ears. The phenotype of this mutant is not fully penetrant and its severity seems to be related to temperature or light changes. Also, we demonstrated that bif173, like other barren mutants, is involved in auxin biology and may play a role in auxin signaling. In order to identify the gene responsible of bif173 mutation, a RNA-seq analysis was carried out to closely examine a mapping region previously identified and one SNP present only in bif173 mutant transcripts was found. This SNP represents a non-synonymous mutation in the coding region of the gene GRMZM2G038401, causing a change of a very conserved amino acid in the encoded protein. This gene encodes a metalloprotease, homologous to the FtsH ATP- dependent metalloproteases, a conserved family of membrane- bound proteases. The ubiquitous localization of the GRMZM2G038401 transcripts seems to be consistent with the numerous functions of these proteases. As evidence that GRMZM2G038401 gene is a good candidate for bif173 mutation is the fact that the SNP found in the RNA-seq reads was not present in teosinte and other maize inbred lines, suggesting that it is not a polymorphism due to the genetic variability among maize background. In order to confirm that GRMZM2G038401 is the gene responsible for bif173 mutation, plants homozygous for a transposon insertion are currently growing and if the phenotype resembles the bif173 mutant phenotype, this gene will be confirmed as the causative gene. This finding will shed light on the molecular mechanisms regulating inflorescences development in maize and will increase our knowledge in auxin biology. In the second part of my thesis, genetic mechanisms acting in seed development have been investigated, particularly focusing on gametogenesis and embryogenesis. In A. thaliana, DME is a gene encoding a DNA glycosylase/lyase, active in the central cell of the female gametophyte before fertilization. The role of this enzyme is essential for the viability of the seed, in fact, acting as a demethylase, it activates the expression of maternal alleles, establishing imprinting in the endosperm. Here, two DME homologues in maize were identified: ZmDME1 and ZmDME2. The proteins encoded by these genes showed a high homology with A. thaliana DME and a conserved protein structure characteristic of the DME family. A phylogenetic analysis also suggested that these proteins have a common evolutionary origin. The expression of these genes was found in different stages of gametogenesis, previously identified through a morphological analysis. ZmDME1 and ZmDME2 showed a different expression pattern compared to A. thaliana DME, i.e. the expression was not only found in the mature gametophyte containing the central cell, but also in the embryo and endosperm and in all the vegetative tissues tested. Furthermore, the localization of the expression of ZmDME1 and ZmDME2 in the mature gametophyte was detected not only in the central cell but also in the other cells of the embryo sac and in the nucellus. In A. thaliana dme mutants produce non viable seeds, with enlarged endosperm and aborted embryos. A functional analysis using Zmdme1 mutant plants revealed no defects in vegetative and reproductive phases, producing all normal-shaped seeds. A morphological analysis of these mutants showed that gametogenesis and embryogenesis occur normally. Nevertheless, further analyses are needed to verify the function of these genes. Even if the lack of DME orthologues in monocots has been previously hypothesized, recent findings suggest that a similar mechanism of DNA demethylation may take place in monocot gametophyte. Thus, we discuss about the possibility that ZmDME1 and ZmDME2 may be responsible of active demethylation in maize gametophyte, allowing the proper development of embryo and endosperm.

The plant hormone auxin plays a major role in shaping plant morphology and development, but the gene networks regulating its synthesis and transport are incompletely known. The maize BARREN INFLORESCENCE 1 (BIF1) gene has recently been cloned and shown to play an important role in the early stages of polar auxin transport. Auxin is synthesized in shoot tips and transported basipetally through the plant shoot and acts as a morphogen by facilitating the degradation of transcriptional repressors in a concentration dependent manner. The AUX/IAA gene family encodes transcriptional repressors that regulate a subset of plant developmental responses governed by the transcription of early auxin inducible genes in plants. Although the maize BIF1 gene is a member of the AUX/IAA gene family, the co-ortholog(s) of BIF1 in Arabidopsis thaliana was not known prior to this research.

Bayesian phylogenetic reconstruction placed maize BIF1 in a clade sister to Arabidopsis thaliana AtIAA15. The BIF1 lineage has undergone two gene duplications since the divergence of the early grasses. Molecular evolutionary analyses by maximum likelihood suggest that the BIF1 alignment is under strong purifying selection with positive selection acting on a glutamine residue located in a functional region associated with AUX/IAA protein dimerization in one clade of BIF1 paralogs, the BIF1-Like2 (BIF1L2) clade. A character reconstruction analysis using maximum parsimony estimated an adenine to cytosine transversion at the base of the BIF1L2 clade changed a glutamine into an alanine residue in this functional region. Expression of BIF1 orthologs is conserved in floral meristems in the eudicot AtIAA15 clade containing the taxa Erianthe Guttata, Arabidopsis thaliana, Medicago truncatula, however grass BIF1L2 expression has diverged within the PACMAD – BEP clade, specifically in rice, where BIF1L2 expression is reported to have moved into root tissue. These results suggest that BIF1 paralogs has changed following a second round of gene duplication in the grasses. Taken together, a change in localized expression in these sequences, and positive selection acting on a glutamine-rich region of the protein-protein binding motif could imply that BARREN INFLORESCENCE1-like2 proteins are probably interacting with a new set or subset of AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR (ARF) binding partners, and that neofunctionalization has occurred in the BARREN INFLORESCENCE1-like2 clade.