Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Baiting'

Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 2019
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 63-64).
The goal of this thesis is to develop a defense methodology for a cyber-physical system (CPS) by which an attempted stealthy cyber-attack is detected in near real time. Improvements in networked communication have enabled vast and complex dynamic control systems to exploit networked control schemes to seamlessly integrate parts and processes. These cyber-physical systems exhibit a level of flexibility that was previously unavailable but also introduce communication channels that are vulnerable to outside interference and malicious intervention. This thesis considers the effects of a type of stealthy attack on a class of CPS that can be modeled as linear time-invariant systems. The effects of this attack are studied from both the perspective of the attacker as well as the defender. A previously developed method for conducting stealthy attacks is introduced and analyzed.
This method consists of injecting malicious actuation signals into the control input of a CPS and then designing a sensor attack to conceal the effect of the actuator attack. The result is an attack that cannot be detected upon inspection of the Kalman filter residual. Successful implementation of this attack is shown to require the attacker to attain perfect model knowledge in order for the attack to be stealthy. Based on the execution of past attacks on CPS, this thesis proposes an attacker who starts their attack by "fishing" for critical and confidential system information such as the model parameters. A method is then proposed in which the defender attempts to feed the attacker a slightly falsified model, baiting the fishing attacker with data that will make an attack detectable. Because the attacker's model is no longer correct, their attack design will induce a mean-shift in the Kalman filter residual, breaking the stealthiness of the original attack formula.
It is then shown that the defender can not only detect this faulty attack, but use observations of the Kalman filter residual to regain more accurate state estimates, mitigating the effect of the attack.
by David B. Flamholz.
S.M.
S.M. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering

The European red fox (Vulpes vulpes L.) is a well known predator of native species and domestic stock, and is recognised as one of Australia’s most devastating vertebrate pests. Current fox management relies heavily on poisoning using baits impregnated with sodium monofluoroacetate (1080). This reliance on 1080 is likely to continue given the lack of viable alternatives for controlling foxes, so that, in the meanwhile, it is important to improve the efficiency of the current techniques. Factors affecting the susceptibility of individual foxes to bait include their ability to locate it, as well as the bait’s palatability and toxicity. The economic costs associated with using different bait types, the pattern and density of their distribution will also affect the efficiency of control programs. It is essential to examine and refine all such issues to ensure efficient use of the 1080 baiting technique. This thesis focuses generally on problems associated with management of the fox in eastern Australia. More specifically, I investigate the factors affecting the efficiency of fox baiting practices on the central tablelands of New South Wales. The study was conducted largely on agricultural lands near the town of Molong (33010’ 37”S, 148087’15”E) on the central tablelands of New South Wales. This area was chosen as it is broadly representative, in terms of land use, of a large region of eastern Australia. The highly modified, predominantly agricultural landscapes near Molong are well suited to foxes, and conflict with the predominantly pastoral community means that fox management is widely undertaken. I determined the persistence of 1080 in two commonly used bait types, Foxoff® and chicken wingettes, under different climatic and rainfall conditions. The rate of 1080 degradation did not change significantly between the central tablelands and the relatively hotter and drier western slopes. Foxoff® baits remained lethal for longer than wingettes under all conditions, although their rate of degradation generally increased with increasing rainfall. I confirmed the presence of defluorinating micro-organisms in thesoils of eastern Australia for the first time, and suggest that, following removal from the bait, 1080 would not persist in the environment for long. Bait should be attractive and highly palatable to ensure that the target species will find and consume it upon discovery. Caching, where discovered food is removed but not immediately consumed, may potentially reduce the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of baiting campaigns. I quantified the caching of chicken wingette, day-old chick and Foxoff® baits by inserting transmitters into bait material and assessing whether it was eaten or cached following removal. The intensity of caching did not change significantly between seasons. Type of bait had the largest influence on caching intensity, with a greater percentage of non-toxic Foxoff® baits (66.9%) being cached than either wingettes (5.7%) or day-old chicks (4.5%). The percentage of toxic (1080) baits cached was even greater, suggesting that 1080 bait may be less palatable, and detectable to foxes. I also investigated the use of conditioned taste aversion to reduce multiple bait uptake by foxes. Levamisole, an illness-inducing chemical, was added to bait and the fate of removed bait was again monitored via radio-telemetry. Following consumption of a levamisole-treated bait, foxes avoided eating treated baits but consumed untreated baits. I concluded that a reduction in bait consumption was achieved through learned aversion to levamisole rather than via conditioned taste aversion to baits. Adding levamisole to baits, especially non-toxic bait such as rabies vaccines, could potentially be used to reduce bait monopolisation by individual foxes. Fox density and den site preferences were assessed by investigating the distribution and density of fox natal dens on one property (9.6 km2) over three consecutive years. A total of 9 natal dens were located in 2000 and 2001, declining to 6 in 2002. No preference was shown for den sites on the basis of habitat, slope or aspect, but more dens were located under, or adjacent to cover. Assuming that each natal den represents a breeding pair and that the population sex ratio did not differ from parity (1:1), the site contained a prebreeding density of 1.9 foxes/km2 in 2000 and 2001, and 1.25 foxes/km2 in 2002. Given that the mean number of cubs is 4.0, the post-breeding density was estimated at 5.6 and 3.75 foxes/km2 in 2000/2001 and 2002, respectively. The results demonstrated that high densities of foxes occur on agricultural lands. The success and likely accuracy of the technique to monitor fox density suggests that it may be used to calibrate more efficient abundance estimates that will be essential for the strategic management of foxes in future. Pest animal management strategies are traditionally assessed for their effectiveness, with less consideration being given to the efficiency or cost of achieving the desired effect. I used cost-effectiveness analyses to compare between different baiting strategies based on the longevity, palatability and handling/replacement costs associated with each bait type. The results indicated that, when measured on a total cost-per-bait-consumed basis, wingettes and day-old chicks were the most cost-effective baits for campaigns of up to 4 weeks duration. This demonstrates the importance of including the longevity, and particularly the palatability of bait, when assessing cost-effectiveness. However, it is recognised that other factors, including the consistency of dosage and uptake by nontarget species, may be equally or more important in deciding the appropriate baiting strategy. The spatial and temporal application of fox baiting in the region overseen by the Molong Rural Lands Protection Board was examined between January 1998 and December 2002 as a case study to evaluate the apparent effectiveness of cooperative management practices. Most landholders (78.8%) did not bait for foxes during this period. Based on known dispersal distances, the effect of fox immigration into baited areas was determined. The results indicated that no areas baited for foxes were separated by a sufficient buffer distance (>9.58 km) from unbaited areas to be protected from fox immigration. This suggests that, at current levels of coordination, the effectiveness of most baiting operations in eastern Australia is compromised over the long term by fox immigration. However, it is recognised that short-term reductions in fox density may sometimes be all that are required to reduce predation to acceptable levels, especially for seasonally-susceptible prey. Ultimately, the cost-effectiveness of control should be evaluated in terms of the response of the prey rather than that of the predator. This study has highlighted deficiencies in current ‘best-practice’ baiting techniques. Specific recommendations for current baiting practices, in addition to future research, are also given. In brief, these include minimising free-feed baiting, increasing the minimum distance between bait stations, and, where possible, presenting the most palatable bait. Continued research into conditioned taste aversion, aerial baiting, and techniques to reduce caching are recommended as potential techniques to improve the efficiency of baiting practices.

Doctor of Philosophy(PhD)
The European red fox (Vulpes vulpes L.) is a well known predator of native species and domestic stock, and is recognised as one of Australia’s most devastating vertebrate pests. Current fox management relies heavily on poisoning using baits impregnated with sodium monofluoroacetate (1080). This reliance on 1080 is likely to continue given the lack of viable alternatives for controlling foxes, so that, in the meanwhile, it is important to improve the efficiency of the current techniques. Factors affecting the susceptibility of individual foxes to bait include their ability to locate it, as well as the bait’s palatability and toxicity. The economic costs associated with using different bait types, the pattern and density of their distribution will also affect the efficiency of control programs. It is essential to examine and refine all such issues to ensure efficient use of the 1080 baiting technique. This thesis focuses generally on problems associated with management of the fox in eastern Australia. More specifically, I investigate the factors affecting the efficiency of fox baiting practices on the central tablelands of New South Wales. The study was conducted largely on agricultural lands near the town of Molong (33010’ 37”S, 148087’15”E) on the central tablelands of New South Wales. This area was chosen as it is broadly representative, in terms of land use, of a large region of eastern Australia. The highly modified, predominantly agricultural landscapes near Molong are well suited to foxes, and conflict with the predominantly pastoral community means that fox management is widely undertaken. I determined the persistence of 1080 in two commonly used bait types, Foxoff® and chicken wingettes, under different climatic and rainfall conditions. The rate of 1080 degradation did not change significantly between the central tablelands and the relatively hotter and drier western slopes. Foxoff® baits remained lethal for longer than wingettes under all conditions, although their rate of degradation generally increased with increasing rainfall. I confirmed the presence of defluorinating micro-organisms in thesoils of eastern Australia for the first time, and suggest that, following removal from the bait, 1080 would not persist in the environment for long. Bait should be attractive and highly palatable to ensure that the target species will find and consume it upon discovery. Caching, where discovered food is removed but not immediately consumed, may potentially reduce the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of baiting campaigns. I quantified the caching of chicken wingette, day-old chick and Foxoff® baits by inserting transmitters into bait material and assessing whether it was eaten or cached following removal. The intensity of caching did not change significantly between seasons. Type of bait had the largest influence on caching intensity, with a greater percentage of non-toxic Foxoff® baits (66.9%) being cached than either wingettes (5.7%) or day-old chicks (4.5%). The percentage of toxic (1080) baits cached was even greater, suggesting that 1080 bait may be less palatable, and detectable to foxes. I also investigated the use of conditioned taste aversion to reduce multiple bait uptake by foxes. Levamisole, an illness-inducing chemical, was added to bait and the fate of removed bait was again monitored via radio-telemetry. Following consumption of a levamisole-treated bait, foxes avoided eating treated baits but consumed untreated baits. I concluded that a reduction in bait consumption was achieved through learned aversion to levamisole rather than via conditioned taste aversion to baits. Adding levamisole to baits, especially non-toxic bait such as rabies vaccines, could potentially be used to reduce bait monopolisation by individual foxes. Fox density and den site preferences were assessed by investigating the distribution and density of fox natal dens on one property (9.6 km2) over three consecutive years. A total of 9 natal dens were located in 2000 and 2001, declining to 6 in 2002. No preference was shown for den sites on the basis of habitat, slope or aspect, but more dens were located under, or adjacent to cover. Assuming that each natal den represents a breeding pair and that the population sex ratio did not differ from parity (1:1), the site contained a prebreeding density of 1.9 foxes/km2 in 2000 and 2001, and 1.25 foxes/km2 in 2002. Given that the mean number of cubs is 4.0, the post-breeding density was estimated at 5.6 and 3.75 foxes/km2 in 2000/2001 and 2002, respectively. The results demonstrated that high densities of foxes occur on agricultural lands. The success and likely accuracy of the technique to monitor fox density suggests that it may be used to calibrate more efficient abundance estimates that will be essential for the strategic management of foxes in future. Pest animal management strategies are traditionally assessed for their effectiveness, with less consideration being given to the efficiency or cost of achieving the desired effect. I used cost-effectiveness analyses to compare between different baiting strategies based on the longevity, palatability and handling/replacement costs associated with each bait type. The results indicated that, when measured on a total cost-per-bait-consumed basis, wingettes and day-old chicks were the most cost-effective baits for campaigns of up to 4 weeks duration. This demonstrates the importance of including the longevity, and particularly the palatability of bait, when assessing cost-effectiveness. However, it is recognised that other factors, including the consistency of dosage and uptake by nontarget species, may be equally or more important in deciding the appropriate baiting strategy. The spatial and temporal application of fox baiting in the region overseen by the Molong Rural Lands Protection Board was examined between January 1998 and December 2002 as a case study to evaluate the apparent effectiveness of cooperative management practices. Most landholders (78.8%) did not bait for foxes during this period. Based on known dispersal distances, the effect of fox immigration into baited areas was determined. The results indicated that no areas baited for foxes were separated by a sufficient buffer distance (>9.58 km) from unbaited areas to be protected from fox immigration. This suggests that, at current levels of coordination, the effectiveness of most baiting operations in eastern Australia is compromised over the long term by fox immigration. However, it is recognised that short-term reductions in fox density may sometimes be all that are required to reduce predation to acceptable levels, especially for seasonally-susceptible prey. Ultimately, the cost-effectiveness of control should be evaluated in terms of the response of the prey rather than that of the predator. This study has highlighted deficiencies in current ‘best-practice’ baiting techniques. Specific recommendations for current baiting practices, in addition to future research, are also given. In brief, these include minimising free-feed baiting, increasing the minimum distance between bait stations, and, where possible, presenting the most palatable bait. Continued research into conditioned taste aversion, aerial baiting, and techniques to reduce caching are recommended as potential techniques to improve the efficiency of baiting practices.

Local coastal fishers in Belize are adapting novel strategies to manage, exploit, and market marine and coastal resources in an effort to promote fishing livelihoods and coastal environmental sustainability. These resilience strategies respond to diminished fishing stocks, fisheries and environmental policies and regulations, climate change, shifting seafood markets, and expanding tourism development. With growing foreign investment and nationally-directed infrastructure improvement projects on the Placencia Peninsula in recent years, tourism development is shifting toward mass tourism, and local residents are seeking avenues to sustain their livelihoods. In Placencia, the need for effective monitoring and management of Marine Protected Areas, fisheries, and coastal tourism, and enforcement of environmental regulations is being met through collaborations between the fisheries sector, governmental departments, regional environmental NGOs, and international aid agencies. Drawing on an “anthropology of public policy” approach and ethnographic research (including interviews, participatory mapping, surveys, and participant-observation) between 2013 and 2015 on the peninsula, this thesis investigates the implications of collaborative coastal resource management strategies developed between the Placencia Producers Cooperative Society Limited and regional environmental NGOs such as the Southern Environmental Association (SEA), among others, to promote marine conservation, local fishing livelihoods, and heritage tourism. In particular, I consider how fishing livelihoods, conceptions of local history and heritage, environmental knowledge, tourism development, and fisheries and environmental policies inform the relationships and trajectory for “sustainable” local fisheries management through these collaborations. Many local fishers recognize a complementary relationship between tourism and fishing occupations through the ways that they can impart an ecological conservation ethos, centering coastal environmental knowledge, education, and local “embodied heritage” experiences and skills to sustain local marine livelihoods while preserving coastal ecosystems for visitors and future generations of residents. With the declining prominence of commercial fishing for Caribbean spiny lobster, queen conch, and fin-fish in the village, several Placencia fishers are applying their generationally inherited and embodied marine knowledge to livelihood diversification strategies such as seasonal, full- or part-time transitions to tour guiding and NGO coastal conservation, monitoring and enforcement, restoration, and outreach positions. Moreover, many fishers in the Placencia producers fishing cooperative have ventured into alternative fisheries and mariculture activities including fishing and marketing of invasive lionfish as well as seaweed farming and value-added product promotion with variable support from the Belize Fisheries Department, SEA, other environmental NGOs, and international conservation and development organizations. Recognizing these livelihood diversification strategies and relationships for sustainable coastal resource management, I discuss the opportunities and challenges of three recent and emerging alternative livelihoods programs directed by the Placencia fishing cooperative including the seaweed farming project, the lionfish eradication and marketing initiative, and the development of a heritage tourism program centering fisher livelihoods in connection with a proposed local fishing history museum. To explore the possibility for fishing heritage tourism as a pathway to “sustainable tourism development” on the peninsula in the future, I investigate how local conceptions of fishing as heritage in Placencia village converge with or diverge from tourist “imaginaries” of culture and heritage on the peninsula as well as heritage assets and products conceived in national sustainable tourism development policy and commercial tourism markets. Residents of the peninsula, Belizean workers and visitors residing off of the peninsula, and foreign tourists alike recognize fishing and activites, events, and places associated with fishing as aspects of local heritage, although foreign visitors generally ascribe only cursory significance to fishing in the peninsula’s culture(s), heritage, and identities as compared with Belizean nationals. Rather, these visitors often imagine local heritage in terms of beaches and relaxation, the Belize Barrier reef and cayes, and especially the local friendly vibe, “quaintness,” and cultural diversity of people, drawing partly from national and local tourism marketing media portrayals of major attractions on the peninsula (such as on websites and in magazines and guidebooks) and resident and visitor word of mouth. Local and national sustainable tourism policies for the peninsula that recommend cultural tourism as a secondary product for future tourism development on the peninsula align with interview and survey results that suggest widespread resident and visitor interest in seeing the development of cultural heritage attractions on the peninsula such as a local cultural and historical museum. For many residents, conceptions of heritage tourism fit within the scope of local plans and visions for sustainable development that aim to maintain the integrity of the peninsula as a “low impact,” “authentic,” integrated, and primarily overnight tourism destination with a laid-back vibe, beaches, cultural diversity, and access to a variety of inland and marine-based attractions. Drawing from these results, I conclude by discussing the implications of these alternative fisheries and tourism initiatives and markets to support local livelihoods and coastal environmental conservation, and consider the potential viability of collaborative coastal resource management approaches between fishers, NGOs, and governmental organizations for future sustainable development in Placencia and other coastal Belizean communities. This thesis represents an applied case study of collaborative fisheries management and how heritage is conceived and applied in a coastal Belizean context. It builds on previous coastal environmental resource management, heritage studies, and anthropology of tourism research, and considers the significance of local heritage and livelihoods in crafting locally accountable, relevant, and sustainable development policies and plans in coastal settings.

In Western Australia dried meat baits containing 1080 are used extensively by agricultural and conservation organisations to control foxes and dingoes for the protection of agricultural production and native fauna. Field trials were conducted to assess 1080 loss from dried meat baits and this required the analysis of over five hundred baits. Because of this large number of baits it was essential to have a simple and efficient 1080 extraction procedure and method of 1080 analysis. In this study three methods of 1080 extraction and the new bioassay method for 1080 analysis were investigated. A simple and cost-effective 1080 extraction method using water with a 98% 1080 recovery rate was developed and modifications to the bioassay method were made.Factory-produced 1080 dried meat baits were laid in the field during different seasons at four locations in Western Australia, samples were collected over time and analysed for 1080 content using the bioassay. Rainfall was recorded and temperature data was collected for each site. Baits were exposed to the elements but were placed in mesh or wire cages to restrict invertebrate attack and prevent removal by vertebrates. Some baits were placed on the surface and others were buried. Initially 1080 loss from baits from all 4 sites was minimal, ranging from 0 - 21% at day 7 - 9. Further loss was gradual even when rainfall was recorded. Generally baits had to be exposed to at least 50 mm of rain before 1080 loss increased to 50%. At some sites baits continued to remain toxic to foxes even after long exposure. The mean 1080 content of baits from the Carnarvon site at day 226 was 2.0 mg (55% of the mean 1080 content of baits at day zero) with 137 mm of rainfall recorded for that period. Loss of 1080 from baits buried occurred at a faster rate than from baits placed on the surface during the same time period. By day 14 no 1080 was detected in the buried baits compared to the 68% detected in the surface baits. Under certain conditions 1080 loss from baits was minimal. Levels of 1080 in baits from Nangeen Hill remained fairly constant during the months of September to December 1995, and again during February to April 1996.Gastrolobium plant tissue and soil samples from the southwest of Western Australia were investigated for the presence of 1080 degrading microorganisms. Microbes were isolated and individually tested in solution containing 1080 as the sole carbon source. Isolates which showed 1080 degrading ability were further tested for their degrading efficiency in McClung carbon-free solution with added 1080 as the sole source of carbon and in factory 1080 waste solution, at 1080 concentrations of 20 and 200 mM. The effect of temperature on their rate of degradation was also examined. Thirteen isolates (7 fungi and 6 bacteria) showing varying degrees of 1080 degrading ability were obtained. Rates of 1080 degradation varied among isolates but were highest in the factory waste solution at the 20 mM concentration and in the McClung solution, where 1080 was the sole source of carbon, at the higher concentration of 200 mM. The most efficient isolates OSK and 10H (both Pseudomonas species) degraded all the 1080 present in sterile factory waste solution up to 20 mM 1080 concentration in 4 days and the isolate 1AF (Fusarium oxysporum) degraded 93% of 200 mM 1080 in the McClung solution in 9 days. The optimum temperatures for 1080 degradation were 30 degrees celsius and fluctuating ambient temperatures of 15 28 degrees celsius.

Commercial termite baiting systems were utilized and evaluated under real-world conditions in order to provide a comparison of efficacy in the management of subterranean termites. Three commercial termite baiting systems available for comparison included: FirstLine® (FMC Corp.), Sentricon® (Dow AgroSciences), and Terminate® (United Industries, Inc). The time required for foraging termites to locate and begin feeding on both the Sentricon® and the Terminate® bait stations was approximately one-half the time required to locate and begin feeding on the FirstLine® system, for both R. flavipes and C. formosanus. The time required for C. formosanus to locate and begin feeding on all termite baiting systems was approximately one-half the time required for R. flavipes. There were no significant differences in efficacy between the three baiting treatment systems against R. flavipes, with a mean of 84% efficacy for all systems. The Sentricon® system was able to achieve efficacy (88%) results with few additional residual liquid termiticide treatments. FirstLine® efficacy (80%) and Terminate® efficacy (84%) results required initial and subsequent multiple spot treatments with residual termiticide for comparable results. The Sentricon® baiting system yielded positive results in the management of C. formosanus, if utilized in an aggressive, active management program, involving multiple supplementary in-ground and above-ground bait stations at both points of active infestation and at areas with conditions conducive to infestation. Optimum results were achieved when monitoring of the bait stations occurred twice each month, rather than the standard monthly monitoring regime. The two termite baiting systems with Sulfluramid as the active ingredient required spot treatments with termiticides in order to protect the structures. Grids of bait stations were installed and termite activity and foraging strategies were monitored for a five-year period. Treatment with sulfluramid required 472 active ingredient tubes, over a 37-month period, in order to reduce subterranean termite populations. Observations of seasonal variation and spatial patterns of foraging by native subterranean termites, R. flavipes, in a typical urban/suburban setting provided information with direct application to an effective termite baiting system program.

In Western Australia dried meat baits containing 1080 are used extensively by agricultural and conservation organisations to control foxes and dingoes for the protection of agricultural production and native fauna. Field trials were conducted to assess 1080 loss from dried meat baits and this required the analysis of over five hundred baits. Because of this large number of baits it was essential to have a simple and efficient 1080 extraction procedure and method of 1080 analysis. In this study three methods of 1080 extraction and the new bioassay method for 1080 analysis were investigated. A simple and cost-effective 1080 extraction method using water with a 98% 1080 recovery rate was developed and modifications to the bioassay method were made.Factory-produced 1080 dried meat baits were laid in the field during different seasons at four locations in Western Australia, samples were collected over time and analysed for 1080 content using the bioassay. Rainfall was recorded and temperature data was collected for each site. Baits were exposed to the elements but were placed in mesh or wire cages to restrict invertebrate attack and prevent removal by vertebrates. Some baits were placed on the surface and others were buried. Initially 1080 loss from baits from all 4 sites was minimal, ranging from 0 - 21% at day 7 - 9. Further loss was gradual even when rainfall was recorded. Generally baits had to be exposed to at least 50 mm of rain before 1080 loss increased to 50%. At some sites baits continued to remain toxic to foxes even after long exposure. The mean 1080 content of baits from the Carnarvon site at day 226 was 2.0 mg (55% of the mean 1080 content of baits at day zero) with 137 mm of rainfall recorded for that period. Loss of 1080 from baits buried occurred at a faster rate than from baits placed on the surface during the same time period. By day 14 no 1080 was ++
detected in the buried baits compared to the 68% detected in the surface baits. Under certain conditions 1080 loss from baits was minimal. Levels of 1080 in baits from Nangeen Hill remained fairly constant during the months of September to December 1995, and again during February to April 1996.Gastrolobium plant tissue and soil samples from the southwest of Western Australia were investigated for the presence of 1080 degrading microorganisms. Microbes were isolated and individually tested in solution containing 1080 as the sole carbon source. Isolates which showed 1080 degrading ability were further tested for their degrading efficiency in McClung carbon-free solution with added 1080 as the sole source of carbon and in factory 1080 waste solution, at 1080 concentrations of 20 and 200 mM. The effect of temperature on their rate of degradation was also examined. Thirteen isolates (7 fungi and 6 bacteria) showing varying degrees of 1080 degrading ability were obtained. Rates of 1080 degradation varied among isolates but were highest in the factory waste solution at the 20 mM concentration and in the McClung solution, where 1080 was the sole source of carbon, at the higher concentration of 200 mM. The most efficient isolates OSK and 10H (both Pseudomonas species) degraded all the 1080 present in sterile factory waste solution up to 20 mM 1080 concentration in 4 days and the isolate 1AF (Fusarium oxysporum) degraded 93% of 200 mM 1080 in the McClung solution in 9 days. The optimum temperatures for 1080 degradation were 30 degrees celsius and fluctuating ambient temperatures of 15 28 degrees celsius.

The complexity of ecological networks and ecosystem function has been debated amongst ecologists since the early 1900s. Increasing anthropogenic interference to ecosystems, including habitat loss through land clearing and introduction of exotic species, have provided additional complexity to the functioning of native ecological networks. Greater understanding of such complex and dynamic ecosystems is informed by gaining recognition of the role of top-order (apex) and mesopredator (lower-order, usually smaller-sized) species in the regulation of energy transfer within an ecosystem. This thesis investigates the mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH) by examining the biology of the Near-Threatened south-west carpet python (Morelia spilota imbricata) as a native mesopredator species to a population control program of an apex exotic species, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Conventional methods, including mark-recapture studies, to quantify population trends of M. s. imbricata are impractical in this cryptic species, which cannot be trapped by enticement. Focal animal studies examining the ecology, physiology, and behaviour of pythons through radiotelemetry monitoring were carried out between 2006 to 2008, in fox baited and unbaited areas of coastal woodland and in fox baited areas of the northern jarrah forest in south-west Western Australia. Pythons were initially captured after they had ingested a radio-collared western ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus occidentalis, n=14) or through opportunistic sightings (n=32). Forty-six pythons were surgically implanted with radiotransmitters into their coelomic cavity under anaesthesia; where body size permitted, temperature data loggers were also attached to the transmitters. Initially pythons were able to expel the implanted radiotransmitters. A novel technique was developed to prevent radiotransmitter expulsion involving anchoring the radiotransmitter to the rib-cage of the python with a non-dissolvable suture. Implementation of this technique led to the successful retention of all the implanted devices, and this surgical implantation technique has been published as an independent study (see Chapter 3). Haematological and biochemical analyses were undertaken to investigate whether there were any health effects of surgically implanting the radiotransmitters. Blood samples from 43 wild-caught M. s. imbricata were collected into lithium heparin from the ventral coccygeal vein at various stages over the study. References ranges are reported for 35 individuals. Since pythons had radiotransmitters surgically implanted, repeated sampling of the same individuals could be carried out allowed further investigations of how various factors (study site, season, sex, time in captivity and the presence of haemogregarine parasites) affect haematology and biochemistry measures. There was no significant effect of sex, time in captivity or the presence of a haemogregarine parasite on blood parameters. Erythrocyte measures were influenced by study site, season, stage of radiotransmitter implantation and time in captivity. In terms of leucocytes, only basophil numbers were influenced by the python’s anaesthetic state and stage of radiotransmitter placement. Albumin, globulin (and the ratio between the two) and calcium and phosphorous were influenced by season, anaesthetic state, and the stage of radiotransmitter placement. No intrinsic or extrinsic factors appeared to affect creatinine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, uric acid, or total protein. This study demonstrates that various factors including season, time in captivity, location and anaesthetic state will influence blood parameters of M. s. imbricata. Because these animals are increasingly common as pets, veterinarians should be aware of the influence of these factors when diagnosing the health status of individuals. This haematological investigation has been published as an independent study (see Chapter 4). To measure the physiological and behavioural response of M. s. imbricata to fox control, weekly radiotelemetry monitoring of animals at the study sites was carried out over the three years. Body condition changes, age differences, and mortality events, were assessed to determine differences in the survivorship of pythons. Counterintuitive to the MRH, higher mortality rates and faster body condition declines occurred at the fox baited sites. Information on reproductive output was gathered to investigate whether pythons had a greater fecundity in the presence of fox baiting. Adult females were regularly palpated and any mating events were recorded. This intensive animal monitoring suggested that there were higher rates of reproductive output at the fox baited coastal woodland area. However, there were also very high rates of female mortality following parturition at this study area, which may negate or slow overall population increases, particularly as pythons are capital breeders and require an accumulation of body reserves to be reproductively successful. As pythons and foxes share similar prey resources, it was predicted that there would be greater diversity of prey consumed by pythons at the fox baited site. This prediction was investigated through diet analysis of 47 scats collected from 24 individuals at the coastal fox baited and unbaited sites. The ability to collect numerous scats from all individuals was limited given pythons have very low metabolic rates in comparison with endothermic carnivores (e.g. cats), and that they spend long periods over winter months inactive, often sequestered in tree hollows. Although sample size varied between the fox baited and unbaited site, the analysis indicated that the diversity of prey consumed by pythons across treatment areas was similar. Pythons were assessed for potential behavioural avoidance to the presence of foxes. Pythons at the fox baited sites did not show temporal segregation during hunting to avoid the intraguild killer, as there was no difference in the proportions of diurnallyactive prey or nocturnally-active prey in the diets of pythons at either site. However, a higher proportion of pythons at the unbaited site were observed in the most cryptic microhabitat (tree hollows) more often than pythons at the baited sites and also used tree hollows for longer over winter. However, in contrast to predictions for landscapemediated avoidance (to avoid potential exposure to foxes), pythons at the unbaited site were seen more often in the most exposed body position (stretched) compared to pythons at the baited site. Focal animal monitoring through radiotelemetry also allowed further investigation into python ecology, physiology and behaviour. Through dietary analysis coupled with thermal biology, a current foraging theory in snake biology was challenged: I tested whether the temporal window for foraging by smaller-sized snakes (which have a low thermal inertia and therefore cool rapidly at nightfall when air temperatures fall and opportunities for basking are reduced) is restricted to diurnal hunting, cf. larger-sized snakes that may better retain body heat (higher thermal inertia). There was no evidence that having a small body size thermally-restricted the temporal window for ambush foraging in M. s. imbricata as hourly measures of heating and cooling (rates of change in python body temperature) were not different from those of larger-bodied snakes. Small pythons were able to successfully hunt on crepuscular and nocturnal prey species such as small carnivorous marsupials as indicated through scat analysis. This study has been published as an independent study (Chapter 5). As habitat selection can influence many physiological facets of animal life, the thermal conditions of microhabitat retreat sites may be very important for ectotherm physiology. The use of tree hollows by pythons over winter was investigated for possible thermal advantages over the alternative microhabitat resources. Temperature data loggers were placed within a range of microhabitats and were coupled with recordings of python body condition and temperature as well as air temperature. When sequestered in tree hollows, pythons had colder daily average and maximum body temperatures (cf. pythons that used other microhabitats), but this did not give them a metabolic advantage (in terms of body condition scores) over winter. It was found that a greater proportion of pythons at the unbaited study site used tree hollows as winter retreats more, and for longer, compared with pythons at the baited coastal woodland site, suggesting that foxes may influence this microhabitat selection behaviour in pythons. Tree hollows provide a critical refuge over winter when python body temperature is low and their responsiveness is limited, rendering individuals extremely vulnerable to predation by terrestrial predators such as the introduced red fox. As a result of land clearing practices, habitat fragmentation, and competition with other hollow-using species it is very likely that tree hollows are a limited resource for pythons. This study indicates the conservation importance of tree hollows for M. s. imbricata. This study has been published as an independent study (Chapter 6). This PhD research is the first attempt to quantify the impact of removal of an apex predator (the red fox) upon a native snake species. This was achieved by intensive focal animal monitoring and outlines the functional and numerical responses of this ectothermic species to the potential change in prey density as a consequence of removal of the fox. This study also investigates additional biological information essential to predict any future responses of other temperate ectothermic species to wide-spread control of introduced or native apex predators.

Baiting with sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) to protect lambs (Ovis aries) from red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) has become more frequent in NSW and other parts of Australia during the last 10 years despite the lack of reported evidence evaluating the effects of fox baiting on lamb survival. NSW Agriculture has developed fox control recommendations aimed at minimising impact, but these guidelines have not been tested experimentally. Defining the extent of a pest problem and the effectiveness of pest control are key components of a strategic approach to vertebrate pest management as it is the damage of pests that justifies their control. This thesis describes an experimental evaluation of the recommended practice of fox control in NSW. The effects of three levels of fox control were tested in the experiment; no treatment, baiting once a year before lambing (the recommended practice) and baiting three times a year (thought to be the maximum farmers would instigate). Each treatment had two replicates. No previous manipulative experiment using synchronous controls and matched replicates has been undertaken to test the effects. The study quantifies the level of fox predation on healthy lambs and the level of predation on lambs that had other causes including illness and mismothering contributing to this fox predation. It also examines the response of the fox population, lamb predation and lambing outcomes to different levels of fox control. The cost effectiveness of fox control is examined in relation to lamb predation and an investigation of the optimum level of fox control is begun. The experiment also provides the first chance to consider the examination of multiple response variables and the scale of field ecology experiments required to recognise a significant response and avoid a Type II error due to between replicate variability even with tightly controlled site selection criteria to standardise experimental sites, and with the synchrony of experimental control and treatment surveys. The study occurred on five sheep properties near Boorowa (34°28'S, 148°32'E) and Murringo (34°18'S, 148°3 1'E) in south-eastern Australia. The terrain was undulating to hilly with a maximum elevation of 660 m above sea level. The main agricultural enterprises in the district are Merino wool, fat lamb and beef cattle production and winter cereal cropping. The native vegetation of Eucalyptus woodland has been mostly cleared, though remnant patches occur. Most of the area is now sown with pasture of Phalaris tuberosa, Lolium spp. and clover Trifolium spp.. The experimental properties grazed self-replacing Merino flocks, primarily for wool production, so lamb survival was vital to the economic operation of the farm. Over 50 selection criteria including lamb survival rates, ewe fertility and bloodline, sheep management practices, climate and habitat features that affect lamb survival, past fox control practices and prey species were used to select sites Sites were representative of most sheep farming properties in the region, but were also extremely similar in factors that affected fox abundance and ewe and lamb survival, thus minimising variation between replicate sites. The manufactured meat baits used to poison foxes contained 3 mg of sodium monofluoroacetate (compound 1080). A replacement baiting program was carried out in 1995 and 1996. Fox control programs were carried out over the experimental units and adjacent buffer zones covering approximately two fox territories, approximately 6km2, around the lambing paddock under study. The recommended fox control practices described by NSW Agriculture also included neighbouring farmers taking part in an extended group baiting program. In all the area baited at varying intensities totalled 3400 km2. Synchronised lambing with neighbours was a further recommended practice to reduce fox predation and was carried out on these sites. Lambing occurred during a six to eight week period in late winter on all sites, a practice known as 'spring lambing', and on many surrounding properties so a surplus of lambs was available to foxes over a relatively short time. The benefits of fox control were measured directly as enhanced lamb survival derived from differences in lamb marking rates between ultrasounded flocks of approximately 1000 ewes and the predation of lambs was measured from over 2000 lamb carcases post-mortemed in 1994, 1995 and 1996. A mean of 138 lambs were expected at ultrasounding from 100 ewes and 113 lambs per 100 ewes were alive at lamb marking. There was no significant (P>0.05) effect of fox control on lambing performance (the number of lambs per 100 ewes that lambed) Fox predation was inferred as the cause of lamb death in a minimum of 0.8% and a maximum of 5.3% of lamb carcases during 1995 and 1996. There was a significant (P<0 05) effect of fox control on the minimum possible percentage of lamb carcases classified as healthy lambs killed by foxes, with the percentage declining from 1.50% (no fox control), to 0.90% (fox control once per year) to 0.25% (fox control three times per year). There was also a significant (P<0.005) effect of fox control on the maximum possible percentage of lamb carcases classified as healthy lambs killed by foxes with the percentage declining from 10.25% (no fox control), to 6.50% (fox control once per year) to 3.75% (fox control three times per year). The observed results were used to estimate the number of treatment replicates needed to be confident of detecting an effect of predator control on lamb marking performance. The estimated numbers were very high if small effects were to be detected. No significant correlation between the fox density and the minimum and maximum possible number of lambs carcases classified as killed by foxes was found. Bait uptake was monitored as were the costs of fox control.

The growing demand for strawberries has imposed challenges, especially regarding the control of pests. Many farmers report problems with reduced chemical control efficiency, probably due to selection of resistant populations of insects and mites. An alternative is the use of biological control using pathogenic fungi as a tool in integrated pest management. Metarhizium spp. (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) are generalist entomopathogenic fungi with worldwide distribution and can cause diseases in a large number of hosts. Many studies on the development of Metarhizium as a biological control agent were performed, but this bulk of knowledge is in remarkable contrast to the lack of research on the fundamental ecology of Metarhizium in agroecosystems. This thesis aimed to evaluate the establishment, persistence and dispersal of these entomopathogenic fungi in strawberry crop soil in Inconfidentes, Minas Gerais, Brazil; and to study the diversity and abundance of species of Metarhizium isolated from organic and conventional strawberry crop soils, and the field margins in Brazil and Denmark. The effectiveness of new species of Metarhizium recently found in Brazil, was evaluated against two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae. Applied isolates of M. anisopliae (ESALQ1037) and M. robertsii (ESALQ1426) were able to persist for up to 12 months after the application within the soil, and disperse to other plots and colonize the rhizosphere of strawberry plants. In the plots where ESALQ1037 and ESALQ1426 were applied, 25% and 87.5% of the isolates recovered after 12 months consisted of the same isolates inoculated. A new taxonomically unassigned lineage, referred to as Metarhizium sp. Indet. 5 in this study, was found in strawberry crop margins. The dominant species of Metarhizium in Brazil and Denmark was Metarhizium robertsii and M. brunneum respectively. Further, Metarhizium pemphigi was first detected in Denmark in this study. Soil in organically grown strawberries harbored a more diverse population of Metarhizium spp. compared with conventionally grown strawberries. These studies showed for the first time the potential of new species of Metarhizium as spider mite biological control agents, the lowest median lethal time (LT50 = 4 ± 0.17 days) was observed in mites treated with the isolate ESALQ1638 of Metarhizium sp. indet. 1. The best isolates were ESALQPL63 of B. bassiana, ESALQ1608 and ESALQ1638 of Metarhizium sp. indet. 1 and ESALQ3069 and ESALQ3222 of M. pingshaense based on the survival curve, total mortality, percentage of sporulated cadavers and LT50. Knowledge of the diversity of Metarhizium spp. and persistence in strawberry soil generated in this study may be useful in developing conservation strategies and maximize the natural biological pest control.
A crescente demanda por morangos vem impondo desafios, especialmente quanto ao controle das pragas. Muitos agricultores relatam problemas com a redução da eficiência do controle químico, provavelmente devido à seleção de populações resistentes de insetos e ácaros. Uma alternativa é o uso de controle biológico com fungos entomopatogênicos como ferramenta dentro do manejo integrado de pragas. Metarhizium spp. (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae), são fungos entomopatogênicos generalistas com distribuição cosmopolita e que podem causar doenças em um grande número de hospedeiros. Muitos estudos sobre o desenvolvimento de Metarhizium como agente de controle biológico foram realizados, mas este leque de conhecimento está em contraste com a notável falta de investigação sobre a ecologia de Metarhizium nos agroecossistemas. Esta tese teve como objetivo avaliar o estabelecimento, persistência e dispersão destes fungos entomopatogênicos em solo de morangueiro em Inconfidentes, Minas Gerais, Brasil; bem como estudar a diversidade e abundância de espécies de Metarhizium isolados do solo de cultivos orgânico e convencional de morangueiro, e das margens das plantações no Brasil e Dinamarca. A eficácia de novas espécies de Metarhizium, encontradas recentemente no Brasil, foi avaliada contra o ácaro rajado, Tetranychus urticae. Os isolados inoculados de M. anisopliae (ESALQ1037) e M. robertsii (ESALQ1426) foram capazes de persistir por até 12 meses após a aplicação no solo, além de dispersar para outras parcelas e colonizar a rizosfera dos morangueiros. Nas parcelas onde ESALQ1037 e ESALQ1426 foram aplicados, 25% e 87,5% dos isolados recuperados após 12 meses consistiam dos mesmos isolados inoculados. Uma nova linhagem não taxonomicamente identificada, referida neste trabalho como Metarhizium sp. Indet. 5, foi encontrada nas margens de morangueiros cultivados. A espécie dominante de Metarhizium no Brasil e Dinamarca foi Metarhizium robertsii e M. brunneum, respectivamente. Além disso, Metarhizium pemphigi foi detectado pela primeira vez na Dinamarca neste estudo. Solos de cultivo orgânico de morangueiro em geral apresentaram uma diversidade maior de Metarhizium do que solos de cultivos convencionais. Estes estudos revelaram pela primeira vez o potencial de novas espécies de Metarhizium como agentes de controle biológico do ácaro rajado, sendo o menor tempo letal mediano (TL50= 4 ± 0.17 dias) observado em ácaros tratados com o isolado ESALQ1638 de Metarhizium sp. indet. 1. Os melhores isolados foram ESALQPL63 de B. bassiana, ESALQ1608 e ESALQ1638 de Metarhizium sp. indet. 1 e ESALQ3069 e ESALQ3222 de M. pingshaense baseado na curva de sobrevivência, mortalidade total, porcentagem de cadáveres esporulados e TL50. O conhecimento da diversidade de Metarhizium spp. e persistência em solos de morango, gerados neste estudo, poderão ser úteis no desenvolvimento de estratégias de conservação e maximizar o controle biológico natural de pragas.

Aerial control using 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) baits is widely used in New Zealand for the control of introduced brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), with the aim of protecting national conservation and agricultural values from these damaging pests. This thesis integrates research, completed over 25 years, that was motivated by growing recognition in the 1970s of the extent of possum impacts and the need to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the control operation. Field research assessed the palatability of three types of cereal-based pellet baits and carrot baits in different regions, habitat types and seasons. Palatability was assessed by the consumption of the different bait types presented independently of each other on 15-30 plots, with rotation of bait types at plots on successive nights to provide equal exposure to each bait type. There was regional variation in possums' bait preferences, possibly reflecting genotypic differences, whereas seasonal variation was less evident. Carrot bait was preferred or equally preferred to cereal bait in 14 out of 20 field trials. The proportion of possums eating baits was then investigated by, firstly, developing a technique for tracing bait acceptance using rhodamine B, a UV-fluorescent dye. In four field trials, more than 95% of possums accepted three types of dye-marked bait, eliminating bait refusal as a major reason for low kills in winter control operations. In a fifth trial, conducted in summer, only 68% of possums accepted bait suggesting that seasonal availability of favoured foods may influence bait acceptance. Since possums must encounter baits before deciding whether to eat them, field studies were undertaken to assess the coverage achieved in normal aerial baiting operations. Large gaps, up to 400 m in width, were often found between baiting swaths; these could allow some possums to survive. A controlled field experiment, using acceptance of rhodamine-dyed bait as a measure of effectiveness, showed that bait distribution was least accurate where flight paths were not marked. Where gaps of 100 m between flight paths were deliberately created, bait acceptance was slower and less than where coverage was complete. Sowing baits at 3 kg/ha was as effective as at 10 kg/ha, indicating the potential for substantially reducing operational costs by using machinery capable of faultlessly distributing baits at low rates. Navigational guidance systems were evaluated and found to improve the accuracy of bait distribution. During 1993-1997, when a lower sowing rate of 5 kg/ha was adopted operationally by regional managers, control effectiveness was unchanged but annual savings of around $9 million accrued. Because of the lack of suitable sowing machinery, a bucket was developed to permit faultless distribution of baits at lower rates, demonstrating the possibility of yet further cost-savings. The possibility of seasonal food availability affecting bait acceptance was investigated in three different forest habitats. Dyed baits were aerially distributed on 100 ha at each site in each season over two years. In each trial, fat-based condition indices of possums were calculated and the abundance of possum-preferred plant foods described. Bait acceptance was consistently high (85-100%) in the 24 trials, and was not influenced by either condition or availability of preferred foods. It seems likely that seasonal variation in operational effectiveness is caused by either the availability of sharply seasonal, scarce foods that possums may feed on intensively for brief periods, or by warmer temperatures that render 1080 less effective. The influence of 1080 on acceptance of (rhodamine-dyed) baits was investigated in a field trial. Examination of possums for dye-marking showed that 25% of possums refused to eat either a lethal quantity of bait or any bait at all, compared with 98% of possums eating non-toxic bait. This indicated that 1080 is aversive to possums, which is a potential major reason for their surviving control operations. Pen trials were therefore conducted to further examine the problem and to seek solutions. Toxic carrot baits were rejected by 27.5% of possums, equally by smell and taste aversion, whereas toxic cereal pellets were rejected by 34%, mainly by taste aversion. Orange and cinnamon were shown to be among the most preferred of 42 flavours tested and, when applied to toxic baits, 1080 was effectively masked. Bait refusal was reduced to ≤7%, the same as that recorded for possums presented with flavoured non-toxic baits. For long-term control of possum populations, aerial 1080 baiting can be used sequentially with other poisoning methods. However, the compatibility of these methods is dependent on the likelihood of possums developing bait shyness if sublethally dosed. Studies were therefore conducted to characterise and compare the four main toxicants used (1080, cyanide, cholecalciferol and brodifacoum) for induction and mitigation of bait shyness. Shyness was induced in approximately 80% of possums sublethally dosed with cyanide, 60% with 1080, 20% with cholecalciferol, and 0% with brodifacoum. Cyanide and 1080 shyness were found to persist in many possums for at least 12 and 24 months, respectively. Use of alternative bait types, and of baits containing an alternative slow-acting toxin (brodifacoum) were shown to be effective ways of overcoming shyness. This, and other related research, is reviewed to provide operational specifications that maximise the likelihood that all targeted possums will (i) encounter bait, (ii) eat it, and (iii) die. The likely future use of aerial 1080 baiting is described and the technological, economic, environmental and social constraints on its sustainability are discussed. Finally, the uptake of the research by possum managers is considered, and areas identified in the thesis where information is incomplete are summarised as prioritised topics for further research.

This study examines an aspect of earnings management that I refer to as audit management. I define audit management as a client's strategic use of techniques (e.g., baiting tactics) to prevent auditors from discovering earnings management during the audit. Specifically, I examine whether two baiting tactics, diversionary statements and distracting errors, affect an auditor's ability to uncover an accounting error used to manage earnings. Auditors performed analytical review on financial statements that contained an earnings management error (i.e., an intentional error that results in the client meeting an earnings target). I manipulated whether management provided a diversionary statement that explicitly identified risk in other areas of the audit, and whether management seeded easier, distracting errors into those other areas, both of which were designed to lure the auditor away from the earnings management error. I found that when auditors were intentionally directed to error free accounts they were unlikely to uncover an earnings management error elsewhere in the financial statements. On the other hand, auditors were most accurate in identifying earnings management when they were directed to audit areas that contained distracting errors. These results suggest that managers can use certain baiting tactics to strategically manage the outcome of the audit, but that, in some circumstances, baiting tactics may actually make auditors more likely to uncover managed earnings.

碩士
國立中興大學
昆蟲學系所
107
Termite infestation is common on urban old trees, we investigated 228 protected old trees among four major tree species in the administrative areas of Taichung, including 66 Ficus microcarpa L. f., 56 Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl., 54 Mangifera indica L., and 52 Bischofia javanica Bl. Total termite infestation rate was 52.2%, and seven termite species of three families were identified. Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki was the dominant species on surveyed trees, which accounted for 18.9%. Height and altitude of trees were significant positive correlation with the termite occurrence, but age and circumference at breast height (CBH) of trees have no significant correlation with the termite occurrence. Tree species significantly associated with termite species composition on trees. Species of kalotermitids, rhinotermitids, and termitids have tendency to occur on F. microcarpa, M. indica, and Ci. camphora, respectively. The occurrence of Co. formosanus and Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) were both significantly higher than that of the other termite species, there was no significant difference between the occurrence of Co. formosanus and O. formosanus on protected old trees. We installed two above-ground and eight in-ground monitoring stations around nine M. indica which were infested by Co. formosanus, and confirmed that Co. formosanus infested on the tree and found in the in-ground monitoring station were the same colony by termite-staining. Termite bait with 0.5% hexaflumuron was applied in the in-ground monitoring station where stained termite was present to control the termite colony that infested the tree. Of the nine trees, four trees were infested by one Co. formosanus colony separately; three trees were infested by one Co. formosanus colony at the same time; and the other two trees were suffered from multiple termite colonies simultaneously, one was infested by two colonies of Co. formosanus, and the other one was infested by Co. formosanus and Reticulitermes flaviceps Oshima. Each Co. formosanus-infested M. indica averagely used 6.9 ± 2.3 tubes of termite bait; each Co. formosanus colony averagely consumed about 5.3 ± 2.0 tubes of termite bait, namely 1.6 ± 0.6 g hexaflumuron. Each Co. formosanus colony that had fed bait was eliminated in 12.7 ± 7.2 weeks averagely. O. formosanus and R. flaviceps reinvaded in-ground monitoring stations and consumed remaining bait after Co. formosanus were eliminated. We could not confirm that whether the active ingredients of bait had effects on the O. formosanus colony in this study, but R. flaviceps was also eliminated in eight weeks after Co. formosanus was eliminated.