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Journal articles on the topic 'Azadinium'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 1 April 2023

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1

Fabro, Elena, Gastón O. Almandoz, Bernd Krock, and Urban Tillmann. "Field observations of the dinoflagellate genus Azadinium and azaspiracid toxins in the south-west Atlantic Ocean." Marine and Freshwater Research 71, no. 7 (2020): 832. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf19124.

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Some dinoflagellate species of the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma (Amphidomataceae) produce azaspiracids (AZA), a group of toxins responsible for gastrointestinal disorders in humans following the consumption of contaminated shellfish. In this study, we investigated the diversity, distribution and abundance of Azadinium and AZA from field plankton samples collected during four oceanographic expeditions that covered an extended area of the Argentine Sea during different seasons. Scanning electron microscopy analyses indicated the presence of five Azadinium species: Az. dexteroporum, Az. luciferelloides, Az. obesum, Az. asperum and Az. cf. poporum. Azadinium-like cells were frequently found and were even an abundant component of plankton assemblages, showing a wide latitudinal distribution, from ~38 to ~55.5°S, and occurring in a wide temperature and salinity range. High cell densities (up to 154000cellsL–1) occurred in northern slope and external shelf waters during spring. AZA-2 was detected in net samples from the 20- to 200-µm fractions by tandem mass spectrometry–liquid chromatography analysis, suggesting a transfer of AZA through the food web. Our results contribute to the knowledge of the worldwide occurrence of Azadinium species and AZA, and highlight the importance of amphidomatacean species as a potential source of AZA shellfish poisoning in the south-west Atlantic Ocean.

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2

Kim, Joo-Hwan, Urban Tillmann, Nicolaus G. Adams, Bernd Krock, Whitney L. Stutts, Jonathan R. Deeds, Myung-Soo Han, and Vera L. Trainer. "Identification of Azadinium species and a new azaspiracid from Azadinium poporum in Puget Sound, Washington State, USA." Harmful Algae 68 (September 2017): 152–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2017.08.004.

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3

Tillmann, Urban, Sylvia Soehner, Elisabeth Nézan, and Bernd Krock. "First record of the genus Azadinium (Dinophyceae) from the Shetland Islands, including the description of Azadinium polongum sp. nov." Harmful Algae 20 (December 2012): 142–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2012.10.001.

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4

Jauffrais, Thierry, Christine Herrenknecht, Véronique Séchet, Manoella Sibat, Urban Tillmann, Bernd Krock, Jane Kilcoyne, et al. "Quantitative analysis of azaspiracids in Azadinium spinosum cultures." Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 403, no. 3 (February 26, 2012): 833–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-5849-2.

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5

Potvin, Éric, Hae Jin Jeong, Nam Seon Kang, Urban Tillmann, and Bernd Krock. "First Report of the Photosynthetic Dinoflagellate Genus Azadinium in the Pacific Ocean: Morphology and Molecular Characterization of Azadinium cf. poporum." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 59, no. 2 (December 20, 2011): 145–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2011.00600.x.

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6

Tillmann, Urban, Sonia Sánchez-Ramírez, Bernd Krock, and Avy Bernales-Jiménez. "A bloom of Azadinium polongum in coastal waters off Peru." Revista de biología marina y oceanografía 52, no. 3 (December 2017): 591–610. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0718-19572017000300015.

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7

Krock, Bernd, Urban Tillmann, Matthias Witt, and Haifeng Gu. "Azaspiracid variability of Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) from the China Sea." Harmful Algae 36 (June 2014): 22–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2014.04.012.

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8

Luo, Zhaohe, Haifeng Gu, Bernd Krock, and Urban Tillmann. "Azadinium dalianense, a new dinoflagellate species from the Yellow Sea, China." Phycologia 52, no. 6 (November 2013): 625–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2216/13-178.1.

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9

Tillmann, Urban, Bernd Krock, and Bettina B. Taylor. "Azadinium caudatumvar.margalefii, a poorly known member of the toxigenic genusAzadinium(Dinophyceae)." Marine Biology Research 10, no. 10 (May 27, 2014): 941–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17451000.2013.866252.

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10

Hernández-Becerril, David U., Sofía A. Barón-Campis, and Sergio Escobar-Morales. "A new record of Azadinium spinosum (Dinoflagellata) from the tropical Mexican Pacific." Revista de biología marina y oceanografía 47, no. 3 (December 2012): 553–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0718-19572012000300016.

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11

Akselman, Rut, Rubén M. Negri, and Ezequiel Cozzolino. "Azadinium (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) in the Southwest Atlantic: In situ and satellite observations." Revista de biología marina y oceanografía 49, no. 3 (December 2014): 511–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0718-19572014000300008.

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12

Luo, Zhaohe, Bernd Krock, Antonia Giannakourou, Amalia Venetsanopoulou, Kalliopi Pagou, Urban Tillmann, and Haifeng Gu. "Sympatric occurrence of two Azadinium poporum ribotypes in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea." Harmful Algae 78 (September 2018): 75–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2018.08.003.

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13

Tillmann, Urban, Rafael Salas, Marc Gottschling, Bernd Krock, Daniel O'Driscoll, and Malte Elbrächter. "Amphidoma languida sp. nov. (Dinophyceae) Reveals a Close Relationship between Amphidoma and Azadinium." Protist 163, no. 5 (September 2012): 701–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.protis.2011.10.005.

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14

Gu, Haifeng, Zhaohe Luo, Bernd Krock, Mattias Witt, and Urban Tillmann. "Morphology, phylogeny and azaspiracid profile of Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) from the China Sea." Harmful Algae 21-22 (January 2013): 64–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2012.11.009.

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15

Tillmann, Urban, Stephan Wietkamp, Bernd Krock, Anette Tillmann, Daniela Voss, and Haifeng Gu. "Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae) in the western Greenland area, including description of Azadinium perforatum sp. nov." Phycologia 59, no. 1 (December 2, 2019): 63–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00318884.2019.1670013.

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16

Toebe, Kerstin, Aboli R. Joshi, Philip Messtorff, Urban Tillmann, Allan Cembella, and Uwe John. "Molecular discrimination of taxa within the dinoflagellate genus Azadinium, the source of azaspiracid toxins." Journal of Plankton Research 35, no. 1 (November 14, 2012): 225–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbs077.

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17

Jauffrais, Thierry, Andrea Contreras, Christine Herrenknecht, Philippe Truquet, Véronique Séchet, Urban Tillmann, and Philipp Hess. "Effect of Azadinium spinosum on the feeding behaviour and azaspiracid accumulation of Mytilus edulis." Aquatic Toxicology 124-125 (November 2012): 179–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.08.016.

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18

Jauffrais, Thierry, Claire Marcaillou, Christine Herrenknecht, Philippe Truquet, Véronique Séchet, Elodie Nicolau, Urban Tillmann, and Philipp Hess. "Azaspiracid accumulation, detoxification and biotransformation in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) experimentally fed Azadinium spinosum." Toxicon 60, no. 4 (September 2012): 582–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.04.351.

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19

Tillmann, Urban, Malte Elbrächter, Bernd Krock, Uwe John, and Allan Cembella. "Azadinium spinosumgen. et sp. nov. (Dinophyceae) identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins." European Journal of Phycology 44, no. 1 (February 2009): 63–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09670260802578534.

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20

Kilcoyne, Jane, Amy McCoy, Stephen Burrell, Bernd Krock, and Urban Tillmann. "Effects of Temperature, Growth Media, and Photoperiod on Growth and Toxin Production of Azadinium spinosum." Marine Drugs 17, no. 9 (August 22, 2019): 489. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md17090489.

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Azaspiracids (AZAs) are microalgal toxins that can accumulate in shellfish and lead to human intoxications. To facilitate their study and subsequent biomonitoring, purification from microalgae rather than shellfish is preferable; however, challenges remain with respect to maximizing toxin yields. The impacts of temperature, growth media, and photoperiod on cell densities and toxin production in Azadinium spinosum were investigated. Final cell densities were similar at 10 and 18 °C, while toxin cell quotas were higher (~3.5-fold) at 10 °C. A comparison of culture media showed higher cell densities and AZA cell quotas (2.5–5-fold) in f10k compared to f/2 and L1 media. Photoperiod also showed differences, with lower cell densities in the 8:16 L:D treatment, while toxin cell quotas were similar for 12:12 and 8:16 L:D treatments but slightly lower for the 16:8 L:D treatment. AZA1, -2 and -33 were detected during the exponential phase, while some known and new AZAs were only detected once the stationary phase was reached. These compounds were additionally detected in field water samples during an AZA event.

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21

Percopo, Isabella, Raffaele Siano, Rachele Rossi, Vittorio Soprano, Diana Sarno, and Adriana Zingone. "A new potentially toxic Azadinium species (Dinophyceae) from the Mediterranean Sea, A. dexteroporum sp. nov." Journal of Phycology 49, no. 5 (August 27, 2013): 950–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpy.12104.

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22

Tillmann, Urban, Marc Gottschling, Elisabeth Nézan, Bernd Krock, and Gwenaël Bilien. "Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Three New Azadinium Species (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) from the Irminger Sea." Protist 165, no. 4 (August 2014): 417–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.protis.2014.04.004.

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23

Li, Aifeng, Baozhou Jiang, Huidan Chen, and Haifeng Gu. "Growth and toxin production of Azadinium poporum strains in batch cultures under different nutrient conditions." Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 127 (May 2016): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.01.017.

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24

Tillmann, Urban, Malte Elbrächter, Uwe John, Bernd Krock, and Allan Cembella. "Azadinium obesum (Dinophyceae), a new nontoxic species in the genus that can produce azaspiracid toxins." Phycologia 49, no. 2 (March 2010): 169–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2216/ph09-35.1.

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25

Salas, Rafael, Urban Tillmann, Uwe John, Jane Kilcoyne, Amanda Burson, Caoimhe Cantwell, Philipp Hess, Thierry Jauffrais, and Joe Silke. "The role of Azadinium spinosum (Dinophyceae) in the production of azaspiracid shellfish poisoning in mussels." Harmful Algae 10, no. 6 (September 2011): 774–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2011.06.010.

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26

Luo, Zhaohe, Bernd Krock, Kenneth Neil Mertens, Andrea Michelle Price, Robert Eugene Turner, Nancy N. Rabalais, and Haifeng Gu. "Morphology, molecular phylogeny and azaspiracid profile of Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) from the Gulf of Mexico." Harmful Algae 55 (May 2016): 56–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.006.

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27

Tillmann, Urban, Stephan Wietkamp, Haifeng Gu, Bernd Krock, Rafael Salas, and Dave Clarke. "Multiple New Strains of Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae) from the North Atlantic Revealed a High Toxin Profile Variability of Azadinium spinosum and a New Non-Toxigenic Az. cf. spinosum." Microorganisms 9, no. 1 (January 8, 2021): 134. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9010134.

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Azaspiracids (AZA) are a group of lipophilic toxins, which are produced by a few species of the marine nanoplanktonic dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma (Amphidomataceae). A survey was conducted in 2018 to increase knowledge on the diversity and distribution of amphidomatacean species and their toxins in Irish and North Sea waters (North Atlantic). We here present a detailed morphological, phylogenetic, and toxinological characterization of 82 new strains representing the potential AZA producers Azadinium spinosum and Amphidoma languida. A total of ten new strains of Am. languida were obtained from the North Sea, and all conformed in terms of morphology and toxin profile (AZA-38 and-39) with previous records from the area. Within 72 strains assigned to Az. spinosum there were strains of two distinct ribotypes (A and B) which consistently differed in their toxin profile (dominated by AZA-1 and -2 in ribotype A, and by AZA-11 and -51 in ribotype B strains). Five strains conformed in morphology with Az. spinosum, but no AZA could be detected in these strains. Moreover, they revealed significant nucleotide differences compared to known Az. spinosum sequences and clustered apart from all other Az. spinosum strains within the phylogenetic tree, and therefore were provisionally designated as Az. cf. spinosum. These Az. cf. spinosum strains without detectable AZA were shown not to cause amplification in the species-specific qPCR assay developed to detect and quantify Az. spinosum. As shown here for the first time, AZA profiles differed between strains of Az. spinosum ribotype A in the presence/absence of AZA-1, AZA-2, and/or AZA-33, with the majority of strains having all three AZA congeners, and others having only AZA-1, AZA-1 and AZA-2, or AZA-1 and AZA-33. In contrast, no AZA profile variability was observed in ribotype B strains. Multiple AZA analyses of a period of up to 18 months showed that toxin profiles (including absence of AZA for Az. cf. spinosum strains) were consistent and stable over time. Total AZA cell quotas were highly variable both among and within strains, with quotas ranging from 0.1 to 63 fg AZA cell−1. Cell quota variability of single AZA compounds for Az. spinosum strains could be as high as 330-fold, but the underlying causes for the extraordinary large variability of AZA cell quota is poorly understood.

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28

Tillmann, Urban, Stephan Wietkamp, Haifeng Gu, Bernd Krock, Rafael Salas, and Dave Clarke. "Multiple New Strains of Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae) from the North Atlantic Revealed a High Toxin Profile Variability of Azadinium spinosum and a New Non-Toxigenic Az. cf. spinosum." Microorganisms 9, no. 1 (January 8, 2021): 134. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9010134.

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Azaspiracids (AZA) are a group of lipophilic toxins, which are produced by a few species of the marine nanoplanktonic dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma (Amphidomataceae). A survey was conducted in 2018 to increase knowledge on the diversity and distribution of amphidomatacean species and their toxins in Irish and North Sea waters (North Atlantic). We here present a detailed morphological, phylogenetic, and toxinological characterization of 82 new strains representing the potential AZA producers Azadinium spinosum and Amphidoma languida. A total of ten new strains of Am. languida were obtained from the North Sea, and all conformed in terms of morphology and toxin profile (AZA-38 and-39) with previous records from the area. Within 72 strains assigned to Az. spinosum there were strains of two distinct ribotypes (A and B) which consistently differed in their toxin profile (dominated by AZA-1 and -2 in ribotype A, and by AZA-11 and -51 in ribotype B strains). Five strains conformed in morphology with Az. spinosum, but no AZA could be detected in these strains. Moreover, they revealed significant nucleotide differences compared to known Az. spinosum sequences and clustered apart from all other Az. spinosum strains within the phylogenetic tree, and therefore were provisionally designated as Az. cf. spinosum. These Az. cf. spinosum strains without detectable AZA were shown not to cause amplification in the species-specific qPCR assay developed to detect and quantify Az. spinosum. As shown here for the first time, AZA profiles differed between strains of Az. spinosum ribotype A in the presence/absence of AZA-1, AZA-2, and/or AZA-33, with the majority of strains having all three AZA congeners, and others having only AZA-1, AZA-1 and AZA-2, or AZA-1 and AZA-33. In contrast, no AZA profile variability was observed in ribotype B strains. Multiple AZA analyses of a period of up to 18 months showed that toxin profiles (including absence of AZA for Az. cf. spinosum strains) were consistent and stable over time. Total AZA cell quotas were highly variable both among and within strains, with quotas ranging from 0.1 to 63 fg AZA cell−1. Cell quota variability of single AZA compounds for Az. spinosum strains could be as high as 330-fold, but the underlying causes for the extraordinary large variability of AZA cell quota is poorly understood.

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29

Luo, Zhaohe, Bernd Krock, Kenneth Neil Mertens, Elisabeth Nézan, Nicolas Chomérat, Gwenael Bilien, Urban Tillmann, and Haifeng Gu. "Adding new pieces to the Azadinium (Dinophyceae) diversity and biogeography puzzle: Non-toxigenic Azadinium zhuanum sp. nov. from China, toxigenic A. poporum from the Mediterranean, and a non-toxigenic A. dalianense from the French Atlantic." Harmful Algae 66 (June 2017): 65–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2017.05.001.

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30

Jauffrais, Thierry, Jane Kilcoyne, Véronique Séchet, Christine Herrenknecht, Philippe Truquet, Fabienne Hervé, Jean Baptiste Bérard, et al. "Production and Isolation of Azaspiracid-1 and -2 from Azadinium spinosum Culture in Pilot Scale Photobioreactors." Marine Drugs 10, no. 12 (June 13, 2012): 1360–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md10061360.

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31

Krock, Bernd, Urban Tillmann, Éric Potvin, Hae Jeong, Wolfgang Drebing, Jane Kilcoyne, Ahmed Al-Jorani, Michael Twiner, Qun Göthel, and Matthias Köck. "Structure Elucidation and in Vitro Toxicity of New Azaspiracids Isolated from the Marine Dinoflagellate Azadinium poporum." Marine Drugs 13, no. 11 (October 30, 2015): 6687–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md13116687.

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32

Giuliani, Maria Elisa, Stefano Accoroni, Marica Mezzelani, Francesca Lugarini, Simone Bacchiocchi, Melania Siracusa, Tamara Tavoloni, et al. "Biological Effects of the Azaspiracid-Producing Dinoflagellate Azadinium dexteroporum in Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Mediterranean Sea." Marine Drugs 17, no. 10 (October 22, 2019): 595. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md17100595.

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Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins including a variety of analogues. Recently, novel AZAs produced by the Mediterranean dinoflagellate Azadinium dexteroporum were discovered (AZA-54, AZA-55, 3-epi-AZA-7, AZA-56, AZA-57 and AZA-58) and their biological effects have not been investigated yet. This study aimed to identify the biological responses (biomarkers) induced in mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis after the bioaccumulation of AZAs from A. dexteroporum. Organisms were fed with A. dexteroporum for 21 days and subsequently subjected to a recovery period (normal diet) of 21 days. Exposed organisms accumulated AZA-54, 3-epi-AZA-7 and AZA-55, predominantly in the digestive gland. Mussels’ haemocytes showed inhibition of phagocytosis activity, modulation of the composition of haemocytic subpopulation and damage to lysosomal membranes; the digestive tissue displayed thinned tubule walls, consumption of storage lipids and accumulation of lipofuscin. Slight genotoxic damage was also observed. No clear occurrence of oxidative stress and alteration of nervous activity was detected in AZA-accumulating mussels. Most of the altered parameters returned to control levels after the recovery phase. The toxic effects detected in M. galloprovincialis demonstrate a clear biological impact of the AZAs produced by A. dexteroporum, and could be used as early indicators of contamination associated with the ingestion of seafood.

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33

Jauffrais, Thierry, Véronique Séchet, Christine Herrenknecht, Philippe Truquet, Savar Véronique, Urban Tillmann, and Philipp Hess. "Effect of environmental and nutritional factors on growth and azaspiracid production of the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum." Harmful Algae 27 (July 2013): 138–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2013.05.009.

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34

Tillmann, Urban, C. Marcela Borel, Facundo Barrera, Rubén Lara, Bernd Krock, Gastón O. Almandoz, Matthias Witt, and Nicole Trefault. "Azadinium poporum from the Argentine Continental Shelf, Southwestern Atlantic, produces azaspiracid-2 and azaspiracid-2 phosphate." Harmful Algae 51 (January 2016): 40–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2015.11.001.

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35

Krock, Bernd, Urban Tillmann, Jan Tebben, Nicole Trefault, and Haifeng Gu. "Two novel azaspiracids from Azadinium poporum, and a comprehensive compilation of azaspiracids produced by Amphidomataceae, (Dinophyceae)." Harmful Algae 82 (February 2019): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2018.12.005.

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36

Potvin, É., YJ Hwang, YD Yoo, JS Kim, and HJ Jeong. "Feeding by heterotrophic protists and copepods on the photosynthetic dinoflagellate Azadinium cf. poporum from western Korean waters." Aquatic Microbial Ecology 68, no. 2 (February 7, 2013): 143–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/ame01603.

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37

Meyer, Jan M., Christian Rödelsperger, Karsten Eichholz, Urban Tillmann, Allan Cembella, Angela McGaughran, and Uwe John. "Transcriptomic characterisation and genomic glimps into the toxigenic dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum, with emphasis on polykeitde synthase genes." BMC Genomics 16, no. 1 (2015): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12864-014-1205-6.

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38

Smith, Kirsty F., Lesley Rhodes, D. Tim Harwood, Janet Adamson, Catherine Moisan, Rex Munday, and Urban Tillmann. "Detection of Azadinium poporum in New Zealand: the use of molecular tools to assist with species isolations." Journal of Applied Phycology 28, no. 2 (July 21, 2015): 1125–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10811-015-0667-5.

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39

Akselman, Rut, and Rubén M. Negri. "Blooms of Azadinium cf. spinosum Elbrächter et Tillmann (Dinophyceae) in northern shelf waters of Argentina, Southwestern Atlantic." Harmful Algae 19 (September 2012): 30–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2012.05.004.

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40

Cavalcante, Kaoli Pereira, Sylvia Maria Moreira Susini-Ribeiro, and Urban Tillmann. "First detection of species of the potentially toxic genus Azadinium (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) in tropical coastal waters of Brazil." Brazilian Journal of Botany 41, no. 1 (February 1, 2018): 209–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40415-017-0435-7.

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41

Kilcoyne, Jane, Ciara Nulty, Thierry Jauffrais, Pearse McCarron, Fabienne Herve, Barry Foley, Frode Rise, et al. "Isolation, Structure Elucidation, Relative LC-MS Response, and in Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracids from the Dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum." Journal of Natural Products 77, no. 11 (October 30, 2014): 2465–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np500555k.

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42

Abal, Paula, M. Carmen Louzao, María Fraga, Natalia Vilariño, Sara Ferreiro, Mercedes R. Vieytes, and Luis M. Botana. "Absorption and Effect of Azaspiracid-1 Over the Human Intestinal Barrier." Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry 43, no. 1 (2017): 136–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000480331.

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Background: Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the dinoflagellates genera Azadinium and Amphidoma. These toxins cause azaspiracid poisoning (AZP), characterized by severe gastrointestinal illness in humans after the consumption of bivalve molluscs contaminated with AZAs. The main aim of the present study was to examine the consequences of human exposure to AZA1 by the study of absorption and effects of the toxin on Caco-2 cells, a reliable model of the human intestine. Methods: The ability of AZA1 to cross the human intestinal epithelium has been evaluated by the Caco-2 transepithelial permeability assay. The toxin has been detected and quantified using a microsphere-based immunoassay. Cell alterations and ultrastructural effects has been observed with confocal and transmission electron microscopy Results: AZA1 was absorbed by Caco-2 cells in a dose-dependent way without affecting cell viability. However, modifications on occludin distribution detected by confocal microscopy imaging indicated a possible monolayer integrity disruption. Nevertheless, transmission electron microscopy imaging revealed ultrastructural damages at the nucleus and mitochondria with autophagosomes in the cytoplasm, however, tight junctions and microvilli remained unaffected. Conclusion: After the ingestion of molluscs with the AZA1, the toxin will be transported through the human intestinal barrier to blood causing damage on epithelial cells.

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43

Adams, Nicolaus G., Urban Tillmann, and Vera L. Trainer. "Temporal and spatial distribution of Azadinium species in the inland and coastal waters of the Pacific northwest in 2014–2018." Harmful Algae 98 (September 2020): 101874. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2020.101874.

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44

Rossi, Rachele, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Bernd Krock, Patrizia Ciminiello, Isabella Percopo, Urban Tillmann, Vittorio Soprano, and Adriana Zingone. "Mediterranean Azadinium dexteroporum (Dinophyceae) produces six novel azaspiracids and azaspiracid-35: a structural study by a multi-platform mass spectrometry approach." Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 409, no. 4 (November 7, 2016): 1121–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-016-0037-4.

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45

McGirr, Stephen, Dave Clarke, Jane Kilcoyne, Rafael Salas, Henry Koehler, Joe Silke, and Nicolas Touzet. "Insights into the discrepancy between Azadinium spp. and azaspiracid toxins near strategically important aquaculture operations in the west and southwest of Ireland." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 262 (November 2021): 107622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2021.107622.

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Ji, Ying, Jiangbing Qiu, Tian Xie, Pearse McCarron, and Aifeng Li. "Accumulation and transformation of azaspiracids in scallops ( Chlamys farreri ) and mussels ( Mytilus galloprovincialis ) fed with Azadinium poporum, and response of antioxidant enzymes." Toxicon 143 (March 2018): 20–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.12.040.

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Ji, Ying, Jiangbing Qiu, Tian Xie, Pearse McCarron, and Aifeng Li. "Accumulation and transformation of azaspiracids in scallops (Chlamys farreri) and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) fed with Azadinium poporum, and response of antioxidant enzymes." Toxicon 158 (February 2019): S42—S43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.10.149.

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Tillmann, Urban, Marc Gottschling, Bernd Krock, Kirsty F. Smith, and Valeria Guinder. "High abundance of Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae) during the 2015 spring bloom of the Argentinean Shelf and a new, non-toxigenic ribotype of Azadinium spinosum." Harmful Algae 84 (April 2019): 244–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2019.01.008.

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Pelin, Marco, Jane Kilcoyne, Chiara Florio, Philipp Hess, Aurelia Tubaro, and Silvio Sosa. "Azaspiracids Increase Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases Activity in Hepatocytes: Involvement of Potassium and Chloride Ions." Marine Drugs 17, no. 5 (May 8, 2019): 276. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md17050276.

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Abstract:

Background: Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins that are produced by Azadinium and Amphidoma dinoflagellates that can contaminate edible shellfish inducing a foodborne poisoning in humans, which is characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms. Among these, AZA1, -2, and -3 are regulated in the European Union, being the most important in terms of occurrence and toxicity. In vivo studies in mice showed that, in addition to gastrointestinal effects, AZA1 induces liver alterations that are visible as a swollen organ, with the presence of hepatocellular fat droplets and vacuoles. Hence, an in vitro study was carried out to investigate the effects of AZA1, -2, and -3 on liver cells, using human non-tumor IHH hepatocytes. Results: The exposure of IHH cells to AZA1, -2, or -3 (5 × 10−12–1 × 10−7 M) for 24 h did not affect the cell viability and proliferation (Sulforhodamine B assay and 3H-Thymidine incorporation assay), but they induced a significant concentration-dependent increase of mitochondrial dehydrogenases activity (MTT reduction assay). This effect depends on the activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I and II, being counteracted by rotenone and tenoyl trifluoroacetone, respectively. Furthermore, AZAs-increased mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity was almost totally suppressed in the K+-, Cl−-, and Na+-free media and sensitive to the specific inhibitors of KATP and hERG potassium channels, Na+/K+, ATPase, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channels. Conclusions: These results suggest that AZA mitochondrial effects in hepatocytes derive from an imbalance of intracellular levels of K+ and, in particular, Cl− ions, as demonstrated by the selective reduction of toxin effects by CFTR chloride channel inhibition.

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Ozawa, Mayu, Hajime Uchida, Ryuichi Watanabe, Ryoji Matsushima, Hiroshi Oikawa, Kazuya Takahashi, Mitsunori Iwataki, and Toshiyuki Suzuki. "Complex profiles of azaspiracid analogues in two culture strains of Azadinium poporum (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) isolated from Japanese coastal waters determined by LC-MS/MS." Toxicon 199 (August 2021): 145–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.06.010.

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