Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Australia – Emigration and immigration – Economic aspects'

Australian immigration policy has traditionally been justified as a means to ensure national security and promote economic development. Neither of these rationales retains much contemporary force. A larger population is no longer regarded as critical to Australia's defensive capacity, and the quest for economic development, synonymous with aggregate growth, has been superseded by a concern about per capita growth performance. While humanitarian and cultural justifications for immigration have been advanced, they are either restricted in scope or contentious. Currently, the programme is operating on a large scale without a clear rationale. The purpose of this work is to investigate the economic consequences of immigration, and so consider whether the economic rationale may be recast in an alternative form. In this chapter, the existing literature is reviewed and a strategy for carrying the analysis further is outlined.

This thesis is based on ethnographic fieldwork of practicing and performing dances with Indonesian migrant women dancers in Perth, Western Australia and socializing with the women and the communities they belong to. The fieldwork was conducted in 2007 with subsequent annual return trips until 2011, as well as through continued engagement by other forms of communication. This thesis follows the women's journeys and their efforts, firstly to gain recognition as professional cultural performers rather than being seen only as members of an amateur, housewife hobby dance group and secondly to elevate their status beyond that of marriage migrant, specifically within the local Indonesian community. Each chapter is based on particular performances and how each performance evolved from creation to reinvention taking into account factors such as community feedback, and reaction to the group's participation in local multicultural festivals and national celebration days. The thesis discusses how the women negotiate cross-cultural gender structuring discourses and valued ideals of femininity through their performances. Their performances are influenced by transnational and translocal (Jakarta or Bali and Perth) engagements gained through: cultural products; their daily lives amongst the Indonesian migrant community in Perth; their annual return trips to Indonesia; and being involved in the local Indonesian consulate's cultural diplomacy activities. Therefore, within the discipline of anthropology and gender studies this research will contribute to the literature on migration studies, specifically marriage migration of women, migrant's cultural performances, and Indonesian migrants in Australia. The thesis also includes a DVD of two and a half hours which records my edited ethnographic footage, as well as footage given to me by the dancers and their family members. The DVD documents the stories and performances that are related in the thesis. Via a menu, the DVD is organized so that relevant sections can be viewed in conjunction with reading specific chapters within the thesis. Each performance, through the trajectory of its creation and reinvention, tells the narrative of how the Indonesian migrant women try to negotiate representations of themselves and how they deal with the many and varied expectations of their own migrant community, the Indonesian consulate and the larger multicultural Australian audiences as well as the various ideals of Indonesian femininity in migration.

The study was conceptualised against the background that leading migration theories explain return migration based on failure and success alone. The neo-classical economics theory of migration perceives return migration as a by-product of a failed migration experience while the new economics of labour migration perceives return as occurring after successful achievement of migration objectives. This study questions these theoretical positions through an exploration of the factors that deter South Africa-based Zimbabwean skilled migrants from returning home permanently notwithstanding a successful or failed migration experience. Furtive economic factors in Zimbabwe and South Africa that dissuade skilled migrants from returning home permanently are explored. Social factors in Zimbabwe and in South Africa that influence return migration decision making are also examined. Furthermore, the study analysed whether and how Zimbabwean skilled migrants are forced into a permanent settlement in South Africa as a result of what this study calls the ‘diaspora trap’. This ‘diaspora trap’ framework argues that Zimbabwean skilled migrants in South Africa do not return following their experiences of failure and success in South Africa. Central to the absence of return is the social construction of migrants as successful in Zimbabwe. Skilled migrants are deterred from returning due to their failure to meet family and communal expectations of success. In addition, return migration is deferred as a means to hide poverty in South Africa. Moreover, new diaspora family ties weaken attachments with Zimbabwe and contribute to deferred return migration. Skilled migrants are thus entrapped in South Africa by their failure to live up to the success social construct and the inability to mitigate adversities in the host country.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The migratory flow of Africans to South Africa form the north of Africa was restrained until the early 1990's. Before this period the political ideology of apartheid discriminated against African immigrants, while favouring the migration of people of European descent. Although numerous studies have drawn attention to the implications of the influx of African immigrants to South Africa and their socio-economic adaptation, not much research has been done on reasons for international migration as provided by the migrant. The demographic and economic implications of African migration not only dominate most of the work in this field, but it even seems to be the only concern of researchers investigating international immigration of Africans. The study focuses on factors underlying the decision of African immigrants to migrate to South Africa and who choose Cape Town as their place of destination. Data from in-depth interviews are analysed to determine the motivations for migration to Cape Town. Attention is being paid to the circumstances in the migrants' home countries that motivated their decision to emigrate, the role of social networks in providing information regarding the choice of destination and migration routes, the obstacles they encountered, their adaptation in Cape Town and their perceptions of Cape Town as a place of permanent residence. From the literature review on reasons for migration, is emerges that there are two dominant theoretical approaches (i.e. macro and micro theories) for explaining why international migration begins. The macro theories focus on migration stream, identifying the conditions under which large-scale movements take place and describing the demographic, economic and social characteristics of the migrants in aggregate terms. Micro theories focus on the socio-psychological factors that differentiate migrants from non-migrants, together with theories of motivation, decision-making, satisfaction and identification. Although each theory ultimately seeks to explain the same phenomenon, they employ different concepts, assumptions and frames of reference. The various explanations offered are not necessarily contradictory in nature but are, in fact, a reflection of how social realities could be studied and understood from various angles. This study employs an eclectic approach by using insights from both macro and micro levels of analysis. The study also considers the appropriateness of a qualitative research design in researching specific aspects of migration and employs a qualitative case study method. This method allows for a deeper reflection on the part of the individual on factors responsible for their decision to move. Semi-structured in-depth interviews have been conducted with four African immigrants in the central business district of Cape Town. The study found that in certain instances the immigrants migrate for different reasons, but under similar circumstances. It emerged from the case material that the same issues sometimes hold different significance for each migrant. One aspect shared by all four immigrants, is that it seems that circumstances in their countries of origin forced them to move and that they did have much of a choice - their lives were threatened. Their relatively high level of training and access to funding most probably assisted them in their move. Those people in not such a favourable position are left behind. The study also found that exchange and free flow of information and social networks directs destination of movement, rather than determine whether migration takes place. However, the information immigrants receive is not always correct and tends not to focus on the negative aspects of immigration. Once in Cape Town the immigrants felt isolated, experienced prejudice, and suffered hostility and discrimination at the hands of South Africans. It appears that many South Africans do not distinguish between asylum seekers, refugees and economic migrants. The common denominator of their "foreignness" appears to be all that is necessary for many to harbour negative attitudes. Xenophobia not only manifests itself in negative attitudes, but also increasingly in victimisation against the immigrants. Because of these factors and the problems they experience in finding jobs where they can apply their skills, the immigrants indicated that they do not intend staying permanently in South Africa.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die migrasie van inwoners van die noorde van Afrika na Suid-Afrika was tot die vroeë 1990s relatief beperk. Voor hierdie tydperk het die politieke ideologie van apartheid gediskrimineer teen inwoners van die res van Afrika, terwyl die migrasie van Europeërs aangemoedig is. Alhoewel verskeie studies die aandag gevestig het op die sosio-ekonomiese aanpassing en die implikasies van die invloei van immigrante uit Afrika na Suid- Afrika, bestaan daar weinige navorsing oor die redes vir internasionale migrasie soos verskaf deur die migrant self. Die demografiese en ekonomiese implikasies van immigrasie domineer nie slegs die meeste van die werk in hierdie verband nie, maar blyk ook die enigste besorgdheid te wees van navorsers wat die internasionale migrasie van Afrikane bestudeer. Die studie fokus op onderliggende faktore wat immigrante uit Afrika motiveer om na Suid-Afika te immigreer en Kaapstad as bestemming kies. Data van indiepte onderhoude word ontleed ten einde die motiverings vir migrasie na Kaapstad vas te stel. Aandag word gegee aan die omstandighede in die migrante se lande van oorsprong, die rol van sosiale netwerke in die verskaffing van inligting oor die keuse van 'n bestemming en migrasieroetes, die struikelblokke langs die pad, hulle aanpassing in Kaapstad en hulle persepsies oor Kaapstad as 'n permanente bestemming. Dit blyk uit die literatuuroorsig oor redes vir migrasie dat daar twee dominante teoretiese benaderings (makro en mikro benaderings) vir die verduideliking van internasionale migrasie bestaan. Die makro benaderings fokus op migrasiestroom en identifiseer die omstandighede waaronder grootskaaaise bewegings plaasvind en beskryf ook die demografiese, ekonomiese en sosiale eienskappe van die migrante in groepsverband. Daar teenoor fokus mikro teorieë op die sosiaal-sielkundige faktore wat migrante van nie-migrante onderskei, tesame met teorieë oor motivering, besluitneming, bevrediging en identifikasie. Alhoewel elke teorie uiteindelik dieselfde verskynsel verduidelik, word verskillende konsepte, aannames en verwysingsraamwerke toegepas. Hierdie studie gebruik 'n eklektiese benadering waarin insigte uit beide mikro- en makrovlak ontledings gebruik word. Die studie oorweeg ook die geskiktheid van 'n kwalitaitiewe navorsingsontwerp vir die bestudering van spesifieke aspekte van migrasie en maak gebruik van 'n kwalitatiewe gevallestudie metode. Die metode fasiliteer 'n dieper refleksie van individue betreffende die faktore wat bygedra het tot hulle besluit om te migreer. Semi-gestruktureerde indiepte onderhoude is met vier immigrante gevoer. Daar is vasgestel dat immigrante oor verskillende redes migreer, maar onder dieselfde omstandighede. Uit die materiaal van die gevallestudies blyk dit dat dieselfde kwessies partykeer uiteenlopende betekenis vir elke migrant het. Een aspek wat deur al vier immigrante gedeel word, is die feit dat omstandighede in hulle lande van herkoms hulle forseer het om te migreer - hulle lewens is bedreig. Hulle . relatiewe hoë opleidingspeil en toegang tot fondse het hulle heel waarskynlik daartoe in staat gestelom te trek. Diegene in 'n minderbevoorregte posise het agtergebly. Die studie bevind ook dat die uitruil en vrye vloei van inligting en sosiale netwerke eerder die plek van bestemming bepaal as om die besluit om te migreer beïnvloed. Dit blyk egter dat die inligting wat immigrante ontvang soms verkeerd is en nie op die negatiewe aspekte van migrasie fokus nie. Wanneer die immigrante eers in Kaapstad is, voel hulle geïsoleerd, ervaar hulle vooroordeel, vyandigheid en diskriminasie van Suid-Afrikaners. Dit wilook voorkom asof baie Suid-Afrikaners nie 'n onderskeid tref tussen asielsoekers, vlugtelinge en ekonomiese migrante nie. Net die feit dat hulle vanaf 'n ander Afrika land afkomstig is, maak baie mense negatief teenoor hulle. Xenofobie manifesteer egter nie slegs in negatiewe ingesteldhede nie, maar daar is ook toenemende viktimisasie. Weens hierdie faktore en die probleme wat hulle ondervind om werksgeleenthede te vind waarin hulle hul vaardighede kan toepas, dra daartoe by dat immigrante Suid-Afrika nie as 'n permanente tuiste beskou nie.

This thesis evaluates the policy of mandatory detention for asylum seekers maintained by successive Australian governments against several core liberal principles. These principles are derived from various accounts of liberal political thought and the major themes and criticisms inherent in the public debate over the policy. The justifications of the policy given by the Australian government and the criticisms enunciated by scholars, refugee advocates and non-government organisations with respect to the policy strongly correspond with the core liberal principles of fairness, protecting the rights of the individual, accountability and proportionality. The claims of the critics converge on a central point of contention: that the mandatory detention of asylum seekers violates core liberal principles. To ascertain the extent to which the claims of the critics can be supported, the thesis selectively draws on liberal political theory to provide a framework for the analysis of the policy against these liberal principles, a basis for inquiry largely neglected by contributors to the literature. This thesis argues that, on balance, the mandatory detention policy employed by successive Australian governments violates core liberal principles. The claims of the critics are weakened, but by no means discredited, by the importance of the government's maintenance of strong border control. In the main, however, criticisms made by opponents of the policy can be supported. This thesis contributes to the substantial body of literature on the mandatory detention policy by shedding light on how liberal principles may be applicable to the mandatory detention policy. Further, it aims to contribute to an enriched understanding of the Australian government's competence to detain asylum seekers.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 259-270) Based on 18-months fieldwork, 1997-1999, in various organisations, social clubs and radio programs that were constructed by participants and 'outsiders' as an expression of a local migrant community. Attempts to answer and challenge what it means to be a Latin American in Adelaide and in what sense Latin American migrants and refugees in Adelaide can be spoken about as members of an 'ethnic/migrant community' in relation to the official multiculturalism discourse and popular representations of migrants in Australia.

Thesis (MDF (Development Finance))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Meer en meer mense werk buite hul land van herkoms as ooit tevore, en die geld wat hulle stuur na hul tuislande kan bestempel word as ‘n belangrike ekonomiese krag. Hierdie geld kan ’n belangrike rol speel in die ekonomie wat die geld ontvang. Die geld wat reiswerkers tuis stuur word remise of geldsending genoem en oortref reeds Offisiële Ontwikkelingshulp en oortref selfs Buitelandse Investering in sommige lande. Hierdie navorsingsverslag fokus op Zimbabwe, ’n land waarvan die ekonomie volgens sommiges reeds lank gelede moes ineengestort het. Die studie ondersoek tot watter mate geldsending die Zimbabwe ekonomie beskerm teen ineenstorting. Die verslag gebruik ’n opname onder verskeie rolspelers om te wys hoe geldsending die Zimbabwe ekonomie beskerm teen internasionale uitsluiting en sanksies. Zimbabweërs wat die ekonomiese swaarkry vrygespring het in hul land van herkoms stuur voortdurend geld na vriende en familie. Remise word deels gebruik as investering in kleinsake, terwyl deel van die buitelandse valuta investeer word in komoditeite wat die land moeilik deur offisiële kanale sou kon bekom. Die studie het bevind dat geldsending in 2005 en 2006 ongeveeer 25.5% en 25 persent respektiewelik tot die Bruto Nasioanle Produk van Zimbabwe bygedra het. Die studie het verder ’n paar interresante bevindinge gemaak. Een van hierdie is die ongedokumenteerde verskynsel van defleksie van geldsending na meer stabiele ekonomieë of geldeenhede. Sulke remise word dan in die land gehou waar dit gegenereer is, of dit word gestuur in ’n stabiele geldeenheid, of dit word selfs in die vorm van produkte soos kos gestuur.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: More and more people are working outside their countries of citizenship than before. These people are now a major economic force to their countries of origin as they are sending a lot of money to relatives back home. This income plays a key role in receiving economies. The money migrants send home is referred to as remittances and the amount transferred globally has eclipsed official development assistance (ODA) and in some economies it is well ahead of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). This research focuses on Zimbabwe, a country whose economy has long been anticipated to collapse but has so far evaded that implosion. It explores to which extent remittances are cushioning Zimbabwe’s economy from collapse. This report uses a survey of a number of role players to show how remittances have cushioned that economy from the effects of international isolation and sanctions. Zimbabweans who “escaped” the economic hardships in their country of origin have been consistently sending money home to their friends and relations. Money received has partly been invested in small businesses and part of the forex has been used to procure commodities that the country has struggled to acquire through official channels. The study found that the amount of remittances sent for 2005 and 2006 has respectively contributed approximately 25.5 and 25 percent to the GDP of Zimbabwe. The study further made a number of interesting findings. One of these seems to be the undocumented phenomenon of the deflection of remittances to more stable economies or currencies. Such remittances would be kept in the country where it is generated, or it would be sent back in a stable country, or could even be in the form of products such as food.

Talent management is a source of competitive advantage and will be achieved by those organisations that are able to attract, develop and retain best in class individuals. It is thus not just a human resources issue but rather an integral part of any organisation’s strategy. Due to negative perceptions about South Africa, skilled workers are immigrating to countries such as Australia to the detriment of the South African economy. This loss is not necessarily being replaced by graduates or through immigration. Government policies such as Broader- Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE), Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) and Affirmative Action (AA), compound the issue by then decreasing the pool of skilled applicants that may occupy skilled and senior posts in organisations. Globally there is a shortage of skills and due to employee mobility they can use any opportunity that presents itself. The objectives of this study was to determine the factors which lead to the emigration of skilled South African’s to Australia and then once these factors are known to propose retention strategies to role players to stem the emigration tide. To achieve these objectives a survey was prepared based on previous studies and a link to the web questionnaire was distributed to the population via an Australian immigration agent. The link was sent to all the agent’s clients around the world and thus consisted not only of South Africa respondents but also elicited international responses, which will be used for comparison purposes only. Only 48 South Africans responded to the survey and although limited, it was sufficient for the purposes of this study. The demographic profile was mainly male and dominated by Generation X. Using a Likert scale respondents were questioned on their levels of satisfaction in their country of origin and in Australia through an adaptation of a study by Mattes and Richmond (2000). The study of Hulme (2002) was adapted and incorporated into the questionnaire, where respondents were given the opportunity to rank considerations for leaving South Africa and factors that would draw them back. Respondents were provided with the opportunity for responses to open-ended questions to include other considerations for leaving and factors that would draw them back. Results from these survey items revealed that the primary reasons driving skilled South Africans to emigrate was safety and security, upkeep of public amenities, customer service and taxation. In contrast, South African migrants had high levels of satisfaction with safety and security, upkeep of public amenities and customer service in Australia. Respondents indicated that factors that would draw them back to South Africa would be improvements in safety and security and government, followed by family roots, good jobs and schools. The study also looked at the permanence of the move. If skilled individuals returned with new-found skills and experience then it could be a potential brain gain for South Africa. The results of this study found that 43% of respondents had no intention to return, 42% did not supply a response and only 10% were undecided on whether to return or not. To attract, retain and develop talent, the South African government and the private sector would need to work in partnership to develop policies that would satisfy the lower-order needs of individuals, such as physiological and safety needs.
Emigration of skilled South African migrants to Australia
Business Management
M.Tech. (Business Administration)

The phenomenon of migration has given rise to prolific research emphasising the psychological adaptation of persons post-immigration. This study focuses on psychological preparation pre-immigration. Literature study and empirical research establish that an immigrant's adaptation is influenced by migration motivation and expectations. Several phases of adaptation occur, during which time individual stress is influenced by one's perception of the balance between the stresses of the new environment and one's personal and external resources. Various migration stressors could be identified in the sample group of South Africans living in Australia. Personal and external resources include effective coping strategies, a positive, committed outlook, strong self-esteem as well as a cohesive family and an acquired support system. Finally, guidelines were produced reflecting that the preparation for immigration is a complex and highly individualised task comprised of providing information, encouraging self-assessment and supplying training to improve the coping startegies of the individual.
Educational Studies
M. Ed. (Guidance and Counseling)

M. Tech. Comparative Local Development
The number of immigrants in South Africa has been increasing in the last decade. This study investigates the effects of immigration on economic growth, unemployment, poverty and crime using secondary data mainly obtained from Statistics South Africa. The period under study is from 1995 to 2012. Only the impact of documented immigrants is investigated because that of illegal immigrants is not known. The theories of immigration and its economic and social effects will be reviewed. Studies done by other researchers in different countries will also be looked at. Xenophobic attacks in South Africa are as a result of the allegations by South Africans that immigrants are taking South Africans' jobs, increase poverty and crime. However, the positive contribution of these immigrants toward the South African economy is not much talked about. The research therefore seeks to identify if immigrants really cause some of the economic and social problems in South Africa. The results obtained show that an increase in immigration increases the number of unemployed people in South Africa, poverty as well as gross domestic product (economic growth). The effect on crime is different with each type of crime. Murder, burglary and common robbery decrease with an increase in immigration while the opposite is true for other crime types. The main cause of an increase in crime, poverty and the number of unemployed people is because immigration increases human population. The study concludes by suggesting policy recommendations.

Despite being the largest migratory movement between two states in modern history, the origins and operation of Mexican migration to the United States has not been a major research topic. We lack a comprehensive view of Mexican migration as it was established in early twentieth century and reproduced throughout the century as a system that reached from Texas borderlands to California and to western agricultural regions and beyond to Midwestern farming and industrial areas, a system that continued to be circular in nature even as permanent settlement increased, and which was in constant interaction with families, villages, and towns throughout Mexico. This interdisciplinary, bilingual, and transnational project is one of the first histories of the creation of migrant networks narrated from multiple geographic and institutional sites, analyzing the relationship between state agents, civic organizations, and migrants on both sides of the border. My project utilizes a statistical analysis of migration trends combined with qualitative research in order to show how migration arose as a mass phenomenon in Mexico and extended into the United States. This dissertation argues that large scale Mexican migration was created and operated through an interconnected transnational migrant economy made up of self-reinforcing local economic logics, information diffusion, and locally based social networks. I demonstrate that town-based interpersonal networks formed the engine that propelled and sustained large scale migration. Migrants needed transportation, capital, and information to travel north. Town-based networks provided all of these things. I follow the spread of migrant routes, explaining the creation of Mexican communities in the US Showing why communities were located where they are and their links to the larger economy of migrant labor before turning to Mexico and showing the effects of migration on sending communities. Migration evolved from a wave of mainly men into a broad based phenomenon, drawing in families and communities through remittances. I argue this is because a set of self-reinforcing economic logics were being created on both sides of the border. These logics are separate, but linked to the economic conditions that framed migration- the pull of the industrialization of the American West and the Mexican north with its relatively high wages- and the push of the chaos and violence of the Mexican revolution and Cristero Wars. Likewise, these logics could not have occurred without the demographic pressures of population growth in central Mexico, and the economic transformations of the Porfiriato. As more and more people participated in migration, they sent back information and remittances, which in turn made it easier for others to follow their path. Circular migration reinforced this dynamic as migrants returned home on a large scale, bringing back knowledge and experience. Together, these practices constituted the migrant economy and made central and central-north Mexico the engine of migration in the twentieth century. This new economy made it easier to move, but also tied many families and towns into continuous migrations in order to achieve economic stability. Ultimately this project shows the creation of the political economy of migrant labor between Mexico and the United States.

"September 2002"
Bibliography: leaves 320-343.
xiii, 363 leaves : ill., plates, maps ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geographical and Environmental Studies, 2003

by Chun Wai (May) Chan.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves [147-149]).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
Introduction --- p.1-3
The Historical Event
Intersection of History and Biography
Contemporary Emigration
Literature Review --- p.4-15
Conceptual and Theoretical Issues
"Types of Contemporary HK Emigrants, Emigration Strategies, & Emigration Adjustments"
"Rationales for Emigration, Return Emigration, and Settlement"
Politically Driven vs. Economically Driven Emigration
Middle Class Emigration vs. Working Class Emigration
The Meaning of the Contemporary Wave of Emigration
Research Method --- p.16-20
Research Aim
Framework of Analysis
Subject of Study
Research Design
Conducting the Interview
Data Analysis
Chapter Organization --- p.21-21
Chapter 1- The Setting
Chapter 2- The Search
Chapter 3- The Transition
Chapter 4- The Split
Chapter 5- The Scale
Chapter 6- The Meaning of the Contemporary Wave of Emigration from Hong Kong
Chapter Chapter 1- --- The Setting --- p.22-26
Chapter 1.1 --- History of Emigration
Chapter 1.2 --- The Contemporary Period
Chapter 1.2A --- Transformations in Hong Kong
Chapter 1.2B --- Immigration Policies of Overseas Destination Countries
Chapter 1.3 --- The Timeframe
Chapter Chapter 2- --- The Search --- p.27-48
Chapter 2.1 --- Forward
Chapter 2.2 --- Motivations for Emigration
Chapter 2.2A --- Overseas Educational Opportunities
Chapter 2.2B --- Overseas Living Environment
Chapter 2.2C --- Political Transition (97)
Chapter 2.3 --- 1997: Divergent Focus
Chapter 2.3A --- Shadow Past
Chapter 2.3B --- Ambiguous Future
Chapter 2.4 --- Non-Conventional Cases
Chapter 2.5 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 3- --- The Transition --- p.49-74
Chapter 3.1 --- Forward
Chapter 3.2 --- Economic and Social Transitions
Chapter 3.2A --- Economic
Chapter 3.2A. 1 --- Employment/ Career Adjustments
Chapter 3.2A. 1. a --- Experience and Education Route
Chapter 3.2A. 1 .b --- Experience Route
Chapter 3.2A. 1. c --- Further Education Route
Chapter 3.2A. 2 --- Economic Insecurity
Chapter 3.2.B --- Social
Chapter 3.2B.1 --- Expanded Living Environment
Chapter 3.2B.2 --- Detracted Sense of Belonging
Chapter 3.3 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 4- --- The Split --- p.75-107
Chapter 4.1 --- Forward
Chapter 4.2 --- Motivations for Return Emigration
Chapter 4.2A --- Lack of Extended Family Support & Contact Overseas
Chapter 4.2B --- Preference of Living in Hong Kong
Chapter 4.2C --- Economic/Career Opportunities in Hong Kong
Chapter 4.3 --- Conditional Return
Chapter 4.4 --- Tendency to Return to Destination Country
Chapter 4.5 --- Return Emigration Experiences
Chapter 4.6 --- Motivations for Settlement
Chapter 4.6A --- Overseas Living Environment/Lifestyle
Chapter 4.6B --- Opportunities for the Next Generation
Chapter 4.6C --- Timing/Inability to Overcome Barriers to Return Emigrate
Chapter 4.7 --- Perception of Passport
Chapter 4.8 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 5 --- The Scale --- p.108-118
Chapter 5.1 --- Forward
Chapter 5.2 --- The Losses
Chapter 5.3 --- The Gains
Chapter 5.4 --- The Balance
Chapter 5.5 --- Recapitulation
Chapter Chapter 6- --- The Meaning of the Contemporary Wave of Emigration from Hong Kong --- p.119-131
Appendix
Table I: Motivations for Emigration
Table II: Motivations for Return Emigration
Table III: Motivations for Settlement
Table IV: Occupation and Education Level
Table V: No. of Children
"Table VI: Current Age, Age at Time of Emigration, and Year of Emigration/ Return Emigration/Settlement"
Interview Schedule (Abridged)
Bibliography

For many years, migration has been intensively politicised in Australia. Political parties have different stands about migration and the government has raised its transparency to such a high level that the public is aware of developments and policy directions in migration for the present and future years. It was realized that well-educated migrants with skills and experience are able to accomplish better employment prospects and settlement outcomes. Skilled migration has therefore been emphasized. This thesis consists of a literature review on some of the motivations that support the objectives of migration over past years, outcomes brought by migration and overview of the migration program and main categories under skilled migration. As skilled migration has been placed with more emphasis since the 1990s and a larger quota has been allocated to facilitate younger migrants with the skills and expertise that are of use to Australia, it has become necessary to assess the economic impact brought by some of these skilled migrants. Coinciding with the emphasis of skilled migration, the trend of settler arrivals has changed so that Asians have increased their presence in Australia and the focus of this thesis is narrowed down to assess the economic impact of Asian groups. A description of general Asian culture and characteristics is also included in the literature review. Although Asians in Australia maintain their own cultures and some common characteristics, I have chosen the two biggest groups, namely Chinese and Vietnamese, to explore and identify their differences and economic contributions. Apart from ethnicity factor, other elements specifically educational attainment, occupational achievements, labour force status in which they have participated, age, English language proficiency, years of arrival and hours worked are tested for significance in enabling Chinese and Vietnamese migrants to earn income. This study also examines whether higher qualifications would increase the prospects of employability.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

In any act of household migration, there are movers (the migrant) and stayers (those left behind), and both of these two groups have expectations. The movers expect to make some benefits at the destination while the stayers expect the migrant to send or do something at home of origin. Some work, though limited, has been done to improve our understanding of how potential migrants form their expectations of what they can get from the destination country in studies involving determinants of individual migration. But for those left behind very little is known about how they form their expectations of what they can get from the migrant. The few studies that have been done on this have only used observed flow of remittances to estimate what people left behind expect from migration. Hence these studies equate observed flow of remittances to expected flows. And by this equation, these studies also assume perfect information flow between migrants and relations left behind as well as perfect knowledge to help those left behind to form realistic expectations: expectations that reflects exactly what can be sent to them. Obviously these assumptions are not tenable. These untenable assumptions also leave a hole in our ability to explain why a household will choose to either continue supporting members for migration or not. This is because we cannot tell from observed data alone whether or not the desire to continue to support migration of a household or a family member is as a result of well-informed subjective expectations or not. The crust of the problem here is therefore that by relying on observed data alone we fail to account for the important role subjective expectations or beliefs of those left behind play in decisions for further migration movements, especially within the family. To be able to unravel this problem we need elicitation of subjective expectations of remittance flows from those left behind. Using data from a specially designed survey in two districts in Ghana, I construct time-adjusted subjective remittance expectations of migrant families at home of origin and analyse the factors that determine the formation of these expectations and how formation of these expectations can help us explain perpetuation of migration within a household. The key analytical models employed in these investigations are summarised below In order to understand the exogenous determinants of remittance expectations of migrant households, I first of all estimate factors that influence performance of migrant at home of origin and general flow of information between the migrants and the household members left behind. In order to see the effect of remittances on formation of subjective expectations, remittance flow was measured in terms of migrant performance by adjusting the flows to the time period during which the migrant could do what he or she has done. The items were limited to the popular ones people receive: money for living expenses, establishment of a house and business investment. The theoretical explanation for this adjustment is that if the observed trend in remittance flow has any effect on expectations it would be through individual household’s evaluation of what migrants have achieved within a certain number of years. In other words, all things being equal, families whose migrants took much longer period to achieve certain things would have lower levels of expectations than a comparable family whose migrant took relatively shorter period. This is because taking a long time to achieve something at home of origin would breed some kind of skepticism and uncertainty among those left behind as to what they can get from migration. And this skepticism can lead to low levels of expectations. This is also in line with the reference people left behind often make when talking about achievements of migrants at home of origin as they always point to what XYZ has done. Ordinary least squared regression is then used to estimate factors determining level of migrant performance at home of origin after the transformation of the dependent variable: migrant performance. Heckman selection model is also applied to control for possible effect of bias since some households have migrants who have done nothing at home. Kinship ties are the major factors under this investigation. To determine the main factors influencing information flow, ordinary least squared estimates are used while a generalised ordered logit model, with maximum likelihood method, is used to estimate the factors influencing the likelihood of a household getting higher categories of private/dedicated information from the migrant. Major factors for this investigation are kinship ties and performance of migrant at home of origin. Since information flow and remittance flows are suspected to have endogenous relationship, instrumental variables (IV) technique is employed to estimated impact of remittance flow on both private and public information flows. This is important for us to understand how information flow act as exogenous determinant of subjective remittance expectations, and resultant effect on perpetuation of migration. Once current information flow and performance of migrants have been examined and effects of their exogenous factors estimated, the next stage of the analysis is the examination of effects of these past performance and information flow on household subjective remittance expectations while controlling for other major exogenous factors such as kinship ties, level of education and household wealth. Ordinary least square regression technique is used to estimate major determinants of these levels of expectations. However, to control for possible bias resulting from the fact that a select group of households may not expect anything, Heckman selection model is applied. The final analysis is the estimation of impact household subjective remittance expectations on migration-support intentions. Due to the problem of endogenous relationship between expectations and migration decisions, ordinary maximum likelihood estimates would not be very effective in identifying the real impact expectations have on migration decisions. Hence I use maximum likelihood with endogenous repressors to estimate or identify the influence of expectation on potential migration decisions, applying the probit model with selection model (heckprob) technique. Ordered probit analysis is also used to investigate what determines household’s desire to support more than one person for migration. The results are summarised below. Summary of Findings Economics and sociology literature makes us aware that in order to understand formation of expectations of any kind we first have to investigate two important factors: past events and current information flow, because these are the two factors that hugely influence expectations. Hence, for us to understand remittance expectations, we first have to understand two issues: observed past flows of remittances and current flow of information between the migrant and relations left behind at home of origin. If remittance flows should influence household or family’s (including the extended family members) subjective expectations and the support to move abroad, it should largely do so in terms of what has been observed in the past. In Chapter Six, I investigated the influence of kinship ties on receipts of remittances. As expected, closer migrant relations such as spouse and head of family stand a much better chance of having better performance from migrant than distant kinship ties such as friendship. However when it comes to performance in individual items such as house or business investment, a household cannot rely only on kinship ties with migrant. It should also have some wealth. Specifically, among the kinship ties only spousal relationship was found to have positive effect on migrant performance in areas such as housing and business investment. Thus the influence of kinship ties on observed flow of remittances is mostly limited to money for living expenses, unless the family left behind is wealthy enough to enable allocation of what is sent into other things such as investment in housing and business. With kinship ties being very influential in the determination of past performance of migrants one would expect that these ties would also influence information flow if the assumption of remittance and information flow being together holds. It has always been assumed by cumulative causation theories of migration that together with the flow of remittances from migrant to relations back at home is the flow of information that connects migrant, potential migrants and those left behind (Massey et al, 1993). If this is the case then relationship should be a key factor in determining information flow from the migrants, because these ties influence flow of remittances. Results from the 2SLS model show that remittance flow has impact only at the lower levels of private information flow, reinforcing the point that information that comes with remittance flow may just be social issues such as size of family, marital status, and not economic ones. In spite of their strong effect on remittance flow or migrant performance, all the types of kinship ties generally have negative effects on private information flow. Thus kinship ties are not enough for those left behind to get more private information from the migrant relations residing abroad. It should not be surprising that remittance flows do not lead to higher levels of information flow from the migrants to those left behind. This is because remittances are mostly made up of monetary transfers for living expenses which may not carry much information with it as, in most cases, migrants do not require monitoring. And with electronic transfers of these days, it becomes more implausible to assume that remittance flows, which are mostly limited to monetary transfers, would generate private information as the interpersonal exchanges in these transfers become more and more reduced. But since the lower levels of private information flows only contain pieces of information such as marital status, household size and education levels, it follows that remittance flow may not be the best channel through which relations get important information about the socioeconomic conditions of the migrant. Perhaps this assumption was more plausible about 30 years ago when migrants mostly relied on methods such as using other migrants going home. Families left behind have to rely on their wealth or good level of education to be able to source information from the migrants. On the other hand, remittance flow or migrant performance has highly significant and positive influence on public information flow, suggesting that what migrants do at home influence some perceived knowledge of the migrants’ socioeconomic conditions. It is also interesting to note that factors such as average household education and wealth that have significant positive effect on private information flow have negative effect on public information flow. One can therefore deduce that the more families are able to access information from the migrants themselves, the less they rely on migration information from nonmigrant sources or the general public in the community of origin. Unfortunately remittance flow is unable to help those left behind to get more information from the migrant. Hence most of them will have to rely on public information. With the flow of crucial information such as economic conditions of migrants lacking or being inadequate, it can be concluded that there would be some level of uncertainty about conditions. And this level of uncertainty may lead to some guess-work or reliance on information from other sources in the formation of remittance expectations. That is, would their inability to access crucial information on economic conditions of the migrants “push” them to rely on information reaching them from other sources in the formation of expectations? Also if the wealthy and the more educated families are more likely to know more about the migrants, and if knowing more about the migrant is most likely to temper high expectations with realism as hypothesized in this study, would it be fair to conclude that wealthier and more educated families may have ambivalent, if not negative expectation levels? Results from Chapter Seven show that families would use their experience of what migrants have done at home of origin as a starting point in the formation of their remittance expectations in terms of whether or not they should expect something. But once their expectation status is assured, families are much more influenced by other factors than migrant performance in the formation of their subjective remittance expectation levels. In other words at lower levels of information, remittance expectations seem to be more adaptive to past trends of observed remittance flows. Kinship ties become very significant in this respect in spite of its insignificant influence on information flow. This raises a question of whether or not the effect of kinship ties on formation of remittance expectations is informed by information from the migrants. All the results point to the contrary. The effects of kinship ties on subjective remittance expectations are informed more by past experience of remittance receipts than current dedicated/ private flow of information between the families and the migrants. When kinship ties are interacted with private information their effects on remittance expectations are, however, significantly reduced, indicating that when people take private or dedicated information into consideration their high expectations are very much checked. What are the implications of subjective remittance expectations form under low levels of dedicated information flow for migration decisions? Chapter Eight sought to provide the answer to this question. The results confirmed the hypothesis that subjective remittance expectations formed under inadequate flow of dedicated information would lead to increasing desire to support more migration from the family and the opposite should also true. That is under inadequate information flow, subjective remittance expectations have highly positive effect on desire to perpetuate migration more than the demonstrative effect of migrant performance, emphasizing the importance of expectations in perpetuation of migration. However, the strong effect of expectations and kinship ties on desire to support migration could be reduced if high levels of dedicated information are taken into consideration. Further investigation into why some families with remittance expectations would still not want to support members to migrate revealed that, in addition to private or dedicated information flow, average household education level is a major factor that discourages families with remittance expectations from further supporting members to migrate. This is in sharp contrast with the generally accepted view that education selects families and individuals into migration, especially international migration. This is true in the general population. When only migrant families are sampled, as in this study, the effects of education on migration are tempered with information flow. Education allows the family to access more and more of private/dedicated information which has negative effect on remittance expectations. It is therefore not surprising that education may discourage families with expectations to continue supporting migration. But since most people do not get the private information or do not even consider it as, expectations which are hugely informed by past performance, public information and mere kinship ties would continue to drive perpetuation of migration, at least, at the household level.

With South Africa attaining democratic status in 1994 and the establishment of diplomatic relations with the People‟s Republic of China a “new wave” of Chinese migration into the country began (Park, 2009). Although the Chinese migrants and their business enterprises are visible on the streets of Durban's city centre and surrounding towns, their lives seem shrouded with secrecy. This study was therefore conducted with the aim of understanding the social and economic lives of the Chinese traders living and working in the city of Durban. Interviews and participant observation methods were utilised in order to obtain qualitative data. The analysis of the data indicates that the main priority of traders is to grow their business in order to prosper; therefore their social and economic activities revolve round the activity of trading. Although crime and language barriers deter Chinese migrants from being more active within South African society, their "Chinese shops‟ serve as spaces where they negotiate relationships with diverse people, including their workers and customers. Social, distribution and supply networks are also found to be imperative in order for migrants to effectively conduct their business. It was also noted that social networks, knowledge of the English language, positive experiences in the host country and length of time spent in the country contributes to traders adapting to South Africa. This study also indicates that the future of Chinese migrants in South Africa hinges on the micro and macro conditions of the host country, traders overcoming language barriers as well as maintenance of social networks that provide support to the migrant trader.
Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

The aim of this study was to analyse teacher migration between South Africa (SA) and the United Kingdom (UK). An understanding of teacher migration and migration patterns is of vital importance especially to SA. As a developing country, SA is losing valuable assets, namely professionals (teachers, doctors, nurses) to developed countries. There is a return stream as evident in a cohort of teacher migrants returning to SA. However, increased mobility is a direct occurrence of the forces of globalisation, and neither the loss of professionals (brain drain) nor the brain gain is unique to SA. Nevertheless, the need to understand migrant teachers' decision-making is salient: firstly, as a step in creating avenues for discourse on addressing the flight of 'home-grown' professionals and attracting ex-patriots back to their home country. Secondly, in furthering an understanding of global labour migration, and finally in developing and expanding on existing migration theories in a globalised world. This study was multi-layered. It investigated two distinct cohorts of teachers: ninety experienced teachers (part of the teaching fraternity) and thirty novice teachers (student teachers in their final year of study at Edgewood College of Education in SA). Within the category of experienced teachers, three separate divisions of teachers were identified for examination, namely premigrants (teachers about to embark on their first migration), post-migrants (SA teachers already teaching in the UK) and return-migrants (teachers who had returned to SA after a period of teaching in the UK). Various theories influenced the study: economic theories of migration, identity theories in education and Marxist labour theory. Within this theoretical framing the influence of globalisation as a process in facilitating cross border mobility was emphasized. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used in the study. Teachers' voices were favoured in the study as an expression of the complexity of their thinking, attitudes, behaviour and hence, identities. The study commenced by examining the reasons for novice and experienced teachers exiting the SA teaching fraternity, to work in schools in London in the UK. Then it explored the latter teachers' experiences in those schools and society with a view to revealing their integration into new socio-cultural and political milieus, and highlighting their transnational identities. Finally, experienced teachers' reasons for returning to SA were probed. In tracing teachers' trajectory from pre-migration (before migration) to post-migration (in the host country) to return migration (back to the home country), the study attempted to analyse patterns of transnational migration in a globalised context. The study identified the emergence of a new breed of teachers: transnational teacher-travellers. These are teachers who traverse a country's national boundaries at will. They are at ease trading their services in a global market, all in the pursuit of attaining a kaleidoscope of goals simultaneously. SA teachers were generally leaving their home country for multiple reasons of finance, travel opportunities and career progression. None of these reasons were mutually exclusive of each other. Migrant teachers' experiences in the UK were extensive, from professional growth to salary satisfaction and travel. However, teacher stress from incidents of reduced classroom discipline and loneliness stemming from family separation impacted on migrant teachers abroad, and contributed to return migration. An evaluation of the data on migrant teachers' motivations, experiences and goals led to the development of a model to understand the transnational migration patterns of teachers traversing from developing to developed countries. The model is sculptured from Demuth's (2000) three phases of migration: pre-migration, post-migration and return-migration. A basic tenet of the suggested model is that teacher migration is a non-linear process. It is initiated and sustained by complex, concurrent push or pull factors in the home country and pull or push factors in the host country. Further, teacher migration is propelled and perpetuated by the influences of globalisation and socio-cultural networks between countries.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

Migration is a major global issue of the 21st century (Martin & Widgren, 2002) [...] In recent years there has been an upsurge of African Diaspora returning home (Thomas, 2008). Notwithstanding anecdotal and editorial coverage, very little academic research exists on international migration to Africa (Ammassari, 2006). The focus of migration studies related to Africa has largely centred on outward migration and measures of the extent and cost benefits of the drain or gain and the ensuing debate on macro policy implications (Heenan, 2005). This research offers a new perspective on migration by exploring reasons and deeper motivations behind why African Diaspora mid-career professionals migrate to Africa, specifically South Africa and Nigeria. [Abbreviated Abstract. Open document to view full version]
MT2016

Over the past 30 years South Africa has lost valuable human capital due to high volumes of emigration. South Africa has also seen numerous changes in its political, economic and social structure specifically in these decades, but little investigation has been done into the possibility of an association between political, economic and social, as well as personal factors, and the decision to leave South Africa. This study refers to Lee’s Migration Model (1966) that was used as a broad theory for migration. The model involves four sets of factors: factors associated with the area of origin, factors associated with the area of destination, intervening obstacles and personal factors. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory also explains the personal motivational theory for migration. Lee’s Model of Migration is used to investigate which political, economic, social and personal factors in the area of origin (South Africa) pushed South African emigrants to leave the country. It also investigates which political, economic, social and personal factors in the area of destination (Australia and New Zealand) pulled South African emigrants toward these countries. This study involved mixed-methods research (Creswell, 2009), thus the data collection methods were both qualitative and quantitative. The study followed a sequential exploratory strategy in two stages with the qualitative data collection occurring first, followed by a quantitative study – ‘QUALquan’ study. The data are mixed between analysis of the qualitative data and the quantitative data collection (Creswell, 2009:211). The qualitative data collection instruments used in the first stage of the study in 2009, were face-to-face interviews consisting of one focus group and six personal interviews in New Zealand, as well as twelve personal interviews in Australia. In the second stage of the study in 2015, namely the quantitative research, respondents were selected by contacting 17 closed (secured) Facebook groups that were formed for South Africans living either in Australia or New Zealand. There is no alternative sampling frame available since emigrants do not need to declare themselves as migrants on a work visa, furthermore, official documentation is not accessible to the public. A quantitative data collection instrument was administered with an online questionnaire. In the Australian Facebook groups, 137 respondents completed the questionnaire, and in New Zealand Facebook groups, 118 respondents, which adds up to a total of 255 respondents who completed the questionnaire. The results concluded that South Africa’s governance framework, its infrastructure and legislation acted as political push factors motivating South Africans to emigrate, while an uncertain economy contributed as an economic push factor. Socially, a perception of a limited future and a narcissistic society is what pushed South Africans to emigrate. Personal push factors that drove the emigration decision included, unmet physical, safety, belonging and esteem needs. The political factors that pulled South African emigrants to Australia and New Zealand involved effective government services and governmental aid. Economic pull factors included economic certainty and a lower cost of living. Social pull factors proved to be familiar circumstances and a better future. Personal pull factors were safety, belonging and self-actualisation needs. This mixed-method approach focussed on the gap to a followup study that was identified in previous individual qualitative and quantitative studies. These results may assist the South African government to take measures that ensures the retention of highly skilled citizens.
Business Management
M. Com. (Business Management)

This dissertation traces Chinese migration to and settlement in Colombia from the 1890s through 2020, and situates immigrants' experiences within a larger racially-attuned economic story of a commercially integrating transpacific Caribbean immediately before and after the consolidation of American hegemony. It specifically traces Chinese migration and commercial activities in key sites and regions increasingly drawn into financial and trade systems shaped by the US, including: the Colombian Pacific port of Buenaventura; Panama and the interoceanic canal which connected transpacific Caribbean communities and commerce; the Colombian Caribbean port cities of Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta; and Bogotá, the political seat of power which oversaw externally-oriented national economic development and international trade. Though they were racially and economically marginalized and their entry and movements were restricted in Colombia as elsewhere in the Americas, Chinese were nevertheless able to carve out commercial and migration opportunities that connected regions of nations together. Bridging Anglophone and Spanish-speaking, agricultural and industrial, Pacific and Atlantic, their particular migration paths and economic niches enabled them to play unrecognized but integral integrative roles in larger commercial integration processes—whether as merchants who connected the Colombian Pacific to markets in the United States and Europe; truck farmers whose production of food for domestic consumption supported agricultural export and industrialization efforts; or restauranteurs whose expansion of Chinese restaurants from the Caribbean coast to the western coffee axis and Andean interior later became the basis for a new import-export role of distributing goods cheaply made in China within Colombia’s urban centers. Continually adapting to new structural constraints and opportunities, Chinese created a persisting and evolving migrant and migration economy sustained by and sustaining familial and commercial connections that spanned what I term a transpacific Caribbean. Their (often serial) transpacific and circum-Caribbean historical migration trajectories took them from villages, cities, and counties mostly in the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong province and Hong Kong to the Greater Caribbean region (Panama, Trinidad, Cuba, Jamaica, Venezuela, etc.), the United States, and the coastal Caribbean, Pacific, and Andean interior regions of Colombia. What facilitated such migrations (and what attracted Chinese migrants)—the anticipated economic opportunities that followed the building of integrative transportation and trade infrastructure that connected interior to port cities and port cities to international (mainly US) markets—is as important to Colombian economic development history and US overseas commercial expansion as to Chinese immigration history. By showing how Chinese built a migrant and migration economy within this broader imperial and national economic structure, “A Transpacific Caribbean: Chinese Migration, US Imperialism, and the Making of Modern Colombia” weaves these interconnected strands of history together.

Through an ethnographic examination of two New York City South Asian organizations, Worker's Awaaz and the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO), this study attends to the classed subjects produced at the different points of convergence of neoliberal policy in India and the United States. The project is concerned with the workings of South Asian organizations as the demographic profile of this population changes due to new migration patterns marked by gender, class, nationality and status, and new subjectivities borne of organizing and activism that have emerged around these. With attention to the nexus of capital, labor and rights, I argue that each organization represents two sides of neoliberal tendencies, and that this materializes in the subjects of worker and diasporic entrepreneur that are mobilized in Worker's Awaaz and GOPIO, respectively. Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) in South Asia compelled the migration of the low-wage female membership Worker's Awaaz. Once in the United States, where carework has become increasingly privatized, many of these women find employment as domestic workers whose labor is necessary to the households of upper-middle class and wealthy South Asians. SAPs also opened up South Asian markets to direct foreign investment. Needing outside capital for schemes of privatization and deregulation, the government of India turned to the diaspora, and deployed financial investment by overseas Indians as diasporic duty. This is a role that GOPIO has been at the forefront of organizing. I specifically explore how economic beings constructed through neoliberal discourse of human capital inhabit, rework, and contest these very discourses and practices. In Worker's Awaaz debates regarding who constituted a worker were contestations over the meanings of class and labor rooted in global migration flows. Within GOPIO the class inflected subjectivity of entrepreneur found nationalist luster as the articulation of entrepreneurialism was cast as a trait of Indian diasporic culture. The subject positions borne from these activities produced different struggles over the terms of national belonging and rights. The dissertation understands these positions as generated from the disjunctive tendencies of neoliberalism, and as sites that give insight into the workings of current capital regimes.
text

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Journalism at the University of the Witwatersrand, 2016
Economic migrants to South Africa face a hostile reception; periodic displays of widespread xenophobia have highlighted the myths and stereotypes that still abound about foreigners - that they are job-stealers, criminals and a threat to our nation’s well-being. The Department of Home Affairs recently brought in new immigration laws that raise the barriers to entry and participation in the South African economy and society. Yet a back door has been left wide open for economic migrants, often unskilled and with no other options, to enter South Africa, live and work. For six consecutive years South Africa was the number one destination for asylum seekers globally and the influx has caused the refugee determination process to become clogged and corrupt, leaving genuine refugees vulnerable and hundreds of thousands of foreigners in an unhappy limbo. The accompanying narrative long form journalism piece highlights some of the fault lines in the government’s uncoordinated and inconsistent migration policy. Overall the project seeks to personalize some of the key challenges and contentious issues faced by migrants to South Africa. It aims to puts a human face to a bureaucratic process by accessing the stories of marginalized migrants, giving them a voice to articulate their experiences in South Africa. The accompanying method document outlines some of the academic research underpinning the study.
GR2017

Migration from non-SADe countries to South Africa has become the new trend of population movement in Southem Africa. This research was conducted with Ethiopian immigrants in Durban in an attempt to shed some insights into this new nexus. The aim of the study was to understand the experiences of Ethiopian immigrants before, during and after their migration. In-depth interviews were conducted with 15 Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa. The decision to migrate was mainly motivated by economic reasons. There were many contributing fac tors in making the decision to migrate. These included social networks, cost of travel, accessibility and availability of opportunities in South Africa. Ethiopian immigrants have used different travel routes and entry points to enter South Africa, both legally and illegally. They selected Durban as their destination city because of the availability of economic opportunities and the relatively less bureaucracy in government offices compared to other cities. Various literatures suggest that immigrants in South Africa and other parts of the world share the experiences of Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa in many ways. The findings of this research suggest that most Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa are involved in the informal economic sector. The target of their economic activities is mainly South Africans in the townships and Ethiopian immigrants themselves. This research also found that Ethiopian immigrants have not integrated with the local community. The study further explains some of the challenges Ethiopian immigrants face during their travel and stay in South Africa. Most of the Ethiopian immigrants stated that they do not intend to stay in South Africa for long. Most of them plan to go to economically more affluent countries like the United States of America.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2007.

This dissertation contains three essays in History and Spatial Economics with Big Data. As a part of my dissertation, I develop a modern machine-learning based approach to connect large datasets. Merging several massive databases and matching the records within them presents challenges — some straightforward and others more complex. I employ artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies to link and then analyze massive amounts of historical US federal census, Department of Labor, and Bureau of Labor Statistics data. The transformation of the US economy during this time period was remarkable, from a rural economy at the beginning of the 19th century to an industrial nation by the end. More strikingly, after lagging behind the technological frontier for most of the nineteenth century, the United States entered the twenty-first century as the global technology leader and the richest nation in the world. Results from this dissertation reveal how people lived and how the business operated. It tells us the past that led us to where we are now in terms of people, geography, prices and wages, wealth, revenue, output, capital, numbers, and types of workers, urbanization, migration, and industrialization. As a part of this endeavor, the first chapter studies how the benefits of improving urban mass transit infrastructures in cities are shared across workers with different skills. It exploits a unique historical setting to estimate the impact of urban transportation infrastructure: the introduction of mass-public transit infrastructure in the late nineteenth and twentieth-century New York City. I linked individual-level US census data to investigate how urban transit infrastructure differentially affects the welfare of workers with heterogenous skill. My second chapter measures immigrants' role in the US rise as an economic power. Especially, this chapter focuses on a potential mechanism by which immigrants might have spurred economic prosperity: the transfer of new knowledge. This is the first project to use advances in quantitative spatial theory along with advanced big-data techniques to understand the contribution of immigrants to the process of U.S. economic growth. The key benefit of this approach is to link modern theory with massive amounts of microeconomic data about individual immigrants—their locations and occupations—to address questions that are extremely difficult to assess otherwise. Specifically, the dataset will help the researchers understand the extent to which the novel ideas and expertise immigrants brought to U.S. shores drove the nation’s emergence as an industrial and technological powerhouse. My third chapter exploits advances in data digitization and machine learning to study intergenerational mobility in the United States before World War II. Using machine learning techniques, I construct a massive database for multiple generations of fathers and sons. This allows us to identify “land of opportunities": locations and times in American history where kids had chances to move up in the income ladder. I find that intergenerational mobility elasticities were relatively stable during 1880-1940; there are regional disparities in terms of giving kids opportunities to move up, and the geographic disparities of intergenerational mobility have evolved over time.

M.Comm.
The general conclusion arrived at in this dissertation is that the quality of infrastructure in South Africa has resulted in a large and increasing inflow of students from the other African countries. The ensuing influx of international students has been sustained through the activities of networks based on kin, acquaintance and the support of the source country governments. This has resulted in a large inflow of foreign revenue and growth of employment opportunities and income for South Africa. Although the revenue from the inflow of international students in South Africa is impressive, it is still trivial in comparison to what other countries such as the USA, the UK, Australia and China receive. Another advantage is that the presence of international students offers a potential boost to the skills shortage in South Africa. The direct benefits from international students to South Africa have the capacity to be further enhanced but a proper policy for facilitating such inflow is lacking. Certain administrative processes and practices in South Africa aggravate the situation. These procedures include visa application difficulties, university registration bureaucracy, and police behaviour. Worse still, crime and xenophobia in South Africa are common and they present some of the greatest threats to the continued inflow of international students.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, June 2017.
Tourism contributes to economic development in both developed and developing countries. Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) travel is one of the largest forms of tourism on a global level. However, there has been limited research over the past decades on VFR travel. In recent times, VFR travel has attracted the attention of researchers due to increasing rate of migration resulting in the promotion of regional tourism through VFR travel. Despite the influx of migrants in South Africa, research on international VFR travel has been limited as most research on VFR travel has been on local level from one province to another. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the expenditure pattern of Zimbabweans travelling to and from South Africa for VFR purposes. Furthermore, the study seeks to identify the benefits of VFR travel to individual households in Zimbabwe. Using a quantitative framework, 200 questionnaires were distributed to Zimbabweans and a Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) was used as an analysis tool. The theory of consumer behaviour was implemented to discuss and analyse the findings, revealing that VFR travellers from South Africa spend more than VFR travellers to South Africa on transport cost, food and beverages, entertainment and financial remittances. The expenditure is based on socio-demographic and travel-related characteristics. As a result of VFR travellers’ expenditure, the benefits, which are directed to individual households in Zimbabwe, include household upkeep, education, business investment, health and other reasons. Thus this study focuses attention on international VFR travel and its contribution to the tourism economy in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Key Words: Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR), Tourism, Migration, Expenditure, Regional Tourism, South Africa, Zimbabwe.
XL2018

Nurses constitute the largest professional group in South Africa's health care services. Factors contributing to South African nurses' emigration were studied qualitatively by analysing expatriate nurses' responses to open-ended questions, and quantitatively by analysing newly registered nurses' responses to structured questionnaires. These results were contextualised within Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory, revealing that nurses' inability to meet their physiological needs, due to inadequate remuneration, was the major factor contributing to nurses' emigration potential. While improved salaries might enable more nurses to remain in South Africa, expatriate nurses would not return to South Africa unless certain esteem and self-actualisation needs could also be satisfied. Improving nurses' salaries is essential to address South African nurses' emigration potential. However, improved working conditions, enhanced workplace security, improved levels of job satisfaction and the appointment of nurses into currently frozen posts are also necessary, as is governmental and public recognition of the value of the profession. The South African nursing profession, health care services, Government and society should urgently address factors contributing to South African nurses' emigration potential; otherwise a serious shortage of nurses could cause the collapse of this country's health care services.
Health Studies
DLITT ET PHIL (HEALTH ST)

The expansion of fruit, vegetable and horticultural (FVH) production in California and Andalucia has been contemporaneous with a decline in 'native' farm labor and restrictions on lower-skilled migration. Resulting increases in the populations of unauthorized farmworkers have contributed to mounting tension over the rights and numbers of migrants in Spain and the United States. Yet, the similarities in farm labor outcomes contrast with the distinct geographical, temporal, sociocultural and institutional conditions in which these labor markets have evolved. Using Californian and andaluz FVH as exemplars, the dissertation explores the problem and problematization of unauthorized migration in the United States and Spain from 1985 through 2005. Four primary themes -uncovered in interviews with migration researchers, advocates, union representatives, employers and migrants -guide assessment of the relationship between the reproduction of illegality and the regulation of migration and FVH production: the (1) recruitment and (2) retention of unauthorized farmworkers and the role of (3) interest groups and (4) the state in migration and farm labor policymaking. Legislation, mass media and US and Spanish census and survey data illustrate demographic, economic and political shifts over this period. The study illuminates the primary, but not always direct, role of policies and politics in the magnitude and composition of migration and settlement patterns in both countries. Laissez faire regulation and symbolic enforcement have shaped the ethnic, legal and gender composition of the farm labor market. Political and structural constraints, as well as economic pressures, have institutionalized illegality in FVH agriculture, subverting the cost of human rights to the price of food. Coupled with economic growth, this outsourcing in situ has spurred labor market intermediation and fostered poverty in rural communities; agreement on a farm labor fix has been limited, although not eclipsed, by public contestation over illegal migration.

This thesis examined husband immobility and the international migration of married women from Zimbabwe. Data was collected from husbands and wives in married couple households where the wife had migrated alone. Face-to-face semi structured interviews were conducted with migrant women’s husbands in Zimbabwe while migrant women were interviewed in countries of destination telephonically. Empirical results showed that migrant women and their husbands were middle aged. Preferred countries of destination were in the region and the United Kingdom. Having a wife’s own social contacts in the preferred destination encouraged migration by reducing financial and emotional costs. Husbands' immobility facilitated wifely migration. Many wives exercised agency in migration decision making with more wives than husbands having initiated the discussion on migration. There were also cases of joint and wife sole decision making. With a few exceptions decision making was consensual. The women migrated as a survival strategy. In several households remittances were the primary source of income. Husbands were the main recipients of remittances. Some wives gave instructions on how the remittances should be used. Overall, remittances were used for paying fees, buying assets and for household upkeep. Some of the women had not visited their families since their migration. The physical separation of spouses had caused emotional distress in some marital relationships. The majority of respondents cited loss of consortium as a major problem.
Sociology
D. Phil.

The study investigated the impact of remittances on financial development in Africa using the dynamic generalised methods of moments (GMM) and other panel data analysis methods with data from 2003 to 2015. Using the same econometric estimation methods, the study also explored the influence of the complementarity between remittances and economic growth on financial development in Africa. Literature on the relationship between remittances and financial development is mixed, inconclusive and indecisive. The desire to contribute towards literature on the influence of remittances on financial development in the African context prompted this study. In Africa, personal remittances had an insignificant positive impact on financial development across all the econometric estimation approaches in all the four models, in line with some empirical studies on the subject matter. African countries are urged therefore to avoid wasting their time developing and implementing remittances, foreign aid and human capital development enhancement policies as a way of spearheading financial development. Using both broad money (as % of GDP) and domestic private credit ratio as measures of financial development, the interaction between remittances and economic growth was found to have a non-significant negative effect on financial development in Africa. The policy implication is that Africa needs to avoid over relying on economic growth as a channel through which financial development can happen
Die studie het die impak van betalings op finansiële ontwikkeling in Afrika ondersoek – deur middel van die dinamiese veralgemeende momentemetode (GMM) en ander metodes van paneeldata-ontleding, met data van 2003 tot 2015. Dieselfde ekonometriese beramingsmetodes is ook ingespan om die invloed van die komplementariteite tussen betalings en ekonomiese groei op finansiële ontwikkeling in Afrika te ondersoek. Die literatuur oor die verwantskap tussen betalings en finansiële ontwikkeling is gemeng, onoortuigend en vaag. Die begeerte om tot die literatuur oor die invloed van betalings op finansiële ontwikkeling in die Afrika-konteks by te dra, het tot hierdie studie aanleiding gegee. In Afrika het persoonlike betalings ʼn onbeduidende positiewe impak op finansiële ontwikkeling in al die benaderings tot ekonometriese beraming in al vier modelle gehad, wat strook met sommige empiriese studies oor die onderwerp. Afrika-lande word dus gemaan om nie hul tyd te mors met die ontwikkeling en implementering van betalings en buitelandse hulp en beleide om mensekapitaalontwikkeling te verbeter as ʼn manier om finansiële ontwikkeling te lei nie. Daar is bevind dat sowel breë geldvoorraad (as ʼn persentasie van BBP) en die binnelandse private kredietverhouding as maatstawwe van finansiële ontwikkeling, die wisselwerking tussen betalings, en ekonomiese groei ʼn nie-beduidende negatiewe uitwerking op finansiële ontwikkeling in Afrika het. Die beleidsimplikasie is dat Afrika moet waak teen oorafhanklikheid van ekonomiese groei as ʼn kanaal waardeur finansiële ontwikkeling kan plaasvind.
Ucwaningo beluphenya umthelela wezimali ezibhadalwayo mayelana nokuthuthukiswa komkhakha wezezimali e-Afrika ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezifanayo zezikhathi (GMM) kanye nezinye izindlela zokuhlaziywa idatha yephaneli ngokusebenzisa idatha yonyaka ka 2003 ukufikela ku 2015. Ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezifanayo zohlelo lokulinganisa isimo somnotho (econometric estimation), ucwaningo futhi luye lwahlola umthelela wousebenzisana okuphakathi kwezimali ezibhadalwayo kanye nokuhluma komnotho mayelana nokuthuthukiswa ngezimali e-Afrika. Umbhalo wobuciko mayelana nobudlelwano phakathi kwezimali ezibhadalwayo kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwezinhlaka zezimali uxutshwe ndawonye, awunaso isiphetho futhi awukwazi ukuthatha izinqumo. Isidingo sokufaka igalelo embhalweni wobuciko mayelana nomthelela wezimali ezibhadalwayo kwihlelo lokuthuthukiswa kwezimali ngaphansi kwesizinda sase-Afrika, ykho okuphembelele ukuthi kube nalolu cwaningo. E-Afrika, izimali ezibhadalwa abantu ziye zaba nomthelela omuhle kwintuthuko yezimali kuzo zonke izindlela zokulinganisa izinga lentuthuko yezomnotho kuwo wonke amamodeli amane, ngokuhambisana nezinye izifundo zocwaningo oluphathekayo lwalesi sifundo. Ngalokho-ke amazwe ase-Afrika ayanxenxwa ukuthi agweme ukumosha isikhathi sawo athuthukisana futhi asebenzisa uhlelo lokuthumela izimali futhi agweme ukuqinisa imigomo yoncedo oluvela emazweni angaphandle kanye nokuthuthukisa abantu ngokwamakhono omsebenzi, njengento yokuhlahla indlela yohlelo lokuthuthukiswa kwezimali. Ukusethenziswa kokubili imali ebanzi (njengephesenti le-GDP) kanye njengesilinganiso sesikweletu, phecelezi-domestic private credit ratio sisebenza njengesilinganiso sezinga lokutthuthuka ngokwezimali, ukusebenzisana phakathi kwezimali ezibhadalwayo kanye nokuhluma komnotho kutholakele ukuthi kube nomthelela ongabalulekile omubi phezu kwezinga lentuthuko yezimali e-Afrika. Ngokomgomo lokhu kuchaza ukuthi i-Afrika idinga ukuthi igweme ukwencika kakhulu ukusebenzisa uhlelo lokuthuthukiswa komnotho njengomgudu lapho kungathuthukiswa komnotho.
Financial Accounting
M. Com. (Business Management)

This dissertation was carried out to try to understand the role of social capital in the migration of Zimbabwean migrants to Botswana. It describes elements and types of social capital Zimbabwean undocumented migrants used to come to Botswana. Questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used to obtain data from respondents. Though the influence of macro factors initially pushed migrants to migrate, there was evidence of the existence of social networks. Findings showed the use of social networks by Zimbabwean undocumented migrants. Though kinship networks were dominant in the initial migration stages there was a wane in the destination as migrants reverted to friendship networks for flexibility. Linking existed at both the place of origin and destination. Social control, channelling and negative social capital were discovered among migrants. Migrants developed mechanisms to counter the Botswana’s enforcement policy.
Sociology

M. Tech. Business Administration
The aim of this research is to investigate how immigrant entrepreneurs make use of family support as an enabler for entrepreneurial activity to lead business success. It also looks at the role of the family in the business.

This study aimed to determine the applicability of western migration models to the movement patterns of foreign migrant traders at the Hartebeespoort Dam. After reflecting on theoretical dimensions of migration and the informal sector, an overview was provided of the historical development of migration patterns to and within South Africa. The complex nature of migration phenomena ensures the application of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. A snowball sampling technique was used to select 30 respondents for the purpose of the questionnaire survey. Information obtained from this survey was supplemented by five in-depth interviews. Descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyse the information obtained from the survey. The study concluded that western migration models do not offer adequate explanation for the migration patterns observed among foreign migrant traders at the Hartebeespoort Dam. The study also established the merit of the combined use of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies in migration studies.
Geography
M.A. (Geography)

Ethnic food markets and restaurants are the main source of immigrants’ traditional foods in South Africa. Despite this, the actual availability and accessibility of ethnic foods from the ethnic food markets and restaurants has not been investigated. Furthermore, factors that influence the role of ethnic foods in the diets of immigrants, like perceptions of Sub-Saharan Immigrants towards South Africa food culture, and the safety of ethnic foods have not been established. Although a number of studies have been conducted on the identification of microbial hazards of cooked food in the informal sector, none have been conducted on ethnic foods of Sub-Saharan Immigrants. Aim and objectives The aim of this study was to assess the availability and accessibility of Sub-Saharan African immigrants’ traditional food from ethnic food markets, shops and restaurants, establish immigrants’ perceptions towards South African’s food culture, and determine predictors of contamination of selected cooked food sold in the ethnic food markets, and restaurants. From this aim, eight objectives were formulated as follows: (i) describe the immigrants’ perceptions towards South Africa’s food culture, (ii) investigate the contribution of the ethnic food markets on the dietary patterns of immigrants, (iii) investigate the availability, and accessibility of the ethnic foods available in the ethnic food markets, and restaurants, (iv) document coping strategies adopted by immigrants when faced with shortage of their traditional foods or ingredients in South Africa (v) identify factors associated with a move away from their ethnic foods and adoption of South African foods, (vi) investigate the microbiological quality of selected cooked foods found in the ethnic food markets and restaurants, and (vii) investigate predictors of contamination of ethnic foods bought from the restaurants and markets. A cross-sectional research design using a mixed methods approach was adopted to achieve the objectives of this study. The mixed method employed three instruments, namely: questionnaire, checklist, and laboratory microbial analysis. The study was conducted in Tshwane and Johannesburg metropolitan municipalities. The study focused on two study populations: (i) immigrant households from West, East and Central Africa regions, and ii) entrepreneurs selling Sub-Saharan ethnic ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. The snowball sampling method was adopted to sample both study populations. A total of one hundred and ninety four (n=194) women and forty (n=40) entrepreneurs who met the inclusion criteria and agreed to participate were included in the study. A checklist was employed to assess restaurants and vending sites. Two samples of RTE ethnic foods were collected from each entrepreneur and submitted to the microbiology laboratory at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Data obtained from the questionnaire, checklist and microbial analysis were analysed, and descriptive statistics were presented as tables and figures. Multivariable and binary logistic regression models were fitted to the data to assess predictors of adoption and contamination respectively. Results Ethnic foods still featured prominently in the diets of immigrants, with only 7.7 % (n=15) indicating that they strictly followed a South African diet. Ethnic food markets are the main sources of ethnic foods for immigrants living in Gauteng. Efforts to maintain ethnic diets by Sub-Saharan immigrants resident in South Africa are hindered by factors such as unaffordability (39.2%;n=76) and unavailability (25.3%; n=49) of their ethnic foods. Meanwhile, relying on less preferred food (38.7%; n=75) and replacing unavailable ingredients with similar ingredients (37.6%; n=73%) were identified as two main coping strategies that are adopted by immigrants when facing unavailability of their traditional food ingredients. Four patterns of dietary acculturation were identified, namely, strict continuity with traditional foods (21.6%; n=42), very limited adoption (21.1 %; n=39), limited adoption (50.5%; n=98) and complete adoption (7.7%; n=15) of South African foods. The following were the most common food items that the respondents tended to adopt: pap (84.5%; n=164); fried potato chips (43.8%; n=85); cold drinks (42.8%; n=83); fast foods (37.6%; n=73); sphathlo (30.9%; n=60); and vetkoek (30.4%; n=59). Four factors that were associated with adoption of South African foods included:  spending R2500-R3499 (OR 3.34; p=0.017) and 3500-4500 (OR 3.99; p=0.030) on food,  residing in the country between 3-6 years (OR 5.16; p=0.001),  earning between 5000-10 000 (OR 0.52; p=0.040) and >R11 000 (OR 0.380; p=0.057), and  being in part-time/temporary employment (OR 5.85; p=0.025). The majority of the ethnic food entrepreneurs were West Africans (70%; n=28), belonging mainly to the 30-49 years old age group (88%; n=35). Over 35%% (n=14) of the entrepreneurs indicated that they had completed high school education, while 42.5% (n=17) had tertiary education. The majority (80%, n= 34) of vendors of ethnic foods did not have a certificate in food handling or hygiene practices. The majority (95%, n=38) of entrepreneurs operated in permanent structures with ceilings and walls. A majority (95%; n=38) also had access to tap water and flushing toilets. However, ownership of appliances such as thermometers (0%, n=0), microwaves (55%, n=22), and freezers (37.5%, n=15) was very low. There was also low adherence with regards to the following aspects: wearing of protective clothing such as caps (40%; n=24), apron (62.5%, n=25) and gloves (0%, n=0); not wearing jewellery (50%; n=20); keeping fingernails short and clean; and proper reheating of food. Samples contaminated with total viable counts above the threshold of satisfactory counts (<10⁵ CFU/g) was very high (71.3% , n=57). Over twenty percent (22.5%; n=18) of the food samples had unsatisfactory levels of coliforms (>10 ³ CFU/g), and 17.5% (n=14) had unsatisfactory levels (>3 CFU/g) of E. coli. Salmonella was observed in only 3.8 % (n=3) food samples. Being new in business (OR=0.010, p=.033), owning a freezer (OR .477; p= .052), not owning a microwave (OR .013, p=.074), and reheating per serving (OR .187, p=.048) were identified as significant drivers of contamination. Conclusion In the two metropolitans that were investigated only 40 vendors of ethnic foods could be identified. This number is too low to be able to supply the whole immigrant community with ethnic foods. Thus their role as a contributor to household food security is limited. As a result, although the majority of immigrants attempt to preserve their traditional diets, high ethnic food prices and unavailability of traditional ingredients forces them into bicultural eating patterns. Although bicultural eating patterns are supposed to protect against food insecurity, the adoption of unhealthy dietary habits and could render them vulnerable to food insecurity. Lack of knowledge of South Africa foods results in poor food choices. In the long run these unhealthy eating patterns could have negative implications choices. In the long run these unhealthy eating patterns could have negative implications on the nutritional health of immigrants and the health system of South Africa. Therefore, studies to identify foods with similar taste and nutritious ingredients could aid prevention of obesity and lifestyle diseases and inform culture-specific nutrition education programmes. The high number of entrepreneurs without training on food hygiene and handling practices limits the role of the ethnic restaurants in the food security of immigrants living in Gauteng, and food quality is thus compromised. Therefore, there is a need for targeted training programmes which cater for the unique needs of the ethnic entrepreneurs to enable them to play a meaningful role in ensuring that immigrants who want to maintain their food culture are food secure. These programmes should also address the poor handling and hygiene practices that were observed in this study. This could be done by emphasising the World Health Organization’s (WHO) five keys to safer food. Results of the food contamination indicate that entrepreneurs are able to produce safe food, (as supported by only moderate contamination levels of coliforms and E. coli, which also suggests low risk of environmental and enteric contaminants). However, if these concerns are not addressed immediately by proper training and monitoring, they could further compromise the role played by ethnic food markets in food security. Training and monitoring programmes should place more emphasis on the four factors that were identified as drivers of contamination
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
Ph. D. (Agriculture)

Text in English with appendices in Afaan Oromoo (Oromo language)
Despite the imperative of reintegration assistance for returnees of illegal migration, which will enable them to become independent and productive members of the community, the reintegration needs and experiences of returned illegal migrants are neglected in academic studies. The objectives of the study were to explore the socio-contextual factors that gave rise to the illegal migration of the study participants; their illegal migration abuse and exploitation experiences; the reintegration needs they sought after return; and the responses of relevant stakeholders to meet the reintegration needs of the returnees and help them reintegrate into the community. To this end, I conducted a qualitative study in Omo Nada district in 2017. I collected the data by means of indepth interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. I used thematic analysis to analyze the findings. The study revealed that the decision to migrate ‘illegally’ was the result of numerous drivers: poverty, unemployment, political discrimination, family pressure, and absence of legal means, the influence of brokers and smugglers, and socio-cultural and religious factors. The returned migrants experienced various types of abuse and exploitation, including physical abuse, economic, labour and sexual exploitation both on the migration journey and at the place of destination. The long periods of isolation some experienced also resulted in the disintegration of their families. Participants identified the need for support in the form of health services, counselling, housing, employment, skills training, finances, loans and social support from relevant stakeholders such as family, the community, the government and non-governmental organizations. Despite the many needs identified, the relevant bodies provided very little reintegration support. Due to this, the returnees were not able to reintegrate into their communities. Returning to the premigration conditions which drove them to migrate ‘illegally' in the first place, with no hope of any reintegration assistance, led some returnees to re-migrate illegally. Reintegration is a key aspect for return migration. Therefore, to be sustainable and for the reintegration process to be successful it must be widely supported. The consequences of illegal migration and reintegration support must be taken seriously and supported by the government in all its aspects. Government agencies such as the Labour and Social Affairs Office must be capacitated to provide the necessary assistance and supports to effect sustainable integration.
Sociology
Ph. D. (Sociology)