Relevant bibliographies by topics / Atmospheric aerosol formation

Academic literature on the topic 'Atmospheric aerosol formation'

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Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Atmospheric aerosol formation"

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Park, Ki-Tae, Sehyun Jang, Kitack Lee, Young Jun Yoon, Min-Seob Kim, Kihong Park, Hee-Joo Cho, et al. "Observational evidence for the formation of DMS-derived aerosols during Arctic phytoplankton blooms." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 17, no. 15 (August 10, 2017): 9665–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-9665-2017.

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Abstract. The connection between marine biogenic dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and the formation of aerosol particles in the Arctic atmosphere was evaluated by analyzing atmospheric DMS mixing ratio, aerosol particle size distribution and aerosol chemical composition data that were concurrently collected at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard (78.5° N, 11.8° E), during April and May 2015. Measurements of aerosol sulfur (S) compounds showed distinct patterns during periods of Arctic haze (April) and phytoplankton blooms (May). Specifically, during the phytoplankton bloom period the contribution of DMS-derived SO42− to the total aerosol SO42− increased by 7-fold compared with that during the proceeding Arctic haze period, and accounted for up to 70 % of fine SO42− particles (< 2.5 µm in diameter). The results also showed that the formation of submicron SO42− aerosols was significantly associated with an increase in the atmospheric DMS mixing ratio. More importantly, two independent estimates of the formation of DMS-derived SO42− aerosols, calculated using the stable S-isotope ratio and the non-sea-salt SO42− ∕ methanesulfonic acid ratio, respectively, were in close agreement, providing compelling evidence that the contribution of biogenic DMS to the formation of aerosol particles was substantial during the Arctic phytoplankton bloom period.
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Girgzdys, A., A. Juozaitis, and V. Ulevicius. "Atmospheric aerosol formation research." Journal of Aerosol Science 20, no. 8 (January 1989): 1107–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-8502(89)90773-8.

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Tian, Pengfei, Lei Zhang, Jianmin Ma, Kai Tang, Lili Xu, Yuan Wang, Xianjie Cao, et al. "Radiative absorption enhancement of dust mixed with anthropogenic pollution over East Asia." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 18, no. 11 (June 4, 2018): 7815–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-7815-2018.

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Abstract. The particle mixing state plays a significant yet poorly quantified role in aerosol radiative forcing, especially for the mixing of dust (mineral absorbing) and anthropogenic pollution (black carbon absorbing) over East Asia. We have investigated the absorption enhancement of mixed-type aerosols over East Asia by using the Aerosol Robotic Network observations and radiative transfer model calculations. The mixed-type aerosols exhibit significantly enhanced absorbing ability than the corresponding unmixed dust and anthropogenic aerosols, as revealed in the spectral behavior of absorbing aerosol optical depth, single scattering albedo, and imaginary refractive index. The aerosol radiative efficiencies for the dust, mixed-type, and anthropogenic aerosols are −101.0, −112.9, and −98.3 Wm-2τ-1 at the bottom of the atmosphere (BOA); −42.3, −22.5, and −39.8 Wm-2τ-1 at the top of the atmosphere (TOA); and 58.7, 90.3, and 58.5 Wm-2τ-1 in the atmosphere (ATM), respectively. The BOA cooling and ATM heating efficiencies of the mixed-type aerosols are significantly higher than those of the unmixed aerosol types over the East Asia region, resulting in atmospheric stabilization. In addition, the mixed-type aerosols correspond to a lower TOA cooling efficiency, indicating that the cooling effect by the corresponding individual aerosol components is partially counteracted. We conclude that the interaction between dust and anthropogenic pollution not only represents a viable aerosol formation pathway but also results in unfavorable dispersion conditions, both exacerbating the regional air pollution in East Asia. Our results highlight the necessity to accurately account for the mixing state of aerosols in atmospheric models over East Asia in order to better understand the formation mechanism for regional air pollution and to assess its impacts on human health, weather, and climate.
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Bauer, S. E., D. Koch, N. Unger, S. M. Metzger, D. T. Shindell, and D. G. Streets. "Nitrate aerosols today and in 2030: a global simulation including aerosols and tropospheric ozone." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7, no. 19 (October 2, 2007): 5043–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-5043-2007.

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Abstract. Nitrate aerosols are expected to become more important in the future atmosphere due to the expected increase in nitrate precursor emissions and the decline of ammonium-sulphate aerosols in wide regions of this planet. The GISS climate model is used in this study, including atmospheric gas- and aerosol phase chemistry to investigate current and future (2030, following the SRES A1B emission scenario) atmospheric compositions. A set of sensitivity experiments was carried out to quantify the individual impact of emission- and physical climate change on nitrate aerosol formation. We found that future nitrate aerosol loads depend most strongly on changes that may occur in the ammonia sources. Furthermore, microphysical processes that lead to aerosol mixing play a very important role in sulphate and nitrate aerosol formation. The role of nitrate aerosols as climate change driver is analyzed and set in perspective to other aerosol and ozone forcings under pre-industrial, present day and future conditions. In the near future, year 2030, ammonium nitrate radiative forcing is about −0.14 W/m² and contributes roughly 10% of the net aerosol and ozone forcing. The present day nitrate and pre-industrial nitrate forcings are −0.11 and −0.05 W/m², respectively. The steady increase of nitrate aerosols since industrialization increases its role as a non greenhouse gas forcing agent. However, this impact is still small compared to greenhouse gas forcings, therefore the main role nitrate will play in the future atmosphere is as an air pollutant, with annual mean near surface air concentrations, in the fine particle mode, rising above 3 μg/m³ in China and therefore reaching pollution levels, like sulphate aerosols.
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Davidi, A., I. Koren, and L. Remer. "Direct measurements of the effect of biomass burning over the Amazon on the atmospheric temperature profile." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 9, no. 3 (May 15, 2009): 12007–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-9-12007-2009.

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Abstract. Aerosols suspended in the atmosphere interact with the solar radiation and thus change the radiation energy fluxes in the atmospheric column. In particular, absorbing aerosols can stabilize the lower atmosphere by warming the aerosol layer; while cooling both: the layers beneath and the surface. Changes in atmospheric stability can affect cloud formation and cloud properties. In this paper we measure changes in the atmospheric temperature profile as a function of the smoke loading and the cloudiness over the Amazon basin, during the dry seasons (August and September) of 2005–2007. We show that as the aerosol optical depth (AOD) increases from 0.02 to a value of ~0.6, there is a decrease of ~4.3°C at 1000 hPa, and an increase of ~1.6°C at 850 hPa. The warming of the aerosol layer at 850 hPa is likely due to aerosol absorption when the particles are exposed to direct illumination by the sun. The large values of cooling in the lower layers are explained by a combination of aerosol extinction of the solar flux in the layers aloft and by an aerosol-induced increase of cloud cover and further shading of the lower atmosphere. We estimate that the increase in cloud fraction due to aerosol contributes about half of the observed cooling in the lower layers.
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Joutsensaari, J., M. Loivamäki, T. Vuorinen, P. Miettinen, A. M. Nerg, J. K. Holopainen, and A. Laaksonen. "Nanoparticle formation by ozonolysis of inducible plant volatiles." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5, no. 6 (June 16, 2005): 1489–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-1489-2005.

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Abstract. We present the first laboratory experiments of aerosol formation from oxidation of volatile organic species emitted by living plants, a process which for half a century has been known to take place in the atmosphere. We have treated white cabbage plants with methyl jasmonate in order to induce the production of monoterpenes and certain less-volatile sesqui- and homoterpenes. Ozone was introduced into the growth chamber in which the plants were placed, and the subsequent aerosol formation and growth of aerosols were monitored by measuring the particle size distributions continuously during the experiments. Our observations show similar particle formation rates as in the atmosphere but much higher growth rates. The results indicate that the concentrations of nonvolatile oxidation products of plant released precursors needed to induce the nucleation are roughly an order-of-magnitude higher than their concentrations during atmospheric nucleation events. Our results therefore suggest that if oxidized organics are involved in atmospheric nucleation events, their role is to participate in the growth of pre-existing molecular clusters rather than to form such clusters through homogeneous or ion-induced nucleation.
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Eleftheriadis, K., Meng-Chen Chung, and I. Colbeck. "Atmospheric aerosol formation over Athens." Journal of Aerosol Science 29 (September 1998): S25—S26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-8502(98)00089-5.

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Arnold, Frank. "Atmospheric Ions and Aerosol Formation." Space Science Reviews 137, no. 1-4 (June 2008): 225–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11214-008-9390-8.

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Liu, Jiumeng, Liz Alexander, Jerome D. Fast, Rodica Lindenmaier, and John E. Shilling. "Aerosol characteristics at the Southern Great Plains site during the HI-SCALE campaign." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 21, no. 6 (March 31, 2021): 5101–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-5101-2021.

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Abstract. Large uncertainties exist in global climate model predictions of radiative forcing due to insufficient understanding and simplified numerical representation of cloud formation and cloud–aerosol interactions. The Holistic Interactions of Shallow Clouds, Aerosols and Land Ecosystems (HI-SCALE) campaign was conducted near the DOE's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Southern Great Plains (SGP) site in north-central Oklahoma to provide a better understanding of land–atmosphere interactions, aerosol and cloud properties, and the influence of aerosol and land–atmosphere interactions on cloud formation. The HI-SCALE campaign consisted of two intensive observational periods (IOPs) (April–May and August–September, 2016), during which coincident measurements were conducted both on the G-1 aircraft platform and at the SGP ground site. In this study we focus on the observations at the SGP ground site. An Aerodyne high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) and an Ionicon proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) were deployed, characterizing chemistry of non-refractory aerosol and trace gases, respectively. Contributions from various aerosol sources, including biogenic and biomass burning emissions, were retrieved using factor analysis of the AMS data. In general, the organic aerosols at the SGP site was highly oxidized, with oxygenated organic aerosol (OOA) identified as the dominant factor for both the spring and summer IOP though more aged in spring. Cases of isoprene-epoxydiol-derived secondary organic aerosol (IEPOX SOA) and biomass burning events were further investigated to understand additional sources of organic aerosol. Unlike other regions largely impacted by IEPOX chemistry, the IEPOX SOA at SGP was more highly oxygenated, likely due to the relatively weak local emissions of isoprene. Biogenic emissions appear to largely control the formation of organic aerosol (OA) during the HI-SCALE campaign. Potential HOM (highly oxygenated molecule) chemistry likely contributes to the highly oxygenated feature of aerosols at the SGP site, with impacts on new particle formation and global climate.
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Bauer, S. E., D. Koch, N. Unger, S. M. Metzger, D. T. Shindell, and D. G. Streets. "Nitrate aerosols today and in 2030: importance relative to other aerosol species and tropospheric ozone." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 7, no. 2 (April 26, 2007): 5553–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-7-5553-2007.

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Abstract. Ammonium-nitrate aerosols are expected to become more important in the future atmosphere due to the expected increase in nitrate precursor emissions and the decline of ammonium-sulphate aerosols in wide regions of this planet. The GISS climate model is used in this study, including atmospheric gas- and aerosol phase chemistry to investigate current and future (2030, following the SRES A1B emission scenario) atmospheric compositions. A set of sensitivity experiments was carried out to quantify the individual impact of emission- and physical climate change on nitrate aerosol formation. We found that future nitrate aerosol loads depend most strongly on changes that may occur in the ammonia sources. Furthermore, microphysical processes that lead to aerosol mixing play a very important role in sulphate and nitrate aerosol formation. The role of nitrate aerosols as climate change driver is analyzed and set in perspective to other aerosol and ozone forcings under pre-industrial, present day and future conditions. In the near future, year 2030, ammonium nitrate radiative forcing is about –0.14 W/m2 and contributes roughly 10% of the net aerosol and ozone forcing. The present day nitrate and pre-industrial nitrate forcings are –0.11 and –0.05 W/m2, respectively. The steady increase of nitrate aerosols since industrialization increases its role as a non greenhouse gas forcing agent. However, this impact is still small compared to greenhouse gas forcings, therefore the main role nitrate will play in the future atmosphere is as an air pollutant, with annual mean near surface air concentrations rising above 3 μg/m3 in China and therefore reaching pollution levels, like sulphate aerosols, in the fine particle mode.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Atmospheric aerosol formation"

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Tasoglou, Antonios. "Formation and Chemical Aging of Atmospheric Carbonaceous Aerosol." Research Showcase @ CMU, 2016. http://repository.cmu.edu/dissertations/757.

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Atmospheric aerosols can cause serious human health problems and are also affecting the energy balance of our planet contributing to climate change. Organic aerosol (OA) is the most diverse and least understood component of submicron aerosols, in part because of a wide variety of biogenic and anthropogenic sources as well as contributions from both direct emission and secondary formation in the atmosphere. Air quality models often seriously under-predict the concentration of OA in the atmosphere due mainly to our lack of understanding of the atmospheric chemical and physical processing of the emitted organic compounds. A series of experimental studies were performed to address some of the major questions regarding atmospheric OA. In the first phase of the work, the secondary organic aerosol (SOA) production during the oxidation of β-caryophyllene by ozone (O3) and hydroxyl radicals (OH) and the subsequent chemical aging of the products during reactions with OH were investigated. Experiments were conducted with ozone, hydroxyl radicals at low NOx (zero added NOx) and at high NOx (100s of ppb). The SOA mass yield at 10 μg m-3 of organic aerosol was 27% for the ozonolysis, 20% for the reaction with OH at low NOx and 38% at high NOx under dry conditions, 20oC, and ozone excess. Parameterizations of the fresh SOA yields have been developed. The average fresh SOA atomic O:C ratio varied from 0.24 to 0.34 depending on the oxidant and the NOx level, while the H:C ratio was close to 1.5 for all systems examined. An average density of 1.06±0.1 μg m-3 of the β-caryophyllene SOA was estimated. The exposure to UV-light had no effect on the β-caryophyllene SOA concentration and Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (AMS) mass spectrum. The chemical aging of the produced β-caryophyllene SOA was studied by exposing the fresh SOA to high concentrations (107 molecules cm-3) of OH for several hours. These additional reactions ii increased the SOA concentration by 15-40% and the O:C by approximately 25%. A limited number of experiments suggested that there was a significant impact of the relative humidity on the chemical aging of the SOA. The evaporation rates of β-caryophyllene SOA were quantified by using a thermodenuder allowing us to estimate the corresponding volatility distributions and effective vaporization enthalpies. In the second step the accuracy of continuous black carbon measurements of a series of commercially available instruments was assessed for biomass burning particulate matter. Black carbon-containing particles are the most strongly light absorbing aerosols in the atmosphere. They are emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass. Measurements of black carbon are challenging because of its semi-empirical definition based on physical properties and not chemical structure, the complex and continuously changing morphology of the corresponding particles, and the effects of other particulate components on its absorption. In this study we compare six available commercial continuous BC instruments using biomass burning aerosol. The comparison involves a Soot Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (SP-AMS), a Single Particle Soot Photometer (SP2), an aethalometer, a Multiangle Absorption Photometer (MAAP), and a blue and a green photoacoustic extinctiometer (PAX). An SP-AMS collection efficiency equal to 0.35 was measured for this aerosol system. The SP-AMS was then compared to all the other commercial instruments. Two regimes of behavior were identified corresponding to high and low organic/black carbon ratio. New mass absorption cross sections (MAC) were calculated for the optical instruments for the two regimes. The new MAC values varied from 30% to 2.3 times the instrument default values depending on the instrument and the regime. This comparison of the optical instruments suggests a stronger discrepancy among the BC measurements as the organic carbon content of the BC-containing particles increases. In the next step we focused on the chemical aging of combustion emissions. Smog chamber experiments were conducted to study the changes of the physical properties and chemical composition of biomass burning particles as they evolve in the atmosphere. A Soot Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (SP-AMS) and a Single Particle Soot Photometer (SP2) were used for the chemical characterization of the particles. An Aethalometer as well as a green and a blue photoacoustic extinctiometer (PAX) were used for the study of the aerosol optical properties. As the biomass burning smoke aged, exposed to UV light, ozone, or OH radicals, organic material condensed on the preexisting particles. This coating led to an increase of the absorption of the black carbon-containing particles by as much as a factor of two. The absorption enhancement of biomass burning particles due to their coating with aromatic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) was also studied. The resulting absorption enhancement was determined mainly by the changes in the SOA mass concentration and not the changes of its oxidation state. The enhancement of the absorption of the aging biomass burning particles was consistent with the predictions of a core-shell Mie theory model assuming spherical particles and non-absorbing coating. In the last phase of the work emissions from cooking activities were studied. Cooking organic aerosol (COA) is a significant fraction of the total fine aerosol in urban areas around the world. COA chemical aging experiments took place in a smog chamber in the presence of UV light or in excess of ozone. Positive matrix factorization was used to characterize the changes in the chemical composition of the COA during the chemical aging. The chemical composition of the produced aged COA was similar for both aging methods The chemical aging processes cause an increase of the organic mass and its oxidation state. The fresh COA particles have a low CCN activity but their activity increases significantly as they chemically age.
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Wang, Shih-chen Flagan Richard C. "Aerosol formation and growth in atmospheric organic/NOx systems /." Diss., Pasadena, Calif. : California Institute of Technology, 1991. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-01112007-152148.

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Hennigan, Christopher James. "Properties of secondary organic aerosol in the ambient atmosphere sources, formation, and partitioning /." Diss., Atlanta, Ga. : Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/26598.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009.
Committee Chair: Weber, Rodney; Committee Co-Chair: Bergin, Michael; Committee Member: Mulholland, James; Committee Member: Nenes, Athanasios; Committee Member: Russell, Armistead. Part of the SMARTech Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Collection.
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Lack, Daniel Anthony. "Modelling the formation of atmospheric aerosol from gaseous organic precursors." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2003. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/15831/1/Daniel_Lack_Thesis.pdf.

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This thesis describes the investigation of three aspects of the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA): * Aerosol formation from mixed precursors * Global modelling of SOA formation * Modelling of dynamics of SOA formation based on empirical data collected from smog chamber experiments. The formation and growth processes of secondary organic aerosol were investigated using smog chamber experimentation and modelling techniques to gain a better understanding of the application of SOA yield values in modelling both SOA mass and dynamics. Published SOA yields from a range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used to model SOA mass on a local, regional or global scale, based on the assumption that the SOA yield of a mixture is the sum of the yields of the components. Experimental investigations into SOA yield from mixtures of VOC revealed potential uncertainties that would result from applying these yields to systems containing multiple VOCs. SOA formation in systems of toluene or m-xylene, compared with systems of these VOCs and propene, have shown that the introduction of propene (which has a zero SOA yield) to smog chamber photo-oxidations of toluene or m-xylene delays the formation and suppresses the overall yield of SOA from 450 to 90 µg m-3 ppm-1 for the toluene system and from 325 to 125 µg m-3 ppm-1 for the mvxylene system compared with systems of individual species without propene. The SOA partitioning yield data also indicates that partitioning of species to existing aerosol is suppressed in the mixed systems. Gas-phase modelling of these experiments showed that potential SOA species were expected to be formed sooner due to the increased system reactivity provided by propene. The observed delay in SOA nucleation, similar consumption rates of toluene and m-xylene in both the single and mixed systems and the gas-phase modelling results suggest that the addition of propene to hydrocarbon SOA systems modifies the gas-phase chemistry leading to the formation of potential SOA species from toluene and m-xylene. This result calls into question the bulk and partitioning yield values that have been published for pure substances as well as the validity of applying individual VOC yields to VOC mixture. Application of SOA yields to the global scale provides estimates of annual global SOA formation, global contributions from various VOCs and regional SOA distributions. Two SOA modules, using bulk and partitioning yield methods, were added to a global atmospheric chemical transport model, MOZART-2. The bulk yield method, representing the maximum possible global SOA burden, gave an annual production of 24.5 Tg of SOA, which is slightly lower than previous estimates (30 - 270 Tg yr-1). The partitioning method, which gives a more realistic estimate of SOA formation, produced 15.3 Tg yr-1; the biogenic fraction (13.6 Tg yr-1) compares to a previous estimate of biogenic SOA of 18.5 Tg yr-1 and 2.5 to 44 Tg yr- 1 using the partitioning method. Anthropogenic SOA contributions of 1.1 Tg yr-1 from MOZART-2 compared to recent estimates of 0.05 -2.62 Tg yr-1. SOA production was found to be dependent on oxidant availability and VOC emissions in South America and Asia. The partitioning method produced significantly less SOA due to limited availability of OC. Thepartitioning method also produced a peak SOA concentration of 10 µg m-3 over South America in September and showed that SOA is at maximum production for most of the year in Asia and Europe. The two SOA formation methods also provides data to analyse the restrictions to SOA formation in particular regions, based on the maximum amount of SOA able to form (bulk yield method) and the more realistic partitioning estimate from the same region. Limitations to SOA formation in a particular region can be attributed to deficiencies in OC availability or VOC oxidant concentrations. Comparisons to limited observational and modelled data suggest that the MOZART-2 SOA model provides a good representation of global averaged SOA. SOA mass concentrations, predicted by models such as MOZART-2, can be used in part to model the dynamics of an SOA population (e.g. size of particles, number concentrations etc.). Aerosol properties such as size and number concentration can then be used to estimate their effect on climate and health. The explicit representation of the processes that affect aerosol dynamics, such as nucleation, condensation, evaporation and coagulation can be complex and use significant computational resources. Simplification of the discrete coagulation equation and empirical coagulation coefficients for continuum and non-continuum regime diffusion kinetics provided a simplified method of coagulation capable of predicting the evolution of inert sodium chloride aerosol in chamber experiments. A variable coagulation coefficient (linked to the mean particle number concentration of each experiment) was developed. This method is an empirical surrogate for the standard coefficient corrections applied to Brownian based diffusion in the continuum regime to account for the different kinetic effects within the transition and free molecular diffusion regimes. This method removes the need for calculating individual coefficients for each particle interaction. Estimates of modeluncertainty show that within uncertainty limits the model provides a good representation of experimental data. Correlation and index of agreement (IOA) calculations revealed good statistical agreement between modelled and experimental. Some experiments showed degrees of coagulation under prediction using the variable coefficient technique. Investigations into the effect of aerosol type and size, temperature and humidity may be necessary to refine the variable coefficient calculation technique. The model showed little sensitivity to model time step and is capable of high resolution representation of the aerosol. Mass concentration is conserved within the model whereas some error due to numerical diffusion within the number concentrations results from the bin sectioning technique used. The simplicity of this sectioning method over other methods and the minimal effect of numerical diffusion establishes a simplified method of modelling relative to the high resolution of the aerosol distribution the model achieves. It is suggested that the efficiency improvements introduced by the approaches used in developing this model provide an efficient ultra-fine coagulation modelling for atmospheric models. A semi-empirical model for SOA dynamics (SPLAT) incorporating coagulation, nucleation, condensation and evaporation was developed. The aim of the model and the development process was to predict, with high resolution and minimal computational expense, the formation and growth of SOA given a SOA mass input as a function of time. The average size distribution profile from chamber experimental data was used as part of the nucleation module. This technique provided an alternative method of representing the particle distribution compared to those models that assume a single diameter of nucleated particle or a fixed log-normal mode for the entire evolution of SOA. All SPLAT simulations assume organic nucleation events within the experiments modelled, although it is stilluncertain whether they occur in the atmosphere. The modelled nucleation events have produced a single nucleation burst, a result of immediate domination of condensation as soon as nucleation occurs. This deficiency is likely to be a result of the assumption of free molecular diffusion for condensation. The rate of condensation, calculated at every time step, is based on the aerosol size distributed surface area and the particle-size-dependent saturation mass concentrations. The SPLAT coagulation module was a version of the model developed in Chapter 6. Comparisons between experimental and modelled data showed good agreement. These comparisons revealed the shortcomings in the nucleation module while a statistical analysis of the modelled and experimental data has shown SPLAT to be effective in modelling a range of SOA systems. The complexity introduced in modelling aerosol dynamics in high resolution is offset in SPLAT by efficiency improvements due to the insensitivity of the model to time step size and simplified methods of bin sectioning, nucleation, coagulation, condensation and evaporation. Published SOA yields can be applied to predict SOA mass at local, regional or global scales. Although previously unreported uncertainties in these yields have been shown to exist, the MOZART-2 global chemical transport model has shown that SOA mass concentration can be predicted with reasonable quality, considering the scale of the model and limited observational data. These global scale SOA mass predictions can be used purely for global burden and occurrence, or as the input for modelling the dynamics of an aerosol population, which is significant for estimating an aerosol population's effect on climate change and health. SOA mass concentrations from chamber experiments were used as input to a SOA dynamics model. This model (SPLAT) then predicted the evolution of particle number concentrations and size within these experiments based on this mass input. Application of the dynamics model to the output of the MOZART-2 model could then provide a comprehensive global scale SOA modelling package.
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Lack, Daniel Anthony. "Modelling the Formation of Atmospheric Aerosol From Gaseous Organic Precursors." Queensland University of Technology, 2003. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/15831/.

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This thesis describes the investigation of three aspects of the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA): * Aerosol formation from mixed precursors * Global modelling of SOA formation * Modelling of dynamics of SOA formation based on empirical data collected from smog chamber experiments. The formation and growth processes of secondary organic aerosol were investigated using smog chamber experimentation and modelling techniques to gain a better understanding of the application of SOA yield values in modelling both SOA mass and dynamics. Published SOA yields from a range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used to model SOA mass on a local, regional or global scale, based on the assumption that the SOA yield of a mixture is the sum of the yields of the components. Experimental investigations into SOA yield from mixtures of VOC revealed potential uncertainties that would result from applying these yields to systems containing multiple VOCs. SOA formation in systems of toluene or m-xylene, compared with systems of these VOCs and propene, have shown that the introduction of propene (which has a zero SOA yield) to smog chamber photo-oxidations of toluene or m-xylene delays the formation and suppresses the overall yield of SOA from 450 to 90 µg m-3 ppm-1 for the toluene system and from 325 to 125 µg m-3 ppm-1 for the mvxylene system compared with systems of individual species without propene. The SOA partitioning yield data also indicates that partitioning of species to existing aerosol is suppressed in the mixed systems. Gas-phase modelling of these experiments showed that potential SOA species were expected to be formed sooner due to the increased system reactivity provided by propene. The observed delay in SOA nucleation, similar consumption rates of toluene and m-xylene in both the single and mixed systems and the gas-phase modelling results suggest that the addition of propene to hydrocarbon SOA systems modifies the gas-phase chemistry leading to the formation of potential SOA species from toluene and m-xylene. This result calls into question the bulk and partitioning yield values that have been published for pure substances as well as the validity of applying individual VOC yields to VOC mixture. Application of SOA yields to the global scale provides estimates of annual global SOA formation, global contributions from various VOCs and regional SOA distributions. Two SOA modules, using bulk and partitioning yield methods, were added to a global atmospheric chemical transport model, MOZART-2. The bulk yield method, representing the maximum possible global SOA burden, gave an annual production of 24.5 Tg of SOA, which is slightly lower than previous estimates (30 - 270 Tg yr-1). The partitioning method, which gives a more realistic estimate of SOA formation, produced 15.3 Tg yr-1; the biogenic fraction (13.6 Tg yr-1) compares to a previous estimate of biogenic SOA of 18.5 Tg yr-1 and 2.5 to 44 Tg yr- 1 using the partitioning method. Anthropogenic SOA contributions of 1.1 Tg yr-1 from MOZART-2 compared to recent estimates of 0.05 -2.62 Tg yr-1. SOA production was found to be dependent on oxidant availability and VOC emissions in South America and Asia. The partitioning method produced significantly less SOA due to limited availability of OC. Thepartitioning method also produced a peak SOA concentration of 10 µg m-3 over South America in September and showed that SOA is at maximum production for most of the year in Asia and Europe. The two SOA formation methods also provides data to analyse the restrictions to SOA formation in particular regions, based on the maximum amount of SOA able to form (bulk yield method) and the more realistic partitioning estimate from the same region. Limitations to SOA formation in a particular region can be attributed to deficiencies in OC availability or VOC oxidant concentrations. Comparisons to limited observational and modelled data suggest that the MOZART-2 SOA model provides a good representation of global averaged SOA. SOA mass concentrations, predicted by models such as MOZART-2, can be used in part to model the dynamics of an SOA population (e.g. size of particles, number concentrations etc.). Aerosol properties such as size and number concentration can then be used to estimate their effect on climate and health. The explicit representation of the processes that affect aerosol dynamics, such as nucleation, condensation, evaporation and coagulation can be complex and use significant computational resources. Simplification of the discrete coagulation equation and empirical coagulation coefficients for continuum and non-continuum regime diffusion kinetics provided a simplified method of coagulation capable of predicting the evolution of inert sodium chloride aerosol in chamber experiments. A variable coagulation coefficient (linked to the mean particle number concentration of each experiment) was developed. This method is an empirical surrogate for the standard coefficient corrections applied to Brownian based diffusion in the continuum regime to account for the different kinetic effects within the transition and free molecular diffusion regimes. This method removes the need for calculating individual coefficients for each particle interaction. Estimates of modeluncertainty show that within uncertainty limits the model provides a good representation of experimental data. Correlation and index of agreement (IOA) calculations revealed good statistical agreement between modelled and experimental. Some experiments showed degrees of coagulation under prediction using the variable coefficient technique. Investigations into the effect of aerosol type and size, temperature and humidity may be necessary to refine the variable coefficient calculation technique. The model showed little sensitivity to model time step and is capable of high resolution representation of the aerosol. Mass concentration is conserved within the model whereas some error due to numerical diffusion within the number concentrations results from the bin sectioning technique used. The simplicity of this sectioning method over other methods and the minimal effect of numerical diffusion establishes a simplified method of modelling relative to the high resolution of the aerosol distribution the model achieves. It is suggested that the efficiency improvements introduced by the approaches used in developing this model provide an efficient ultra-fine coagulation modelling for atmospheric models. A semi-empirical model for SOA dynamics (SPLAT) incorporating coagulation, nucleation, condensation and evaporation was developed. The aim of the model and the development process was to predict, with high resolution and minimal computational expense, the formation and growth of SOA given a SOA mass input as a function of time. The average size distribution profile from chamber experimental data was used as part of the nucleation module. This technique provided an alternative method of representing the particle distribution compared to those models that assume a single diameter of nucleated particle or a fixed log-normal mode for the entire evolution of SOA. All SPLAT simulations assume organic nucleation events within the experiments modelled, although it is stilluncertain whether they occur in the atmosphere. The modelled nucleation events have produced a single nucleation burst, a result of immediate domination of condensation as soon as nucleation occurs. This deficiency is likely to be a result of the assumption of free molecular diffusion for condensation. The rate of condensation, calculated at every time step, is based on the aerosol size distributed surface area and the particle-size-dependent saturation mass concentrations. The SPLAT coagulation module was a version of the model developed in Chapter 6. Comparisons between experimental and modelled data showed good agreement. These comparisons revealed the shortcomings in the nucleation module while a statistical analysis of the modelled and experimental data has shown SPLAT to be effective in modelling a range of SOA systems. The complexity introduced in modelling aerosol dynamics in high resolution is offset in SPLAT by efficiency improvements due to the insensitivity of the model to time step size and simplified methods of bin sectioning, nucleation, coagulation, condensation and evaporation. Published SOA yields can be applied to predict SOA mass at local, regional or global scales. Although previously unreported uncertainties in these yields have been shown to exist, the MOZART-2 global chemical transport model has shown that SOA mass concentration can be predicted with reasonable quality, considering the scale of the model and limited observational data. These global scale SOA mass predictions can be used purely for global burden and occurrence, or as the input for modelling the dynamics of an aerosol population, which is significant for estimating an aerosol population's effect on climate change and health. SOA mass concentrations from chamber experiments were used as input to a SOA dynamics model. This model (SPLAT) then predicted the evolution of particle number concentrations and size within these experiments based on this mass input. Application of the dynamics model to the output of the MOZART-2 model could then provide a comprehensive global scale SOA modelling package.
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Matsunaga, Aiko. "Secondary organic aerosol formation from radical-initiated reactions of alkenes development of mechanisms /." Diss., [Riverside, Calif.] : University of California, Riverside, 2009. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=1899476651&SrchMode=2&sid=2&Fmt=2&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1269361334&clientId=48051.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Riverside, 2009.
Includes abstract. Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Title from first page of PDF file (viewed March 10, 2010). Includes bibliographical references. Also issued in print.
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Barahona, Donifan. "On the representation of aerosol-cloud interactions in atmospheric models." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/41169.

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Anthropogenic atmospheric aerosols (suspended particulate matter) can modify the radiative balance (and climate) of the Earth by altering the properties and global distribution of clouds. Current climate models however cannot adequately account for many important aspects of these aerosol-cloud interactions, ultimately leading to a large uncertainty in the estimation of the magnitude of the effect of aerosols on climate. This thesis focuses on the development of physically-based descriptions of aerosol-cloud processes in climate models that help to address some of such predictive uncertainty. It includes the formulation of a new analytical parameterization for the formation of ice clouds, and the inclusion of the effects of mixing and kinetic limitations in existing liquid cloud parameterizations. The parameterizations are analytical solutions to the cloud ice and water particle nucleation problem, developed within a framework that considers the mass and energy balances associated with the freezing and droplet activation of aerosol particles. The new frameworks explicitly account for the impact of cloud formation dynamics, the aerosol size and composition, and the dominant freezing mechanism (homogeneous vs. heterogeneous) on the ice crystal and droplet concentration and size distribution. Application of the new parameterizations is demonstrated in the NASA Global Modeling Initiative atmospheric and chemical and transport model to study the effect of aerosol emissions on the global distribution of ice crystal concentration, and, the effect of entrainment during cloud droplet activation on the global cloud radiative properties. The ice cloud formation framework is also used within a parcel ensemble model to understand the microphysical structure of cirrus clouds at very low temperature. The frameworks developed in this work provide an efficient, yet rigorous, representation of cloud formation processes from precursor aerosol. They are suitable for the study of the effect of anthropogenic aerosol emissions on cloud formation, and can contribute to the improvement of the predictive ability of atmospheric models and to the understanding of the impact of human activities on climate.
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James, Jonathan David. "Investigation into the composition and formation of atmospheric aerosol over the north-east Atlantic Ocean." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.324171.

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Zhang, Xiaolu. "The sources, formation and properties of soluble organic aerosols: results from ambient measurements in the southeastern united states and the los angeles basin." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/44894.

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900 archived FRM filters from 15 sites over the southeast during 2007 were analyzed for PM2.5 chemical composition and physical properties. Secondary components (i.e. sulfate aerosol and SOA) were the major contributors to the PM2.5 mass over the southeast, whereas the contribution from biomass burning varied with season and was negligible (2%) during summer. Excluding biomass burning influence, FRM WSOC was spatially homogeneous throughout the region, similar to sulfate, yet WSOC was moderately enhanced in locations of greater predicted isoprene emissions in summer. On smaller spatial scale, a substantial urban/rural gradient of WSOC was found through comparisons of online WSOC measurements at one urban/rural pair (Atlanta/Yorkville) in August 2008, indicating important contribution from anthropogenic emissions. A comparative study between Atlanta and LA reveals a number of contrasting features between two cities. WSOC gas-particle partitioning, investigated through the fraction of total WSOC in the particle phase, Fp, exhibited differing relationships with ambient RH and organic aerosols. In Atlanta, both particle water and organic aerosol (OA) can serve as an absorbing phase. In contrast, in LA the aerosol water was not an important absorbing phase, instead, Fp was correlated with OA mass. Fresh LA WSOC had a consistent brown color and a bulk absorption per soluble carbon mass at 365 nm that was 4 to 6 times higher than freshly-formed Atlanta soluble organic carbon. Interpreting soluble brown carbon as a property of freshly-formed anthropogenic SOA, the difference in absorption per carbon mass between the two cities suggests most WSOC formed within Atlanta is not from an anthropogenic process similar to LA.
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Malloy, Quentin Gerald James. "Chemical and physical characterization of secondary organic aerosol formation from select agricultural emissions." Diss., UC access only, 2009. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=33&did=1871857121&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=7&retrieveGroup=0&VType=PQD&VInst=PROD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1270140114&clientId=48051.

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Books on the topic "Atmospheric aerosol formation"

1

Kondratʹev, K. I͡A. Atmospheric aerosol properties: Formation processes and impacts. Berlin: Springer, 2011.

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Surkova, Galina. Atmospheric chemistry. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1079840.

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The textbook contains material corresponding to the course of lectures on atmospheric chemistry prepared for students studying meteorology and climatology. The basic concepts of atmospheric chemistry are given, its gaseous components, as well as aerosols and chemical processes related to their life cycles, which are important from the point of view of the formation of the radiation, temperature and dynamic regime of the atmosphere, as well as its pollution, are considered. The main regularities of the transport of impurities in the atmosphere and the role of processes of different spatial and temporal scales in this process are presented. The concept of approaches of varying degrees of complexity used to model the transport of matter in the atmosphere, taking into account its chemical transformations, is presented. The processes in the gaseous and liquid phases that affect the chemical composition and acidity of clouds and precipitation are described. Modern methods of using information about the concentration and state of chemical compounds, including their radioactive and stable isotopes, to obtain information about the meteorological regime of the atmosphere in the present and past are considered. Meets the requirements of the federal state educational standards of higher education of the latest generation. For students of higher educational institutions studying in the field of training "Hydrometeorology".
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Krapivin, Vladimir F., Kirill Ya Kondratyev, Costas A. Varostos, and Lev S. Ivlev. Atmospheric Aerosol Properties: Formation, Processes and Impacts. Springer, 2006.

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Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2020.

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Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Limited, John, 2020.

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Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Limited, John, 2020.

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Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2020.

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Atmospheric Aerosol Properties: Formation, Processes and Impacts (Springer Praxis Books / Environmental Sciences). Springer, 2005.

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Book chapters on the topic "Atmospheric aerosol formation"

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Arnold, Frank. "Atmospheric Ions and Aerosol Formation." In Space Sciences Series of ISSI, 225–39. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-87664-1_14.

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McMurry, Peter H., Chongai Kuang, James N. Smith, Jun Zhao, and Fred Eisele. "Atmospheric New Particle Formation: Physical and Chemical Measurements." In Aerosol Measurement, 681–95. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118001684.ch31.

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Müller, Jürgen. "Aerosol formation according to specific vapour pressure." In Atmospheric Aerosols and Nucleation, 178–81. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/3-540-50108-8_1042.

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Sartelet, Karine. "Secondary Aerosol Formation and Their Modeling." In Atmospheric Chemistry in the Mediterranean Region, 165–83. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82385-6_10.

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Dal Maso, Miikka, L. Sogacheva, A. Vlasov, A. Staroverova, A. Lushnikov, M. Anisimov, V. A. Zagaynov, et al. "Aerosol Particle Formation Events at Two Siberian Stations." In Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 840–44. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6475-3_166.

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Tomasi, Claudio, and Angelo Lupi. "Coagulation, Condensation, Dry and Wet Deposition, and Cloud Droplet Formation in the Atmospheric Aerosol Life Cycle." In Atmospheric Aerosols, 115–82. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527336449.ch3.

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Dupuy, Regis G., C. Mulroy, and S. G. Jennings. "The Formation of Radiatively Active Aerosol from Coastal Nucleation Events." In Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 855–59. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6475-3_169.

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Dal Maso, Miikka, T. Mentel, A. Kiendler-Scharr, T. Hohaus, E. Kleist, M. Miebach, R. Tillmann, et al. "Aerosol Formation from Plant Emissions: The Jülich Plant Chamber Experiments." In Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 924–27. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6475-3_182.

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Suni, Tanja, Hannele Hakola, Jaana Bäck, Richard Hurley, Eva van Gorsel, Taina M. Ruuskanen, Markku Kulmala, et al. "Effect of Vegetation on Aerosol Formation in South-east Australia." In Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 1018–22. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6475-3_202.

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Ehn, Mikael, Tuukka Petäjä, Pasi Aalto, Markku Kulmala, Gerrit de Leeuw, and Colin D. O'Dowd. "Marine Aerosol and Secondary Particle Formation over the North Atlantic." In Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 1102–5. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6475-3_219.

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Conference papers on the topic "Atmospheric aerosol formation"

1

Matisāns, Modris, Peter Tunved, Thomas Hamburger, Hanna E. Manninen, John Backman, Luciana Rizzo, Paulo Artaxo, et al. "New aerosol particle formation in Amazonia." In NUCLEATION AND ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS: 19th International Conference. AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4803335.

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Laaksonen, Ari. "Application of nucleation theories to atmospheric aerosol formation." In The 15th international conference on nucleation and atmospheric aerosols. AIP, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1361961.

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Ehn, Mikael, Einhard Kleist, Heikki Junninen, Mikko Sipilä, Tuukka Petäjä, Iida Pullinen, Monika Springer, et al. "Probing aerosol formation by comprehensive measurements of gas phase oxidation products." In NUCLEATION AND ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS: 19th International Conference. AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4803234.

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Bryukhanova, Valentina V., and Ignatii V. Samokhvalov. "Lidar signal structure from remote aerosol formation considering double scattering." In 7th International Symposium on Atmospheric and Ocean Optics, edited by Gennadii G. Matvienko and Mikhail V. Panchenko. SPIE, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.411966.

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Roux, Alma Hodzic, Julia Lee-Taylor, Yuyan Cui, and Sasha Madronich. "Organic aerosol formation from biogenic compounds over the Ponderosa pine forest in Colorado." In NUCLEATION AND ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS: 19th International Conference. AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4803294.

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Park, Minsu, Jong Hwan Kim, and Seong Soo Yum. "Aerosol measurement and study of new particle formation event in Seoul during 2004 - 2010." In NUCLEATION AND ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS: 19th International Conference. AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4803296.

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Zhou, Luxi, Michael Boy, Tuomo Nieminen, Ditte Mogensen, Sampo Smolander, and Markku Kulmala. "Modeling new particle formation with detailed chemistry and aerosol dynamics in a boreal forest environment." In NUCLEATION AND ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS: 19th International Conference. AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4803289.

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Kokhanenko, Grigorii P., Yurii S. Balin, Marina G. Klemasheva, Sergei V. Nasonov, Mikhail M. Novoselov, Ioganes E. Penner, Svetlana V. Samoilova, Gerard Ancellet, and Jacques Pelon. "Lidar observations of the regional transport and formation of aerosol fields in the background and urban areas." In XXIV International Symposium, Atmospheric and Ocean Optics, Atmospheric Physics, edited by Oleg A. Romanovskii and Gennadii G. Matvienko. SPIE, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2504551.

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Choi, H., K. Kim, T. Kim, and H. Choi. "Metal and Non-Metal Film Formation Using Atmospheric Aerosol Spray Method." In ITSC2009, edited by B. R. Marple, M. M. Hyland, Y. C. Lau, C. J. Li, R. S. Lima, and G. Montavon. ASM International, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.cp.itsc2009p1146.

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Abstract A low-temperature, atmospheric-pressure spraying process was recently developed that facilitates the formation of highly functional films on any type of substrate using metal or nonmetal powders. This paper describes the new process and explains how different parameters, such as spraying distance, exit gas velocity, nozzle diameter, and particle size, affect the thickness, area, and composition of copper and barium titanate films on alumina, copper clad, and wafer substrates.
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Doroshkevich, Anton A., and Valentina V. Bryukhanova. "Influence of the microstructure of crystalline aerosol formation on the polarization characteristics of the double scattering lidar return." In XXV International Symposium, Atmospheric and Ocean Optics, Atmospheric Physics, edited by Gennadii G. Matvienko and Oleg A. Romanovskii. SPIE, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2540968.

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Reports on the topic "Atmospheric aerosol formation"

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Marlow, W. H. Atmospheric aerosol microphysics: Formation, characterization, and interaction. Progress report, September 1, 1991--February 28, 1994. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), December 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/674908.

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McMurry, P. H. Ultrafine aerosol size distributions and sulfuric acid vapor pressures: Implications for new particle formation in the atmosphere. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/5220187.

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McMurry, P. H. Ultrafine aerosol size distributions and sulfuric acid vapor pressures: Implications for new particle formation in the atmosphere. Year 1 progress report. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), July 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/10151005.

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McMurry, P. H. Ultrafine aerosol size distributions and sulfuric acid vapor pressures: Implications for new particle formation in the atmosphere. Year 2 progress report. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), July 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/10168795.

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McMurry, Peter H., and Fred Eisele. Ultrafine aerosol size distribution: A study of new particle formation in the atmosphere. Final report on DOE Grant number: DE-FG02-91ER61205. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), December 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/810268.

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