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Books on the topic 'Atmosphere formation'

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Published: 25 May 2024

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1

United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., ed. Asteroid entry in Venusian atmosphere: Pressure and density fields effect on crater formation : final report. [Seattle, Wash.]: Boeing Defense & Space Group, 1995.

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2

Surkova, Galina. Atmospheric chemistry. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1079840.

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The textbook contains material corresponding to the course of lectures on atmospheric chemistry prepared for students studying meteorology and climatology. The basic concepts of atmospheric chemistry are given, its gaseous components, as well as aerosols and chemical processes related to their life cycles, which are important from the point of view of the formation of the radiation, temperature and dynamic regime of the atmosphere, as well as its pollution, are considered. The main regularities of the transport of impurities in the atmosphere and the role of processes of different spatial and temporal scales in this process are presented. The concept of approaches of varying degrees of complexity used to model the transport of matter in the atmosphere, taking into account its chemical transformations, is presented. The processes in the gaseous and liquid phases that affect the chemical composition and acidity of clouds and precipitation are described. Modern methods of using information about the concentration and state of chemical compounds, including their radioactive and stable isotopes, to obtain information about the meteorological regime of the atmosphere in the present and past are considered. Meets the requirements of the federal state educational standards of higher education of the latest generation. For students of higher educational institutions studying in the field of training "Hydrometeorology".

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3

Bai︠a︡nov, I. M. Cloud formation. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2011.

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4

Kondratʹev, K. I͡A. Atmospheric aerosol properties: Formation processes and impacts. Berlin: Springer, 2011.

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5

Canary Islands Winter School on Astrophysics (3rd 1992 Puerto de la Cruz, Canary Islands). Star formation in stellar systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

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6

Christian, Vovelle, ed. Pollutants from combustion: Formation and impact on atmospheric chemistry. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.

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7

R, Leone Stephen, and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. Rate coefficients for reactions of ethynyl radical (C₂H) with HCN and CH₃CN: Implications for the formation of complex nitriles on Titan. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1997.

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8

Lee, Timothy J. The heat of formation of HNO. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1995.

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9

Lee, Timothy J. The heat of formation of HNO. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1995.

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10

Bapst, Claude. Formations nouvelles: Repères pour l'action. Paris: Editions Entente, 1990.

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11

R, Hastie D., Ontario. Ministry of Environment and Energy., and Ontario Environmental Research Program, eds. Studies of oxidant formation in southern Ontario: Final report. [Toronto]: Ministry of Environment and Energy, 1996.

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12

Chaturvedi, Lokesh. The Rustler Formation as a transport medium for contaminated groundwater. Santa Fe, NM (P.O. Box 968, Santa Fe 87503): Environmental Evaluation Group, Environmental Improvement Division, Health and Environment Dept., 1985.

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13

D, Edmond R., Whitten G. Z, and Atmospheric Sciences Research Laboratory, eds. Tropospheric ultraviolet radiation: Assessment of existing data and effects on ozone formation : project summary. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atmospheric Sciences Research Laboratory, 1988.

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14

Pavel, Vyacheslavovich, Tat'yana Alent'eva, and Mariya Filimonova. The colonial period of U.S. history. "The Golden Age of Virginia" (1680-1776). ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1876369.

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The monograph presents the most interesting events, trends in the social development of Virginia mainly of the XVIII century, the brightest period in the early history of America. Virginia is called the birthplace of presidents, its spiritual and intellectual atmosphere contributed to the formation of Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, James Madison, James Monroe and other prominent political figures. The state of Virginia has a special type of culture, which is characterized by an appeal to its earliest past as a source of inspiration for modern historians, reenactors, archaeologists and artists. The historical sites of colonial Virginia today are the setting for a kind of renaissance, an attempt to return to the golden age of the Virginia aristocracy of the colonial era. Here are hidden aspirations to discover in modern Virginia the same Arcadia that was presented to the vision of the very first settlers. For many other Americans, the image of Old Virginia may rather be associated with negative features - the slave trade, exploitation and injustice. The images of Virginia are filled with contradictions that abound in American history. For a wide range of readers interested in the history of the United States. It can be useful for students, postgraduates and teachers of historical universities and faculties.

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15

Shared Resources Workshop (1995 Warrenton, Va.). Airsheds and watersheds: The role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition : a report of the Shared Resources Workshop, Airlie Conference Center, Warenton, VA 22186, 11 & 12 October, 1995 : a formative document of the East Coast Atmosheric Resource Alliance. [Washington, D.C.?: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1997.

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16

Leone, D. M. Active chlorine and nitric oxide formation from chemical rocket plume afterburning. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1994.

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17

R, Miller Dean, Ide Robert F, and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. A study of large droplet ice accretion in the NASA Lewis IRT at near-freezing conditions; Pt. 2. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1997.

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18

Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay and United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, eds. Airsheds and watersheds: The role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition : a report of the Shared Resources Workshop, Airlie Conference Center, Warrenton, VA 22186, 11 & 12 October, 1995 : a formative document of the East Coast Atmospheric Resource Alliance. [Washington, D.C.?: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1997.

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19

Robert, Guderian, and Becker K. H, eds. Air pollution by photochemical oxidants: Formation, transport, control, and effects on plants. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1985.

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20

1923-, Walker Charls E., Bloomfield Mark A, Thorning Margo, and American Council for Capital Formation. Center for Policy Research., eds. Strategies for improving environmental quality and increasing economic growth: Proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the American Council for Capital Formation, Center for Policy Research, held November 16, 1994 in Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C: ACCF, 1995.

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21

1923-, Walker Charls E., Bloomfield Mark A, Thorning Margo, and American Council for Capital Formation. Center for Policy Research., eds. An economic perspective on climate change policies: Proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the American Council for Capital Formation, Center for Policy Research. Washington, D.C: ACCF Center for Policy Research, 1996.

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22

C, Thomas David, and Benson Sally, eds. Carb on dioxide capture for storage in deep geologic formations: Results from the COb2s Capture Project. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005.

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23

Krapivin, Vladimir F., Kirill Ya Kondratyev, Costas A. Varostos, and Lev S. Ivlev. Atmospheric Aerosol Properties: Formation, Processes and Impacts. Springer, 2006.

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24

Bush, Andrew Basil George. Cyclogenesis in the atmosphere and Gulf Stream ring formation in the oceans. 1995.

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25

Atmospheric Aerosol Properties: Formation, Processes and Impacts (Springer Praxis Books / Environmental Sciences). Springer, 2005.

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26

Dunlop, Storm. 4. Water in the atmosphere. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199571314.003.0004.

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Among the planets in the Solar System, Earth is unique in possessing large quantities of water, and water’s properties are highly significant in determining weather. This is because water readily exists in three different phases (ice, liquid water, and water vapour) at temperatures frequently encountered on Earth. ‘Water in the atmosphere’ explains humidity and saturation: the number of molecules of water vapour in the air is determined solely by temperature. Unstable conditions lead to the formation of cumuliform clouds and precipitation is created by either glaciation or coalescence. There are three groups of clouds—cumuliform, stratiform, and cirriform—with ten types of cloud identified based on their altitude and structure.

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27

Calvert, Jack G., John J. Orlando, William R. Stockwell, and Timothy J. Wallington. The Mechanisms of Reactions Influencing Atmospheric Ozone. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190233020.001.0001.

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Ozone, an important trace component, is critical to life on Earth and to atmospheric chemistry. The presence of ozone profoundly impacts the physical structure of the atmosphere and meteorology. Ozone is also an important photolytic source for HO radicals, the driving force for most of the chemistry that occurs in the lower atmosphere, is essential to shielding biota, and is the only molecule in the atmosphere that provides protection from UV radiation in the 250-300 nm region. However, recent concerns regarding environmental issues have inspired a need for a greater understanding of ozone, and the effects that it has on the Earth's atmosphere. The Mechanisms of Reactions Influencing Atmospheric Ozone provides an overview of the chemical processes associated with the formation and loss of ozone in the atmosphere, meeting the need for a greater body of knowledge regarding atmospheric chemistry. Renowned atmospheric researcher Jack Calvert and his coauthors discuss the various chemical and physical properties of the earth's atmosphere, the ways in which ozone is formed and destroyed, and the mechanisms of various ozone chemical reactions in the different spheres of the atmosphere. The volume is rich with valuable knowledge and useful descriptions, and will appeal to environmental scientists and engineers alike. A thorough analysis of the processes related to tropospheric ozone, The Mechanisms of Reactions Influencing Atmospheric Ozone is an essential resource for those hoping to combat the continuing and future environmental problems, particularly issues that require a deeper understanding of atmospheric chemistry.

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28

Calvert, Jack, Abdelwahid Mellouki, John Orlando, Michael Pilling, and Timothy Wallington. Mechanisms of Atmospheric Oxidation of the Oxygenates. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199767076.001.0001.

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Prepared by an international team of eminent atmospheric scientists, Mechanisms of Atmospheric Oxidation of the Oxygenates is an authoritative source of information on the role of oxygenates in the chemistry of the atmosphere. The oxygenates, including the many different alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, and nitrogen-atom containing oxygenates, are of special interest today due to their increased use as alternative fuels and fuel additives. This book describes the physical properties of oxygenates, as well as the chemical and photochemical parameters that determine their reaction pathways in the atmosphere. Quantitative descriptions of the pathways of the oxygenates from release or formation in the atmosphere to final products are provided, as is a comprehensive review and evaluation of the extensive kinetic literature on the atmospheric chemistry of the different oxygenates and their many halogen-atom substituted analogues. This book will be of interest to modelers of atmospheric chemistry, environmental scientists and engineers, and air quality planning agencies as a useful input for development of realistic modules designed to simulate the atmospheric chemistry of the oxygenates, their major oxidation products, and their influence on ozone and other trace gases within the troposhere.

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29

Xue, Yongkang, Yaoming Ma, and Qian Li. Land–Climate Interaction Over the Tibetan Plateau. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.592.

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The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is the largest and highest plateau on Earth. Due to its elevation, it receives much more downward shortwave radiation than other areas, which results in very strong diurnal and seasonal changes of the surface energy components and other meteorological variables, such as surface temperature and the convective atmospheric boundary layer. With such unique land process conditions on a distinct geomorphic unit, the TP has been identified as having the strongest land/atmosphere interactions in the mid-latitudes.Three major TP land/atmosphere interaction issues are presented in this article: (1) Scientists have long been aware of the role of the TP in atmospheric circulation. The view that the TP’s thermal and dynamic forcing drives the Asian monsoon has been prevalent in the literature for decades. In addition to the TP’s topographic effect, diagnostic and modeling studies have shown that the TP provides a huge, elevated heat source to the middle troposphere, and that the sensible heat pump plays a major role in the regional climate and in the formation of the Asian monsoon. Recent modeling studies, however, suggest that the south and west slopes of the Himalayas produce a strong monsoon by insulating warm and moist tropical air from the cold and dry extratropics, so the TP heat source cannot be considered as a factor for driving the Indian monsoon. The climate models’ shortcomings have been speculated to cause the discrepancies/controversies in the modeling results in this aspect. (2) The TP snow cover and Asian monsoon relationship is considered as another hot topic in TP land/atmosphere interaction studies and was proposed as early as 1884. Using ground measurements and remote sensing data available since the 1970s, a number of studies have confirmed the empirical relationship between TP snow cover and the Asian monsoon, albeit sometimes with different signs. Sensitivity studies using numerical modeling have also demonstrated the effects of snow on the monsoon but were normally tested with specified extreme snow cover conditions. There are also controversies regarding the possible mechanisms through which snow affects the monsoon. Currently, snow is no longer a factor in the statistic prediction model for the Indian monsoon prediction in the Indian Meteorological Department. These controversial issues indicate the necessity of having measurements that are more comprehensive over the TP to better understand the nature of the TP land/atmosphere interactions and evaluate the model-produced results. (3) The TP is one of the major areas in China greatly affected by land degradation due to both natural processes and anthropogenic activities. Preliminary modeling studies have been conducted to assess its possible impact on climate and regional hydrology. Assessments using global and regional models with more realistic TP land degradation data are imperative.Due to high elevation and harsh climate conditions, measurements over the TP used to be sparse. Fortunately, since the 1990s, state-of-the-art observational long-term station networks in the TP and neighboring regions have been established. Four large field experiments since 1996, among many observational activities, are presented in this article. These experiments should greatly help further research on TP land/atmosphere interactions.

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30

Trieloff, Mario. Noble Gases. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190647926.013.30.

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This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Planetary Science. Please check back later for the full article.Although the second most abundant element in the cosmos is helium, noble gases are also called rare gases. The reason is that they are not abundant on terrestrial planets like our Earth, which is characterized by orders of magnitude depletion of—particularly light—noble gases when compared to the cosmic element abundance pattern. Indeed, such geochemical depletion and enrichment processes make noble gases so versatile concerning planetary formation and evolution: When our solar system formed, the first small grains started to adsorb small amounts of noble gases from the protosolar nebula, resulting in depletion of light He and Ne when compared to heavy noble gases Ar, Kr, and Xe: the so-called planetary type abundance pattern. Subsequent flash heating of the first small mm to cm-sized objects (chondrules and calcium, aluminum rich inclusions) resulted in further depletion, as well as heating—and occasionally differentiation—on small planetesimals, which were precursors of larger planets and which we still find in the asteroid belt today from where we get rocky fragments in form of meteorites. In most primitive meteorites, we even can find tiny rare grains that are older than our solar system and condensed billions of years ago in circumstellar atmospheres of, for example, red giant stars. These grains are characterized by nucleosynthetic anomalies and particularly identified by noble gases, for example, so-called s-process xenon.While planetesimals acquired a depleted noble gas component strongly fractionated in favor of heavy noble gases, the sun and also gas giants like Jupiter attracted a much larger amount of gas from the protosolar nebula by gravitational capture. This resulted in a cosmic or “solar type” abundance pattern, containing the full complement of light noble gases. Contrary to Jupiter or the sun, terrestrial planets accreted from planetesimals with only minor contributions from the protosolar nebula, which explains their high degree of depletion and basically “planetary” elemental abundance pattern. Indeed this depletion enables another tool to be applied in noble gas geo- and cosmochemistry: ingrowth of radiogenic nuclides. Due to heavy depletion of primordial nuclides like 36Ar and 130Xe, radiogenic ingrowth of 40Ar by 40K decay, 129Xe by 129I decay, or fission Xe from 238U or 244Pu decay are precisely measurable, and allow insight in the chronology of fractionation of lithophile parent nuclides and atmophile noble gas daughters, mainly caused by mantle degassing and formation of the atmosphere.Already the dominance of 40Ar in the terrestrial atmosphere allowed C. F v. Weizsäcker to conclude that most of the terrestrial atmosphere originated by degassing of the solid Earth, which is an ongoing process today at mid ocean ridges, where primordial helium leaves the lithosphere for the first time. Mantle degassing was much more massive in the past; in fact, most of the terrestrial atmosphere formed during the first 100 million years of Earth´s history, and was completed at about the same time when the terrestrial core formed and accretion was terminated by a giant impact that also formed our moon. However, before that time, somehow also tiny amounts of solar noble gases managed to find their way into the mantle, presumably by solar wind irradiation of small planetesimals or dust accreting to Earth. While the moon-forming impact likely dissipated the primordial atmosphere, today´s atmosphere originated by mantle degassing and a late veneer with asteroidal and possibly cometary contributions. As other atmophile elements behave similar to noble gases, they also trace the origin of major volatiles on Earth, for example, water, nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon.

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31

(Editor), G. Tenorio-Tagle, M. Prieto (Editor), and F. Sánchez (Editor), eds. Star Formation in Stellar Systems. Cambridge University Press, 1993.

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32

Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Limited, John, 2020.

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33

Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2020.

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34

Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2020.

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35

Akimoto, Hajime, and Jun Hirokawa. Atmospheric Multiphase Chemistry: Fundamentals of Secondary Aerosol Formation. Wiley & Sons, Limited, John, 2020.

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36

Non-LTE Line Formation for Trace Elements in Stellar Atmospheres. EDP Sciences, 2010.

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37

Vovelle, Christian. Pollutants from Combustion Formation and Impact on Atmospheric Chemistry. Springer, 2000.

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38

Vovelle, Christian. Pollutants from Combustion: Formation and Impact on Atmospheric Chemistry. Springer London, Limited, 2013.

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39

McFarquhar, Greg M., Darrel Baumgardner, and Andrew J. Heymsfield. Ice Formation and Evolution in Clouds and Precipitation - Measurement and Modeling Challenges. American Meteorological Society, 2018.

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40

Godfrey, Donald G. Founding the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252038280.003.0006.

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This chapter focuses on the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), an organization founded by C. Francis Jenkins in 1916. The formation of the SMPTE (formerly Society of Motion Picture Engineers, SMPE) was one of Jenkins' most significant and lasting contributions in the film and television industries. In less than four decades, the SMPTE has evolved into an international association with industry, technological, and creative influence around the world. This chapter provides an overview of the atmosphere that led Jenkins to establish the SMPTE, whose sole purpose would be a discussion of technology and its standards. It also considers the first SMPE meeting and how its influence grew since then, along with its final meeting under Jenkins as president, held in Cleveland in November 1918. Finally, it cites the accolades and foundations established for the SMPE and their impact on the industries of motion pictures and later television engineering.

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41

Studies of oxidant formation in southern Ontario: Final report. [Toronto]: Ministry of Environment and Energy, 1996.

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42

Bychkov, Vladimir. Natural and artificial Ball Lightning in the Earth’s atmosphere. LCC MAKS Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.29003/m2009.978-5-317-06572-0.

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Issues related to ball lightning of natural origin and its laboratory modeling in air are presented. The data on the main known researchers of these issues are given. Experiments on modeling long-lived luminous formations and artificial ball lightning are discussed. Observational data on ball lightning are presented. Methods of statistical analysis of observational data on ball lightning are considered. The theoretical models of natural ball lightning are briefly discussed. The book is aimed for senior students of physics and physics and technology departments of universities, as well as for scientists and engineers who deal with complex systems containing low-temperature plasma, plasma aerodynamics, geography and geophysics.

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43

Schrijver, Karel. The Worlds of Exoplanets. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799894.003.0009.

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The landscapes of exoplanets are likely to be incredibly diverse: exoplanets come in a large range of sizes and masses, and therefore surface gravities. Atmospheres can be thick layers, or absent. The interior makeup of exoplanets is even harder to know, but the formation scenarios of the giant planets and the remains of planets found in white-dwarf atmospheres provide insights. All that knowledge, combined with information on the central stars and other exoplanets within a system, provides a view of past, present, and future environments. This chapter reviews sample exoplanets and the conditions on their surfaces.

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44

Satran, David. In the Image of Origen. University of California Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520291232.001.0001.

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This study offers a close reading of the Thanksgiving Address to Origen, a document written by a student (traditionally identified as Gregory Thaumaturgus) on the occasion of the departure from his teacher at the conclusion of an extended period of study in Caesarea Maritima in third-century Roman Palestine. The Thanksgiving Address is a highly stylized but also emotionally charged account of the young man’s tutelage under the most prominent Christian theologian and exegete of the early church and provides one of the very few personal accounts by a Christian author to have survived from the period before Constantine. Through the investigation of the address, this volume explores varied aspects of the content and structure of advanced philosophical education in the late imperial period as well as of the very special atmosphere that surrounded the relationship between teacher and student. The educational process described in the address places prime importance on the emotional and ethical formation of the student, and the author’s description of his experience gives vivid expression to the presence of the erotic and coercive aspects of this process. This investigation emphasizes the close relationship between these central facets of the address and key elements in the Alexandrian theological tradition, particularly in the writings of Origen himself.

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45

Barendregt, R. W., J. V. Matthews, V. Behan-Pelletier, J. Brigham-Grette, J. G. Fyles, L. E. Ovenden, D. H. McNeil, et al., eds. Biostratigraphy, Age, and Paleoenvironment of the Pliocene Beaufort Formation on Meighen Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Geological Society of America, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/spe551.

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The Beaufort Formation records extraordinary details of Arctic environments and amplified temperatures at approximately modern levels of atmospheric CO2. It was deposited during the Neogene on the western side of what is now the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Meighen Island is a key locality for studying this formation because marine sediments there are interbedded with terrestrial fossiliferous sands. The biostratigraphic succession, fossils from the marine beds, and paleomagnetic data from the Bjaere Bay region of the island suggest two potential ages for the studied exposures: either continuous deposition at ca. 3.0 Ma, or a sequence of deposits at ca. 4.5 Ma and 3.4 Ma. The sediments appear to encompass at least two eustatic highstands of sea level and a particularly warm climate interval of the Pliocene Arctic.

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46

Tibaldi, Stefano, and Franco Molteni. Atmospheric Blocking in Observation and Models. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.611.

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The atmospheric circulation in the mid-latitudes of both hemispheres is usually dominated by westerly winds and by planetary-scale and shorter-scale synoptic waves, moving mostly from west to east. A remarkable and frequent exception to this “usual” behavior is atmospheric blocking. Blocking occurs when the usual zonal flow is hindered by the establishment of a large-amplitude, quasi-stationary, high-pressure meridional circulation structure which “blocks” the flow of the westerlies and the progression of the atmospheric waves and disturbances embedded in them. Such blocking structures can have lifetimes varying from a few days to several weeks in the most extreme cases. Their presence can strongly affect the weather of large portions of the mid-latitudes, leading to the establishment of anomalous meteorological conditions. These can take the form of strong precipitation episodes or persistent anticyclonic regimes, leading in turn to floods, extreme cold spells, heat waves, or short-lived droughts. Even air quality can be strongly influenced by the establishment of atmospheric blocking, with episodes of high concentrations of low-level ozone in summer and of particulate matter and other air pollutants in winter, particularly in highly populated urban areas.Atmospheric blocking has the tendency to occur more often in winter and in certain longitudinal quadrants, notably the Euro-Atlantic and the Pacific sectors of the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, blocking episodes are generally less frequent, and the longitudinal localization is less pronounced than in the Northern Hemisphere.Blocking has aroused the interest of atmospheric scientists since the middle of the last century, with the pioneering observational works of Berggren, Bolin, Rossby, and Rex, and has become the subject of innumerable observational and theoretical studies. The purpose of such studies was originally to find a commonly accepted structural and phenomenological definition of atmospheric blocking. The investigations went on to study blocking climatology in terms of the geographical distribution of its frequency of occurrence and the associated seasonal and inter-annual variability. Well into the second half of the 20th century, a large number of theoretical dynamic works on blocking formation and maintenance started appearing in the literature. Such theoretical studies explored a wide range of possible dynamic mechanisms, including large-amplitude planetary-scale wave dynamics, including Rossby wave breaking, multiple equilibria circulation regimes, large-scale forcing of anticyclones by synoptic-scale eddies, finite-amplitude non-linear instability theory, and influence of sea surface temperature anomalies, to name but a few. However, to date no unique theoretical model of atmospheric blocking has been formulated that can account for all of its observational characteristics.When numerical, global short- and medium-range weather predictions started being produced operationally, and with the establishment, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, it quickly became of relevance to assess the capability of numerical models to predict blocking with the correct space-time characteristics (e.g., location, time of onset, life span, and decay). Early studies showed that models had difficulties in correctly representing blocking as well as in connection with their large systematic (mean) errors.Despite enormous improvements in the ability of numerical models to represent atmospheric dynamics, blocking remains a challenge for global weather prediction and climate simulation models. Such modeling deficiencies have negative consequences not only for our ability to represent the observed climate but also for the possibility of producing high-quality seasonal-to-decadal predictions. For such predictions, representing the correct space-time statistics of blocking occurrence is, especially for certain geographical areas, extremely important.

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47

The effect of air preheat at atmospheric pressure on the formation of NO[subscript x] in the quick-mix section of an axially staged combustor. [Cleveland, Ohio]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Glenn Research Center, 1999.

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48

Guderian, Robert, W. Fricke, K. H. Becker, R. Guderian, and J. L. Löbeö. Air Pollution by Photochemical Oxidants: Formation, Transport, Control, and Effects on Plants. Springer London, Limited, 2012.

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49

Guderian, Robert. Air Pollution by Photochemical Oxidants: Formation, Transport, Control, and Effects on Plants. Brand: Springer, 2011.

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50

Canfield, Donald Eugene. Earth’s Middle Ages: What Came after the GOE. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691145020.003.0009.

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This chapter considers the aftermath of the great oxidation event (GOE). It suggests that there was a substantial rise in oxygen defining the GOE, which may, in turn have led to the Lomagundi isotope excursion, which was associated with high rates of organic matter burial and perhaps even higher concentrations of oxygen. This excursion was soon followed by a crash in oxygen to very low levels and a return to banded iron formation deposition. When the massive amounts of organic carbon buried during the excursion were brought into the weathering environment, they would have represented a huge oxygen sink, drawing down levels of atmospheric oxygen. There appeared to be a veritable seesaw in oxygen concentrations, apparently triggered initially by the GOE. The GOE did not produce enough oxygen to oxygenate the oceans. Dissolved iron was removed from the oceans not by reaction with oxygen but rather by reaction with sulfide. Thus, the deep oceans remained anoxic and became rich in sulfide, instead of becoming well oxygenated.

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