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1

Maciejko, James J. Atherosclerosis Risk Factors. Washington, DC: AACC Press, 2004.

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2

M, Grundy Scott, and Current Medicine Inc, eds. Atlas of atherosclerosis. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Current Medicine, 2005.

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3

1948-, Wilson Peter, and Current Medicine Inc, eds. Atlas of atherosclerosis: Risk factors and treatment. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Current Medicine, 2003.

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4

Tousoulis, Dimitris. Risk factors and vascular endothelium. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science Publishers, 2011.

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5

Zhang, Xiao-hua. Investigations of effects of garlic materials upon risk factors of atherosclerosis. Wolverhampton: University of Wolverhampton, 2000.

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6

Schettler, Gotthard, ed. Endemic Diseases and Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis in the Far East. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-83358-8.

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7

Yeagle, Philip. Understanding your cholesterol. San Diego: Academic Press, 1991.

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8

Yeagle, Philip. Understanding your cholesterol. San Diego: Academic Press, 1991.

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9

M, Gotto Antonio, ed. Multiple risk factors in cardiovascular disease. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992.

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10

Frank, Clifford R. Pediatric prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

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11

Wu, James T. Early risk assessment of cancer and atherosclerosis: Identification of common risk markers, and preventive nutrition. Washington, DC: AACC Press, 2004.

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12

Mangiapane, E. H. Diet, lipoproteins andcoronary heart disease: A biochemical perspective. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press, 1998.

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13

1922-, Berenson Gerald S., and Bogalusa Heart Study, eds. Causation of cardiovascular risk factors in children: Perspectives on cardiovascular risk in early life. New York: Raven Press, 1986.

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14

The lipid hypothesis of atherogenesis. Austin: R.G. Landes, 1993.

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15

Bernard, Pacaud, ed. La cocina de sus arterias. Barcelona: De Vecchi, 2006.

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16

1947-, Lusis Aldons J., Rotter Jerome I, and Sparkes Robert S. 1930-, eds. Molecular genetics of coronary artery disease: Candidate genes and processes in atherosclerosis. Basel: Karger, 1992.

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17

Mangiapane, E. H. Diet, lipoproteins and coronary heart disease: A biochemical perspective. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press, 1998.

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18

M, Forte Trudy, ed. Hormonal, metabolic, and cellular influences on cardiovascular disease in women. Armonk, NY: Futura Pub., 1997.

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19

The beauty of the cross: The passion of Christ in theology and the arts, from the catacombs to the eve of the Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

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20

Viladesau, Richard. The beauty of the cross: The passion of Christ in theology and the arts, from the catacombs to the eve of the Renaissance. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

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21

Atherosclerosis: Risk Factors & Treatment. Mosby-Year Book, 1996.

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22

Virgil, Brown W., ed. Atherosclerosis: Risk factors and treatment. St. Louis: Mosby, 1996.

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23

Wilson, Peter W. F. Atlas of Atherosclerosis. 2nd ed. Current Medicine, 2000.

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24

Sakamoto, Hayato, and Etsuo Murakami. Atherosclerosis: Risk Factors, Prevention and Treatment. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

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25

Grundy, Scott M. Atlas of Atherosclerosis : Risk Factors and Treatment. 4th ed. Current Medicine Group, 2005.

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26

Wilson, Peter W. F. Atlas of Atherosclerosis: Risk Factors and Treatment. Current Medicine Group LLC, 2013.

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27

Atlas of Atherosclerosis: Risk Factors and Treatment. 2nd ed. Current Medicine Group, 2000.

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28

Wilson, Peter W. F. Atlas of Atherosclerosis: Risk Factors and Treatment. Current Medicine Group LLC, 2013.

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29

Holdt, Lesca M., and Daniel Teupser. Genetic background of atherosclerosis and its risk factors. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656653.003.0002.

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This chapter is concerned with how atherosclerosis risk is modulated by a complex interplay between genetic and environmental risk factors. The contribution of genetics to the variability of atherosclerosis risk is estimated as 50%. Recent genome-wide association studies have led to the identification of over 50 gene variants which modulate atherogenesis. Risk factors for atherosclerosis are also partly genetically determined and some of the variants which play a role in atherogenesis overlap with those modulating its risk factors. However, the current relevance of these findings for clinical practice is limited, mainly due to the small effect sizes of identified risk variants with insufficient discriminatory power, and a large portion of the genetic contribution to atherosclerosis is still unknown. The major promise therefore lies in understanding the pathophysiology of newly identified genes with the perspective of novel therapeutic approaches.
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30

Braunwald, Eugene. Atlas of Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Risk Syndrome: Risk Factors and Treatment. Current Medicine Group, 2009.

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31

Endemic diseases and risk factors for atherosclerosis in the Far East. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988.

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32

Schettler, Gotthard. Endemic Diseases and Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis in the Far East. Springer, 1988.

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33

Gotto, Antonio M. Multiple Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease. Ingramcontent, 2012.

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34

Focus On Atherosclerosis Research. Nova Science Publishers, 2004.

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35

(Editor), Michel E. Safar, and Edward D. Frohlich (Editor), eds. Atherosclerosis, Large Arteries and Cardiovascular Risk (Advances in Cardiology). S. Karger AG (Switzerland), 2006.

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36

Landmesser, Ulf, and Wolfgang Koenig. From risk factors to plaque development and plaque destabilization. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656653.003.0003.

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This chapter begins with a discussion of recent vascular research that has unveiled the complex interaction between exposure to risk factors and pathological changes at the vessel wall. Risk factors such as smoking or hyperlipidaemia first cause a pre-morbid phenotype with reversible dysfunction of flow-mediated vasodilation, known as endothelial dysfunction (ED). If exposure to risk factor(s) does not cease, ED develops into the first morphological vascular changes that finally lead to atherosclerosis. Cholesterol crystals have been shown to lead to pro-inflammatory activation of macrophages. Progression from stable coronary plaques to the plaque rupture that underlies the acute coronary syndrome is discussed in detail. The chapter provides a basic up-to-date concept of the development and progression of atherosclerosis and highlights the stages where preventive measures may still be effective.
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37

Selected risk factors and carotid artery plaque in men with heart disease. 1985.

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38

Selected risk factors and carotid artery plaque in men with heart disease. 1987.

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39

Graham, Ian, Therese Cooney, and Dirk De Bacquer. Risk stratification and risk assessment. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656653.003.0005.

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Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the biggest cause of death worldwide. The underlying atherosclerosis starts in childhood and is often advanced when it becomes clinically apparent many years later. CVD is manageable: in countries where it has reduced this is due to changes in lifestyle and risk factors and to therapy. Risk factor management reduces mortality and morbidity. In apparently healthy people CVD risk is most frequently the result of multiple interacting risk factors and a risk estimation system such as SCORE can assist in making logical management decisions. In younger people a low absolute risk may conceal a very high relative risk, and use of the relative risk chart or calculation of their ‘risk age’ may help in advising them of the need for intensive life style efforts. All risk estimation systems are relatively crude and require attention to qualifying statements.
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40

Lamb, Hildo J. Visceral and Ectopic Fat: Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes, Atherosclerosis, and Cardiovascular Disease. Elsevier, 2022.

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41

Visceral and Ectopic Fat: Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes, Atherosclerosis, and Cardiovascular Disease. Elsevier, 2022.

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42

Cardiovascular Risk Factors, An Issue of Clinics in Laboratory Medicine. Saunders, 2006.

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43

Atlas Of Atherosclerosis And Metabolic Syndrome. Springer, 2010.

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44

Grundy, Scott M. Atlas of Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Syndrome. Springer, 2011.

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45

Grundy, Scott M. Atlas of Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Syndrome. Springer New York, 2016.

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46

Ramrakha, Punit, and Jonathan Hill, eds. Coronary artery disease. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199643219.003.0005.

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Atherosclerosis: pathophysiology 212Development of atherosclerotic plaques 214Epidemiology 216Assessment of atherosclerotic risk 218Risk factors for coronary artery disease 220Hypertension 226Treatment of high blood pressure 228Combining antihypertensive drugs 230Lipid management in atherosclerosis 232Lipid-lowering therapy 236When to treat lipids ...
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47

Badimon, Lina, and Gemma Vilahur. Atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0040.

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Atherosclerosis is the main underlying cause of heart disease. The continuous exposure to cardiovascular risk factors induces endothelial activation/dysfunction which enhances the permeability of the endothelial layer and the expression of cytokines/chemokines and adhesion molecules. This results in the accumulation of lipids (low-density lipoprotein particles) in the extracellular matrix and the triggering of an inflammatory response. Accumulated low-density lipoprotein particles suffer modifications and become pro-atherogenic, enhancing leucocyte recruitment and further transmigration across the endothelium into the intima. Infiltrated monocytes differentiate into macrophages which acquire a specialized phenotypic polarization (protective or harmful), depending on the stage of the atherosclerosis progression. Once differentiated, macrophages upregulate pattern recognition receptors capable of engulfing modified low-density lipoprotein, leading to foam cell formation. Foam cells release growth factors and cytokines that promote vascular smooth muscle cell migration into the intima, which then internalize low-density lipoprotein via low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 receptors. As the plaque evolves, the number of vascular smooth muscle cells decline, whereas the presence of fragile/haemorrhagic neovessels increases, promoting plaque destabilization. Disruption of this atherosclerotic lesion exposes thrombogenic surfaces that initiate platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation, as well as thrombin generation. Both lipid-laden vascular smooth muscle cells and macrophages release the procoagulant tissue factor, contributing to thrombus propagation. Platelets also participate in progenitor cell recruitment and drive the inflammatory response mediating the atherosclerosis progression. Recent data attribute to microparticles a potential modulatory effect in the overall atherothrombotic process. This chapter reviews our current understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in atherogenesis, highlights platelet contribution to thrombosis and atherosclerosis progression, and provides new insights into how atherothrombosis may be modulated.
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48

Badimon, Lina, and Gemma Vilahur. Atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0040_update_001.

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Atherosclerosis is the main underlying cause of heart disease. The continuous exposure to cardiovascular risk factors induces endothelial activation/dysfunction which enhances the permeability of the endothelial layer and the expression of cytokines/chemokines and adhesion molecules. This results in the accumulation of lipids (low-density lipoprotein particles) in the intimal layer and the triggering of an inflammatory response. Accumulated low-density lipoprotein particles attached to the extracellular matrix suffer modifications and become pro-atherogenic, enhancing leucocyte recruitment and further transmigration across the endothelium into the intima. Infiltrated pro-atherogenic monocytes (mainly Mon2) differentiate into macrophages which acquire a specialized phenotypic polarization (protective/M1 or harmful/M2), depending on the stage of the atherosclerosis progression. Once differentiated, macrophages upregulate pattern recognition receptors capable of engulfing modified low-density lipoprotein, leading to foam cell formation. Foam cells release growth factors and cytokines that promote vascular smooth muscle cell migration into the intima, which then internalize low-density lipoproteins via low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 receptors becoming foam cells. As the plaque evolves, the number of vascular smooth muscle cells decline, whereas the presence of fragile/haemorrhagic neovessels and calcium deposits increases, promoting plaque destabilization. Disruption of this atherosclerotic lesion exposes thrombogenic surfaces rich in tissue factor that initiate platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation, as well as thrombin generation. Platelets also participate in leucocyte and progenitor cell recruitment are likely to mediate atherosclerosis progression. Recent data attribute to microparticles a modulatory effect in the overall atherothrombotic process and evidence their potential use as systemic biomarkers of thrombus growth. This chapter reviews our current understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in atherogenesis, highlights platelet contribution to thrombosis and atherosclerosis progression, and provides new insights into how atherothrombosis may be prevented and modulated.
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49

Badimon, Lina, and Gemma Vilahur. Atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0040_update_002.

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Abstract:
Atherosclerosis is the main underlying cause of heart disease. The continuous exposure to cardiovascular risk factors induces endothelial activation/dysfunction which enhances the permeability of the endothelial layer and the expression of cytokines/chemokines and adhesion molecules. This results in the accumulation of lipids (low-density lipoprotein particles) in the intimal layer and the triggering of an inflammatory response. Accumulated low-density lipoprotein particles attached to the extracellular matrix suffer modifications and become pro-atherogenic, enhancing leucocyte recruitment and further transmigration across the endothelium into the intima. Infiltrated pro-atherogenic monocytes (mainly Mon2) differentiate into macrophages which acquire a specialized phenotypic polarization (protective/M1 or harmful/M2), depending on the stage of the atherosclerosis progression. Once differentiated, macrophages upregulate pattern recognition receptors capable of engulfing modified low-density lipoprotein, leading to foam cell formation. Foam cells release growth factors and cytokines that promote vascular smooth muscle cell migration into the intima, which then internalize low-density lipoproteins via low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 receptors becoming foam cells. As the plaque evolves, the number of vascular smooth muscle cells decline, whereas the presence of fragile/haemorrhagic neovessels and calcium deposits increases, promoting plaque destabilization. Disruption of this atherosclerotic lesion exposes thrombogenic surfaces rich in tissue factor that initiate platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation, as well as thrombin generation. Platelets also participate in leucocyte and progenitor cell recruitment are likely to mediate atherosclerosis progression. Recent data attribute to microparticles a modulatory effect in the overall atherothrombotic process and evidence their potential use as systemic biomarkers of thrombus growth. This chapter reviews our current understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in atherogenesis, highlights platelet contribution to thrombosis and atherosclerosis progression, and provides new insights into how atherothrombosis may be prevented and modulated.
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50

Wentzel, Jolanda J., Ethan M. Rowland, Peter D. Weinberg, and Robert Krams. Biomechanical theories of atherosclerosis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198755777.003.0012.

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Atherosclerosis, the disease underlying most heart attacks and strokes, occurs predominantly at certain well-defined sites within the arterial system. Its development may therefore depend not only on systemic risk factors but also on locally varying biomechanical forces. There are three inter-related theories explaining the effect of biomechanics on atherosclerosis. In the first theory, a central role is played by lipid transport into the vessel wall, which varies as a result of mechanical forces. In the second theory, haemodynamic wall shear stress-the frictional force per unit area of endothelium arising from the movement of blood-activates signalling pathways that affect endothelial cell properties. In the third, strain-the stretch of the wall arising from changes in blood pressure-is the key biomechanical trigger. All three theories are discussed from historical, molecular, and clinical perspectives.
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