Journal articles on the topic 'Art metal-work History'

The aim of the work is to clarify the peculiarities of the development of Ukrainian art metal products in a historical context and to determine the ways of reviving artistic metalworking in the XXI century. Methodology. The research is based on culturological, historical and art history methods of analysis; applied historical-analytical, cultural-historical and the method of figurative-stylistic analysis of the means of artistic and decorative expressiveness of products. Results. The article examines the main stages in the development of technological processes in the execution of artistic metal products. The main techniques of artistic metal processing are analyzed: "lost wax", filigree, engraving, casting, forging, diffusion, electroplating, etc. The influence of external and internal factors in the development of artistic metal processing in Ukraine is studied. Identified the existing problems in the manufacture of art items from metal. Scientific novelty. The facts of the development of technologies for artistic metal processing in Ukraine are revealed and the ways of reviving the production of metal products as a type of decorative and applied art are determined. Practical significance. In the art of artistic metal processing, we highlight the issues of the revival and preservation of the industry in modern Ukraine through the study of technologies, traditions, the search for new forms, methods and techniques of working with materials.

Katarzyna Pyka discusses lead as a substance which for centuries has made possible stained glass glazing both in sacral and secular buildings. This article focuses on the uses of lead and compares the work of stained glass artists in the past and today. Contrary the associations of this craft with vivid multicolored compositions, Pyka has decided to keep her discussion in grayscale; her purpose has been to emphasize the importance of this silvery metal, which has enriched the history of art from the Middle Ages by making possible the beauty of stained glass compositions.

We describe the findings of traceological analysis and experiments with bronze and iron tools used by Tagar and Tes artists. The pecking traces these tools leave on the red Devonian sandstone were examined to assess which of them could have been used in rock art production. At the first stage, a preliminary analysis of Tagar petroglyphs was carried out, and metal tools and weapons from the Martyanov Museum of Local History in Minusinsk were examined. Morphologically suitable ones were selected, and experimental tools were made of stone, copper alloys, and low-carbon steel. Experiments were conducted and samples of pecking traces were produced. The final stage of the work consisted of comparing these samples with actual petroglyphs, and use-wear traces on the experimental tools with those on the actual tools. This approach made a direct comparison possible. Among the Tagar and Tes metal tools, those that had likely been used in rock art production were detected. The conclusion was made that no specialized tools designated for that purpose existed at that time in the Minusinsk Basin. Rather, multifunctional tools were used. These were made of tin bronze and low-carbon steel with thermal processing. Such tools first appeared in the region in the Early Iron Age.

In the context of globalization of the mo­dern world and the growth of intercultural interaction, the question of spiritual development of the nation, the issues of formation, establishment, and the main trends in the further evolution of its art become the subject of research by many art historians, who, through the use of their topical articles and speeches, have made conditions for the further improvement of art studies in Kazakhstan.Currently, the Republic of Kazakhstan is on the way of radical changes in its political, economic and cultural system, which became possible with the acquisition of Kazakhstan’s status as a sovereign state.Scientists of Kazakhstan — historians, ethnographers, culturologists, art experts of the 20th—21st centuries — conducted comprehensive studies of the history, culture and art of the Kazakh people. Special attention was paid to description of the traditional types of applied art (felting, weaving, embroidery), as well as the work of master jewelers.While the traditional types of applied art have been widely described and studied by art historians in ethno-cultural aspects, the professional jewelry art of Kazakhstan, the work of modern national masters are still insufficiently investigated, including the issues of archaic and traditional forms interpretation in today’s jewelry art.Contemporary jewelry artists working in the most topical forms keep the Kazakh traditions of jewelry craftsmanship: they use generally accepted techniques of metal processing in their works, creatively interpret traditional forms.The active use of the established techniques by mo­dern masters is complemented by the latest technology.The artistic features of modern jewelry are based on the author’s interpretation of forms and techniques of traditional jewelry art; there is a kind of synthesis: a mixture of traditions of the Kazakh craft, techniques of folk applied art, and current artistic trends.

The article defines and outlines the processes of artistic blacksmithing revival in Ivano-Frankivsk based on the results of the annual International Festival “Sviato Kovaliv” (Blacksmith Festival). The attention is riveted on the analysis of artistic features of forged sculptural compositions that complement the urban environment, and their art history analysis has been carried out. Methodology. The methodological background is the principle of system approach and integrated research. The historical, comparative and art history methods have been used for the study of the selected object of research. Results. It has been established that one of the biggest in Eastern Europe is the International Blacksmith Festival “Sviato Kovaliv” in Ivano-Frankivsk which began its activities in 2003. The purpose of this event is the revival of blacksmithing traditions forgotten in Ukraine in the Soviet times and popularization of the artistic metal as a craft and an art. It has been defined that in the space of a few years the event has developed from the amateur level into the large-scale international project which nowadays includes a complex of events: public demonstration of blacksmithing, performances, competitions, international scientific conference, and art exhibition of blacksmithing. It has been established that one of the results of festival is the production of joint blacksmith’s works, which nowadays complement the urban environment of Ivano-Frankivsk, and their artistic features have been analysed. It has been found out that metal artworks can be both functional and decorative, often with a deep idea. The scientific novelty lies in the study of important aspect of the modern artistic blacksmithing revival in Ukraine using the example of the International Festival “Sviato Kovaliv” (Blacksmith Festival) in Ivano-Frankivsk. The attention is focused on the artistic features of forged chased work. Practical significance. The research allows broadening your knowledge about the artistic blacksmithing development in Ivano-Frankivsk that contributes to the attraction of obtained information in the study of modern blacksmithing in Halychyna (Galicia).

Among his many studies of Mawsilī metal work, D.S. Rice focuses on a group of five objects produced by a single workshop, that of Ahmad al-Dhakī al-Mawsilī, between 620/1223 and 640/1242. Among them the Cleveland ewer (620/1223) and the Louvre basin made for the Ayyūbid Sultān al-‘Ādil II (636–8/1238–40). One object, only briefly described by Rice and not studied in detail, for Rice did not have access to it at that time, is the ewer of Ibn Jaldak, the subject of this article. The aim of this paper is to revisit the question of origin of the Mawsilī School of metalwork through the close examination of this single object—the Maxsilī ewer now in the Metropolitan Museum (no. 91.1.586) made by Ibn Jaldak in 623/1226. The ewer represents a turning point in the development of Mawsilī metalwork and a key piece to the puzzle. By tracing its origin the article attempts to shed light on the larger question of the origin of the Mawsilī School and its metalworkers.

This article trace the origins of using permanent metal jewelry in traditional clothing of the Mordovian people, as well as characterizes the role of metal products in culture. From the perspective of the currently popular brocade, sparkling fabrics, it seems relevant to refer to the domestic tradition of costume embroidery with metal pendants, beads, pearls that shine in the sun, and to the analysis of peculiarities of of Erzya and Moksha embroidery of the XIX – early XX centuries, known for simple but very effective methods of decorating female costume. The novelty of this work is defined by the absence of special research dedicated to permanent metal décor of the Mordovian costume; the need to determine the ratio between natural and synthetic materials used in embroidery; their interrelation with the traditional norms and aesthetic preferences of the Mordovian people. The object of this research is the traditional Mordovian costume, while the subject is the specificity of including small metal items (pendants, beads, pearls) into embroidery of the elements of festive and ritual clothes of the XIX – early XX centuries. The goal consists in analysis of the tradition of using metal items in embroidery, as well as in cognition of the meanings of this material in folk culture. Analysis is conducted on the new archaeological and ethnographic sources, archival materials on the history of culture and art of the Mordovian region. The author highlights and characterizes various techniques of using sequins in the Moksha and Erzya embroidery of the XIX – early XX centuries, which testify to the complexity of ethnogenesis of the Mordovian people.

The photo essay I present below was carried out in 2021 at the exhibition “Rapture”, by the Chinese activist and artist Ai Weiwei, held at Cordoaria Nacional, in Lisbon. Living in Portugal, this was the artist's first and largest exhibition with 85 pieces produced in various formats, materials and sizes, including cork, straw, paper, marble, clay, cloth, metal, ceramics and tiles. His versatility turns everything into art and activism, as human rights are a constant in his work, which seeks to reveal a particular way of questioning the world. Whether in the face of tragedies, war, political persecution, the environmental crisis, censorship, the pandemic, the refugee crisis or his own fight for freedom, when the Chinese government kept him imprisoned for 81 days in 2011, due to his intense criticism mainly of the disrespect for human rights. I reflect on the materials used by Weiwei as part of his culture and how this same process can be thought of in Amazonian art.

Ювелирное искусство народа саха исследуется в статье в междисциплинарном аспекте: изучаются истоки его возникновения, этнокультурные связи народов Евразии по материалам археологических памятников Позднего Средневековья, искусствоведческая характеристика украшений (традиции и новаторские черты в современном искусстве якутских ювелиров). В основу работы положен анализ находок из археологических раскопок якутских погребений XIV-XVIII вв., предметов из фондов музеев Республики Саха (Якутия) и Американского музея естественной истории в Нью-Йорке, а также авторских ювелирных изделий современных мастеров. Подробное изучение ансамбля якутских украшений и отдельных его частей содержится в трудах этнографов Ф. М. Зыкова, В. П. Дьяконовой и др. Классификация украшений, описание техники и способов обработки металла, к которым обращались эти авторы, не входят в задачи данной статьи. Металлические украшения древних якутов, найденные в археологических памятниках, рассматриваются нами в сравнительно-историческом аспекте и соотносятся с изделиями древних кочевников Центральной и Передней Азии, Китая и Южной Сибири. Якутское ювелирное искусство приобрело устойчивые формы, орнаментальный декор и национальное своеобразие в XVII-XIX вв. На современном этапе сохраняется многовековая традиция изготовления ансамбля украшений, но параллельно развивается творчество дизайнеров-ювелиров по созданию оригинальных художественных произведений, вырабатывающих неповторимый стиль этномодерна. The article examines the jewelry of the Sakha people from an interdisciplinary perspective. It examines its origins and sources; considers the ethno-cultural relations of the peoples of Eurasia, based on the materials of archaeological monuments from the late Middle Ages; and considers art history (traditions and innovative features in the modern art of Yakut jewelers). The work is based on archaeological excavations of Yakut burials of the 16th through 18th centuries, items from the collections of the museums of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), and the American Museum of Natural History in New York, as well as the author’s jewelry created by modern masters. A detailed study of Yakut jewelry and its individual parts is contained in the works of the ethnographers F. M. Zykov, V. P. Diakonova, and others, and the classification of jewelry and descriptions of the techniques and methods of metal processing that these scholars provided are not considered in this article. On the other hand, metal ornaments of ancient Yakuts found in archaeological sites are analyzed in a comparative historical context and correlated with the products of ancient nomads from Central and Western Asia, China and Southern Siberia. Yakut jewelry art acquired stable forms, ornamental design and national distinctiveness in the 17th - 19th centuries. The traditional Yakut way of making an ensemble of jewelry has been preserved, but at the same time, jewelry designers have also been creating original works of art that develop a unique “ethnomodern” style.

Laser Metal Deposition Shaping (LMDS) is a state-of-the-art technology that combines rapid prototyping and laser processing. There are many factors affecting the quality, precision, microstructure and performance of LMDS-deposited parts. Among them, substrate preheating is a significant one since it can change the heat history of the LMDS process. Preheating is often used to reduce the residual stresses and the risk of thermal distortion and cracking. In this work a set of substrate preheating device for LMDS system employed with dual-channel control, namely intelligent PID temperature control and realtime serial-port temperature acquisition and feedback control, is designed and developed. In addition, the heating up rule gained through the relative experiment is introduced to reduce the overshoot amplitude of substrate preheating device by cascade control method. The results show that not only can this substrate preheating device realize the dual-channel control and continuous adjustment of substrate preheating temperature, but also can realtime collect and record the substrate temperature.

Logical reason for research. Modern performance on wind instruments, in particular on the trumpet, is characterized by a powerful development. It is an object of listening interest and composing, and today it has a fairly large repertoire of both transpositions and original works in many instrumental compositions (from solo to various ensembles and orchestras) in different styles and genres. This situation in music practice requires theoretical understanding and generalization, however, we can state that at the moment, music science highlights the performance on the wind instruments without any system, mostly from the methodological viewpoint. Innovation. The article under consideration deals with the organological aspect of studying the specificity of the performance on the trumpet, which combines a number of historical and practical questions and allows them to be answered in connection with the requests of both music science and music practice (from the peculiarities of the sound production on various instruments of the trumpet family at different times (from the historical origins of trumpet performance to the present) to the technical and artistic tasks faced by the trumpet performer, as well as by the composers who create both transpositions of time-tested music for trumpet and original trumpet pieces that take into account technical, timbre, artistic and expressive capabilities of this instrument). Objectives. The purpose of research is to reveal connection between the historical-organological and practical specificity of the performance on the trumpet in the past and at present. Methods. The main methods of the research are historical and organological. Results and Discussion. Trumpet as a musical instrument is one of the oldest musical instruments in the world. Its earliest prototypes are revealed in archaeological studies of the historical past of humanity. The prototypes of embouchure instruments are horn, bone, and tusk pipes with conical bore, mostly curved, which are ancestors of the horn family; instruments with straight cylindrical pipes formed a family of trumpet. The art of playing wind instruments was a significant development in ancient Egypt, where the state placed musical art at the service of rulers and worship. Musicians in those days accompanied festive events and rituals; what is more, wind and percussion instruments became the basis for the creation of military orchestras. A straight metal trumpet appeared in Europe in the Middle Ages. In the countries of Central Asia, Iran, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan copper brass instruments were played. China’s music and performing culture employed bronze trumpets of various sizes. In the 14th-15th centuries the evolution of metal instruments underwent qualitative changes. Forms of curved trumpets were born. In addition to this, trumpets were split into low and high ones; later, middle-register instruments appeared. The so-called natural trumpets, used then, were very close in sound to the modern trumpet. In Europe there were masters who made metal instruments; eminent experts in this field, the Heinlein Schmidt family, the Nagel family, English masters Dudley, U. Bullem worked in Nuremberg from the 15th and up to the 19th century. The emergence of a slide trumpet, a trumpet with a sliding crook, is connected with the attempts to improve the instrument for the sound production of more chromatic sounds (we must distinguish the achievements of Anton Weidinger). An important step in the evolution of the chromatic trumpet was the use of horn invention (croooks). In the mid-nineteenth century, having improved the inventory system with a valve mechanism, the trumpet finally gained its place in the orchestra as a chromatic instrument. At the present time, a trumpet with a piston valve mechanism (in jazz, variety, modern music) has become very popular. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, trumpets of different structures, such as in C, in D, in Es, in F, were constructed; the designs of these trumpets are almost indistinguishable from the design of the modern trumpet. The piccolo trumpet was designed for a solo performance of ancient music (clarinet style); to amplify the low sounds, the alt trumpet in F and the bass trumpet became popular. Compared to fixed-mode instruments, the trumpet is a semifixed-pitch instrument. Therefore, a skilled performer is able to adjust the pitch within a certain area and correct defects in the setting of separate modeless sounds. The "planned" inaccuracy of the trumpet intonation is related to the use of a third valve. To correct the intonation associated with this, the trumpet has a device for extending an additional pipe of the third valve. There is no precise theoretical prediction of the given problem, so the correction of modeless sounds requires from the performer well-developed musical ear and knowledge of the specific features of their instrument. Conclusions. The summarized results of the presented article indicate that the organological aspect of the research in the field of performance on wind instruments, in particular, on the trumpet, is important and illustrative. It is an indispensable link that binds the theoretical and practical vectors of the study of trumpet art as a single set of knowledge; helps to identify the connection between the historical, organological and practical aspects of the performance on the trumpet, both past and present; promotes awareness of the specificity of playing a particular instrument, especially, understanding and assimilation of the design features of the trumpet in all its historical variants, and the corresponding principles of sound production with technical-acoustic and artistic effects; outlines the theoretical, scientific and methodological tasks for performers and composers whose work is related to the art of playing the trumpet. These are the directions in which further avenues for researching music related to the performance on the trumpet of different times, styles and genres can be seen.

The object of this research is a totem symbol in decorative tradition of the peoples of pre-Columbian America. The subject of this research is the images of jaguar in the art of the Aztecs of Mesoamerica. The images of a human and jaguar are captured on the metal, stone and clay artifacts of pre-Columbian civilizations that are available to the public in Mexico City National Museum of Anthropology, Peruvian Museum of the Nation in Lima, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D. C. The research methodology is based on compilation of the results of fundamental research of the leading scholars of North American School of Anthropology. The article conduct a general systematization and brief analytics of scientific records on the specificity of Mesoamerican decorative tradition of totem symbols throughout an extensive period of time: 1500 BC – 400 AD (Olmec Civilization), III century BC – VII century AD (Teotihuacan Civilization), 900 BC – 200 AD (Chavín Civilization), 750 BC – 100 AD (Paracas Civilization), 2300 – 1200 BC (Kotosh Civilization), 1250 – 1470 AD (Chimú Civilization). The presented materials substantiate the thesis that jaguar as a totem symbol carried out the functions of unification and identification of ethnoses of Mesoamerica, reflecting relevant sociocultural trends at various stages of anthropogenesis. The novelty of this work consists in scientific systematization of the facts that the nuances of fusion of the images of human and jaguar in art objects of Aztec culture reflect a harmonious or turbulent frame of mind in pre-Columbian era.

The work explores the interaction of the structure and content of the modern musical and scenic genre, rock opera. On the basis of the rock opera “The Legend of Xentaron” staged by “Epidemic”, a Russian power metal group, authors show characteristics of the rock opera of the 21st century, performing and instrumental structure, other components of the new musical and scenic action influencing the listener, the trend of influence of a genre of a fantasy on characteristic stylistic features of a genre of a rock opera is considered. The authors pay special attention to the analysis of dramaturgy in the rock opera “The Legend of Xentaron”, on the basis of which it is characterized as a mixed form, synthesizing the techniques of conflict and epic dramaturgy. At the same time, they revealed both typical and already traditional features for this musical stage genre, as well as modern trends in its evolution. This refers to such new features as: serial, formulas, stereotyping, replicability. The inclusion of the results in the study of “History of variety and jazz music” will help university students to get an idea about new trends in development of the phenomena of performing art, styles, genres, directions and the repertoire in the field of vocal and instrumental variety and jazz music.

Несмотря на значительный интерес исследователей в проблеме отождествления мифологического существа древнекитайского искусства «Тао-те» (饕餮), его образ, а также символика элементов декоративного оформления артефактов бронзового века Китая до настоящего времени остаются малоизученными и неразгаданными. Целью является рассмотрение вопросов, связанных со структурой образа «Тао-те», гетерогенным видом изображения в эпохи Ся, Шан-Инь и Чжоу, проблемой утраченного имени и идентификация иконостилистического персонажа эпохи металла. Анализ литературных источников позднего периода, содержащий описание божественных первопредков, изложенных в результатах диссертационного исследования, указывает на взаимосвязь образа с божественным первопредком «Куй» или «Ди-Ку» (喾)), зооморфные фигуры соименного существа (дракон «Куй») образуют личину «Тао-те». Выводы работы дают представление о религиозном мировоззрении, закодированном в инкрустации предметов искусства и ритуала древнекитайских государств, могут быть полезны в изучении истории, культуры и искусства древнего Китая. Despite the considerable interest of researchers in the problem of identifying the mythological creature of the ancient Chinese art “Tao-tie” (饕餮), its image, as well as the symbolism of the decorative elements of artifacts of the Bronze Age of China, remain poorly studied and unsolved to this day. The purpose of the paper is to consider issues related to the structure of the “Tao-tie” image, the heterogeneous appearance of the image in the Xia, Shang-Yin and Zhou eras, the problem of the lost name and the identification of the icon-stylistic character of the metal era. The analysis of literary sources of the late period containing a description of the divine first ancestors set forth in the results of the dissertation research points to the relationship of the image with the divine first ancestor “Kui” or” Di-Ku” (喾), zoomorphic figures of a co-named creature (dragon “Kui”) form the mask of “Tao-tie”. The conclusions of the work give an idea of the religious worldview encoded in the inlay of art and ritual objects of ancient Chinese states and can be useful in studying the history, culture and art of ancient China.

In historical paintings, the detection of low amounts of pigments and dyes by Raman spectroscopy can sometimes be challenging, in particular for fluorescent dyes. This issue can be overcome by using SERS (surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy) which takes advantage of the properties of nanostructured metal surfaces to quench fluorescence and enhance Raman signals. In this work, silver nanostars (AgNSs) are applied for the first time to real art samples, in particular to painting cross-sections, exploiting their effective SERS properties for pigment identification. The case study is the Madonna della Misericordia of the National Gallery of Parma (Italy). Cross-sections were analyzed at first by optical microscopy, SEM-EDS, and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Unfortunately, in some cross-sections, the application of conventional Raman spectroscopy was hindered by an intense background fluorescence. Therefore, AgNSs were deposited and used as SERS-active agent. The experimentation was successful, allowing us to identify a modern dye, namely copper phthalocyanine. This result, together with the detection of other modern pigments (titanium white) and expert visual examination, allowed to reconstruct the painting history, postdating its realization from the 15th century (according to the Gallery inventory) to 19th century with a heavy role of recent (middle 20th century) restoration interventions.

Research aim. The article is devoted to the review of modern clothing design projects in the context of quoting the stage images of hard rock and heavy metal musicians of the 1970s-1990s. Research methods. The source analysis method was used to find out the level of scientific development of the problem. Collecting factual material method was used to search for visual information. To describe and process the visual information of stage images of musicians and shows of leading designers’ collections, the Art history methods, aesthetic and structural-compositional analysis, as well as the comparative method, were used. The theoretical generalization method was used to formulate the conclusions. Visual material is taken from printed publications and the Internet. Scientific novelty is in identifying the main stylistic features of the stage costume of performers of the hard rock and heavy metal musical genres in the 70s and 90s of the 20th century, as well as in comparing and finding quotes of stage images of musicians in modern catwalk clothing collections. Conclusions. The development of the stage costume design of hard rock and heavy metal genres with its wide influence on street fashion, as well as “official fashion”, was due to a significant spread of media technologies popularization at the end of the 20th century. Stage images of artists were imitated and introduced into an everyday wardrobe, firstly, by their fans; secondly, its distribution was facilitated by high-profile advertising companies promoting bands and performers; thirdly, it spread through the fashion industry and the work of talented designers who sensed the mood of society and were able to predict the commercial success of the new aesthetic. In the 21st century well-known brands and designers actively quote performers’ stage costumes. Ways of quoting are very diverse: from completely copying images or borrowing a separate assortment, copying forms and details of clothes to the imitation of cut, decoration, and trimming. The most popular quoting is the use of band mascots or logos to print and design materials, various patches, and stickers. Borrowing a characteristic combination of the assortment in creating a general image has recently become the most popular. From the general trends of today, we come to the conclusion that experiments with the form itself and its material components are significantly inferior to experiments with the emotional filling of images, which are successfully provided by quoting the stage costume with its hyperbolized spectacularity and expressiveness.

Kò séní m’èdè Àyàn Bí ení mú kò ̣ ̣ǹgó ̣ è ̣ lówọ́ No one understands the language of Àyàn Better than the drummer who holds the gong in his hand Yorùbá maxim From the Yorùbá oral historical, mythological, and ontological, abstract lines of reasoning, Àyàn is believed to be the first Yorùbá drum maker and drummer, who, after his death, was deified as the god of Drumming (Òrìsà ̣ Àyàn, or simply Àyàn). Hence, when an experienced Yorùbá drummer plays his drum masterfully, the elders with the drum speech discernable ears (òmò ̣ ràn) that hear the drumming, even from afar commend, “may Àyàn, ̣ the god of drumming prosper/ protect you!” (Àyàn ó gbè ó!). As among other Yorùbá deities (òrìsạ̀) that live in the spiritual realm in certain but uncommon natural environments (forests, trees, rivers, streams, and mountains, among others), Òrìsà Àyàn is thought to reside in wood (Vil ̣ - lepastour 2015, 3). For this reason, Òrìsà Àyàn is emblematized by the wood ̣ with which the body of the drum (ìlù) is carved. Similarly, this deity is eulogized as “the spirit who speaks out from inside his wooded abode” (Òrìsà ̣ gbé’nú igi fohùn), in reference to the log of wood with which the drums (ìlù) are carved. It is said that Òrìsà Àyàn particularly prefers that ìlù be carved ̣ with Cordia millenii (igi òmò ̣ ), a belief that gave birth to the Yorùbá saying, ̣ “out of the entire wood species of the forests is the preferred Cordia millenii, with which gbèdụ drum is carved” (Igi gbogbo ní ńbe ̣ ní’gbó, k’átó fi’gi òmò ̣ ̣ gbé ̣ gbèdụ). Because of his position as the patron deity of drumming, which 2 Oláwọlé Fámúlẹ̀ by extension is used to accompanying sacred rites in honor of virtually all the Yorùbá òrìsạ̀, Òrìsà Àyàn is thought to be their mouthpiece, as they all speak ̣ through the drums that he emblematizes. Another emblem of Òrìsà Àyàn that ̣ is even worshipped is a shallow hemispherical drum with a single fixed head, which is worn on the chest with a strap around the neck and beaten with leather straps held in each hand (gúdúgúdú ) (Bascom 1952, 4). The gúdúgúdú symbol of Òrìsà Àyàn also goes by the praise name (oríkì) “gúdúgúdú with its distinctive uneven and undulated back shape” (Gúdúgúdú, ab’è yìn jákan- ̣ jàkan). The component parts that formed this uneven and surged-back shape [of gúdúgúdú] include kúseré and apìràn. Kúseré is a circular metal object affixed onto the drum’s wooded base, and apìràn is an array of wooden pegs that hold the kúseré securely onto the base of the instrument. At the exoteric and practical level, Àyàn also refers to any Yorùbá traditional and professional drummer, who plays the drum (ìlù), often with the use of a gong (kòṇ̀ gó).̣ The Yorùbá professional drummers share the name àyàn with Òrìsà Àyàn since they are the human agents who play the drums (ìlù), ̣ emblem of Òrìsà Àyàn, and through which the deity speaks. The ̣ Yorùbá incantation “the day that the drummer drums with his gong/drumstick is the very moment that the Àyàn god of drumming speaks out that which is in his mouth” (Òòjó ̣ tí kòṇ̀ gó ̣ Àyàn bá f’ojú ba ìlù ni Òrìsà Àyàn ̣ ńpo ̣ t’enu rè ̣ ̣ sí’lè) ̣ best illustrates the interconnection of the drummers (àyàn) with god of drumming, Òrìsà Àyàn. As succinctly corroborated by Amanda Villepastour, “the ̣ drummer in action becomes Àyàn.” Another Yorùbá term for a drummer (àyàn) is onílù. 1 With their drumming (or drum music) that mimic the human speech, the Àyàn or Onílù verbalize words/speeches (òrọ̀ ) that is or are intelligible to the ears of their ̣ patrons, often the dance performers (oníjó). For that reason, ìlù, to the Yorùbá, is an instrument that acts as a speech surrogate (i.e., substitute). That the Yorùbá refer to ìlù as “the talking drum” underscores this assertion. In fact, they strongly believed that if handled by a skillful drummer (àyàn/onílù), ìlù, just like humans, can speak words or communicate effectively to those who understand the language of the drum. The Yorùbá phrase “a lifeless goat that speaks just like a human” (òkú-ewúré tíí fo ̣ ’hùn bí ènìyàn ̣ ), a euphemism for the goatskin fixed single- or double-headed hourglass drums that mimic human speech when drummed, is a testimony to ìlù as a true “talking drum.” Another Yorùbá saying that illustrates that ìlù is an instrument of language substitution is “that the gángan drum could speak in a human nasal tone of 1 Onílù is formed from two Yorùbá words oní and ìlù (literally, “owner of the drum” or “one who plays the drum”), a euphemism for the drummer. Thus, anybody that plays drum is an onílù. But those Yorùbá traditional professional onílù, like the dùndún and bàtá drummers, are specifically referred to as àyàn. Èdè Àyàn: The Language of Àyàn in Yorùbá Art and Ritual of Egúngún 3 voice is not without the help of the drummer’s own tip of the fingernails” (àti rán’mú gángan kò s’ẹ̀ yìn èékáná ̣ ). In Yorùbá traditional festivals, ritual performances, and religious practices in general, the role of àyàn whose drumming or drum music imitate and code the natural language (Yorùbá), cannot be overemphasized. The Yorùbá aphorism “without drum music, there is no way to celebrate” (láì sí’lù, taní jé ̣ s’eré òkúrùgbe!̣) is a testimony to the indispensable role of ìlù in the context of traditional Yorùbá visual and performance arts. A clear example is the Yorùbá art and ritual of Egúngún, the theme of this study. Paradoxically, many Yorùbá art scholars often make very little or no effort to explore the relevance of ìlù in their studies on Yorùbá visual culture, such as Egúngún. This has continued to make it become virtually impossible for a deeper understanding of Yorùbá art in particular and African art as a whole. Ironically, the same scholars prefer to invest their energy, searching outside of the art’s cultural origin to fulfil their primary goal of “appreciating” the African art, rather than searching within African culture, language and values, the very driving forces that gave rise to this art, and thus a catalyst to understanding it.2 It is on that note that I believe the question that scholars of African art should begin to ask themselves is: when will African art scholarship––unlike Western art studies that often demand intellectual rigor and professional thoroughness––rise above its present art “appreciating” status vis-à-vis African art? In my opinion, as this present study is aimed at confirming, the understanding of African art critically requires that scholars be fluent or at least confident in the reading, writing, and speaking of the language of the people whose art they study. Also heightening the problem of the lack of “understanding” of Yorùbá art is the very unique nature of it (as with other African art), in which an isolated work of art in context is a rarity. Thus, the present study examines the very indispensable roles of Àyàn drummers in the performance context of the annual Egúngún festival (odún Egúngún) in a Yorùbá community in Òkèigbó in Nigeria’s Ondo State. As a native speaker with access to Yorùbá philosophy, values and history, and who is fully aware of the fundamental importance of language in African art studies, I aim in this study to examine the mutual relationship existing between the Àyàn and Egúngún from the vantage point of the Yorùbá language, the medium through which the said Yorùbá philosophy, values and history are stored and expressed. It delves into the very root of Egúngún within the Yorùbá cultural context, where traditions and history are preserved and recorded not in the western-type of writing, but rather in the Yorùbá language, ritual performance and ceremonies. It is hoped that this study will facilitate a deeper understanding of Egúngún along with the 2 Personal communication with Professor Rowland Abíodún on April 2, 2017. 4 Oláwọlé Fámúlẹ̀ àyàn within the art and ritual performance context of the Odún Egúngún. The study illustrates the interconnection of the àyàn and Egúngún by first providing an overview of Yorùbá drums and their ritual contexts. This is followed by a close study of the Yorùbá ontological concept of Egúngún, one of the most valued patrons of Àyàn (the drummers), as an important form of Yorùbá religious beliefs and practices. Using the Egbé ̣ ̣ Òjẹ̀ ̣ (Cult of Egúngún) of the ancient Yorùbá town of Òkèigbó as a case study, the study concludes with an in-depth analysis of the role of Àyàn (Drummers) in Yorùbá art and ritual of Egúngún.

In Christoph Wetzel's 1988 painting, An Everyday Story, the divided canvas proudly depicts women's accomplishments in the German Democratic Republic (Figure 1). On one side, a woman operates a large piece of heavy machinery in a rolling mill, cool and competent behind the enormous mass of metal and gears. On the other side, the same woman helps her two children prepare for school in the morning. In the act of combing her daughter's hair, she looks out directly at the viewer, her expression asking: “And what are you surprised at?” This painting, displayed as part of a 1995 exposition on art commissioned by government agencies in the GDR, graphically displays that government's ideological commitment to women's paid labor, especially in jobs that, in capitalist societies, are often thought to be inappropriate for women.

AbstractNew Zealand Māori metal band Alien Weaponry rose from local act to international prominence over the course of 2016–2018, lauded by critics and fans for their songs involving Māori history and culture, and with lyrics in the indigenous Māori language. This article examines Alien Weaponry's participation in Māori language revitalisation efforts and explores the use of indigenous frameworks for analysing these issues. Māori principles of kaitiakitanga (protection) and whai wāhi (participation) offer an understanding of the band's contributions to both Māori cultural preservation and global metal, and of how these contributions cooperate in the band's success. In addition to unpacking the issues of identity, indigenousness and language revitalisation inherent in understanding Alien Weaponry's output, this article also expands on previous work on nationhood and identity in both global metal music and Māori popular music.

In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association “Motorobudivnyk” (now the Public Joint Stock Company “Motor Sich”) and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau “Progress” (now the State Enterprise “Ivchenko – Progress”) has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years’ achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St. Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I. H. Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the “patent wars” that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K. G. Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K. S. Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions.

The 168 metal artifacts collected at Machu Picchu in 1912 by Hiram Bingham have been examined for evidence that metallurgical artificers worked at this site in pre-Columbian times. Fifteen artifacts have been identified as metal stock, work in progress, or waste materials from metallurgical processes. Bronze was made by alloying metallic tin and copper and was cast into both finished objects and stock for subsequent forging. Hammering was done with stone tools, but bronze chisels were also in use. Silver-copper alloys were worked, but this material was not held to compositional limits as close as those for bronze. No alloys containing arsenic and relatively little evidence of the use of sheet metal were found.

Background: In recent decades the demand for unconventional pets has been relatively increasing, a situation that increasingly causes veterinarians to encounter these animals in medical and surgical practice. Of these animals, the birds stand out. Animals of the order Psittaciform are known as very curious and active creatures that have the tendency to chew objectsin their environment. Among the several occurrences that lead this animal to attend the veterinary clinic, we highlight the poisoning by heavy metals, especially lead poisoning (Pb) and zinc (Zn). The objective of this work was to report a case of heavy metal intoxication in cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus).Case: A cockatiel was taken to the veterinarian with a history of apathy, motor incoordination, exacerbated water consumption and regurgitation. Complete anamnesis was instrumental in directing suspected heavy metal intoxication. Radiopaque particles were visualized through radiographic examination, suggesting heavy metal intoxication. The diagnosis wasconcluded through complementary examinations since the clinical symptoms are nonspecific. The treatment was intended to provide emergency intervention, avoid further absorption, use of antidotes, provide supportive measures and provide guidance to the owner. It can be concluded that the diagnosis and treatment were successful.Discussion: Metal poisoning can kill birds. The veterinarian should always seek the literature in order to perform the best support and treatment. For this, detailed history and detailed medical history must be taken into account, since the time of ingestion and the type of metal interfere with the therapeutic conduct. The use of imaging tests such as x-rays andultrasound are essential to assist the clinician, especially in cases where the tutor does not know whether or not the animal has ingested an object. In the radiographic examination, the heavy metal has the characteristic of having high radiopacity, which was evidenced in the case in question. Radiographic positions should be considered in order to avoid false negatives. In the literature, the treatment of chelation therapy is prioritized to remove the circulating heavy metal and thus act on the cause of the problem. In the case in question calcium EDTA was used intramuscularly, which showed clinical improvement in the animal after the second application. Calcium EDTA binds to metals and facilitates their transport and excretion. The use of fluid therapy is necessary as a supportive treatment to prevent kidney damage, since heavy metals are highlyharmful to nephrons. Especially in cases where the animal stops feeding and ingesting water. The use of antibiotics is essential because in many cases the animal, in addition to not feeding, becomes prone to infections due to metal toxicity, therefore, prophylactic use is essential for a better prognosis. In the case in question, the use of enrofloxacin was effective,as reported in the literature. It is recommended that the diagnosis of serum lead and zinc dosage should be made, however, due to the difficulties of obtaining the samples, and since other metals may also cause intoxication, in the case in question the treatment was started without these results. According to the results obtained in this work, the treatment described in the literature is effective and can be performed immediately to save animal life without subsequent sequelae.Keywords: bird, lead, zinc, calcium EDTA.

The aim of the article is a comprehensive analysis of the formation, development and current state of research in Czech numismatics of the XIX - early XXI centuries in the context of coinage, penetration and use of Prague groschen as a means of payment in Central and Eastern Europe in the late Middle Ages and early modern times. The research methodology is outlined by the principles of scientificity, historicism, objectivity, and the main methods used in the study were historiographic analysis and historiographic synthesis, as well as general scientific methods of generalization and systematization. The scientific novelty is determined by the attempt to comprehensively analyze and generalize the historiographical achievements of Czech numismatics in the context of the problem of the participation of Prague money in the circulation of Central and Eastern Europe in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. The process of formation, development and current state of Czech and Slovak numismatics in the study of chronology and geography of Grossi pragenses penetration into the coin markets of Central and Eastern Europe in the XIV-XV centuries are considered. The authors have singled out periodization of the historiographical process of numismatic research of the outlined problem is formulated and substantiated, the range of issues that need further study and scientific interpretation. Conclusions. The analysis of the historiographical work outlined in the topic of the article allows distinguishing three consecutive periods of numismatic research on the issue of minting and circulation of Prague groschen. The first period of Czech and Slovak historiography of the problem covers the 80's of the XIX - 30's of the XX century. Beginning with sporadic attempts to describe and register the known types of Prague groschen minted by Czech kings from Wenceslas II (1278-1305) to Ferdinand I (1526-1562). At the beginning of the twentieth century, these studies grew into purposeful scientific cataloguing, study, and systematization of metrological indicators of coins, details of their images, legends, and countermarks. Special studies of the preconditions for the preparation and conduct of the monetary reform of Wenceslas II, the rate of coins minted by him, and the peculiarities of the issuance policy of this monarch were begun. At the same time, a description of the stamp versions of Vladislav II's money (1471-1516) was initiated. However, the technical imperfection of the equipment for visual inspection and photo-fixation of numismatic material at that time often caused incomplete or inaccurate data. The second period of numismatic research on our topic covered the 1950s - early 1990s. At this time there is not only an expansion of the study of the history of minting and circulation of Prague groschen but also qualitative changes in the methodology of numismatic research. The stamp varieties and chronology of the issue of Prague groschen, including those minted during the reigns of John of Luxembourg, Wenceslas IV and Charles IV, Wladyslaw II, and Louis I, have been studied. Scholars described and analyzed countermarks (overprinting) on coins, drew attention to the historical and art analysis of the iconography of Prague groschen; the quality of coinage. The third, modern period of development of Czech and Slovak numismatic studies on the history of minting and circulation of Prague groschen began in the first half of the 1990s. This historiographical period differs from the previous ones primarily by the intensive replenishment of the database of numismatic sources on the topic. On the other hand, the study of coinage and circulation of Prague groschen from purely historical or numismatic grow into interdisciplinary, increasingly numismatists, to search or confirm data, use not only relevant methods of numismatics (methods of stamping and comparative analysis, topography of treasures and individual coins). allocation of periods of money circulation, methods of analysis of the composition of coin treasures), complex methods of special historical disciplines, but also modern non-destructive methods of natural sciences (Physico-chemical analysis of coin metal, spectral research, etc.). Technical perfection of modern devices used by scientists for visual inspection and macro photography of coins facilitates complete research. The current stage of research of Czech numismatists in the field of our problem is characterized by a combination of research efforts in the study of some theoretical and applied issues of minting and circulation of Prague groschen. In particular, data on recently discovered treasures of Prague groschen are published, the history of their minting in the archaic period (1300-1385) is studied, and little-known and previously unknown variants of stamps of these coins are studied. The new source base describes the technological and typological features of numerous coinage varieties of Prague groschen of Wenceslas IV (1378-1419) and Ferdinand I (1526-1562), coins are arranged in detail by type and catalogued. A separate area of numismatic research became the issue of counterfeiting Prague groschen.

ABSTRACT Metal-poor stars are important tools for tracing the early history of the Milky Way, and for learning about the first generations of stars. Simulations suggest that the oldest metal-poor stars are to be found in the inner Galaxy. Typical bulge surveys, however, lack low metallicity ($\rm {[Fe/H]} \lt -1.0$) stars because the inner Galaxy is predominantly metal-rich. The aim of the Pristine Inner Galaxy Survey (PIGS) is to study the metal-poor and very metal-poor (VMP, $\rm {[Fe/H]} \lt -2.0$) stars in this region. In PIGS, metal-poor targets for spectroscopic follow-up are selected from metallicity-sensitive CaHK photometry from the CFHT. This work presents the ∼250 deg2 photometric survey as well as intermediate-resolution spectroscopic follow-up observations for ∼8000 stars using AAOmega on the AAT. The spectra are analysed using two independent tools: ULySS with an empirical spectral library, and FERRE with a library of synthetic spectra. The comparison between the two methods enables a robust determination of the stellar parameters and their uncertainties. We present a sample of 1300 VMP stars – the largest sample of VMP stars in the inner Galaxy to date. Additionally, our spectroscopic data set includes ∼1700 horizontal branch stars, which are useful metal-poor standard candles. We furthermore show that PIGS photometry selects VMP stars with unprecedented efficiency: 86 per cent/80 per cent (lower/higher extinction) of the best candidates satisfy $\rm {[Fe/H]} \lt -2.0$, as do 80 per cent/63 per cent of a larger, less strictly selected sample. We discuss future applications of this unique data set that will further our understanding of the chemical and dynamical evolution of the innermost regions of our Galaxy.

a comprehensive literature review of mining extraction and industry was made. The review discusses thoroughly mining industry from different viewpoints that includes general introduction, historical background of mining industry, mines development and life cycle, mining extraction techniques, machines used in mining processes, mineral processing, environmental effect on operators and the surrounding area, mining industry, safety precautions in mining industry, human rights abuses occurring within mining sites and communities in close proximity, mines records, metal reserves and recycling, and finally the mining industry in Sudan which includes history, production & impact, legal frame work, commodities, gold extraction and outlook.

The seventeenth-century artist Frans van Mieris was masterful in the realistic rendering of different materials, like satin, velvet, fur and metal. His work could well have been a source for fabrics and other materials for the slightly younger Willem Beurs’s 1692 treatise on painting. This paper will show how acute Van Mieris observations were in depicting these materials, and the role that reflections play in our perception of their realism.

In recent years popular music scholars have paid increasing attention to musical sound. From Robert Walser's landmark work on heavy metal (1993), to Alan Moore's important analysis of rock style periods (1993), to a number of shorter studies (Whiteley 1990; Josephson 1992; Bowman 1995; Ford 1995; Hawkins 1996; Edström 1996), more and more scholars have recognised that all levels of scholarly focus must be pursued if we are to gain purchase on the phenomena of popular music. With no exceptions of which I am aware, all the popular music scholars concerned specifically with musical sound seek to explore the connections between sound and its social contexts. My goal here is to show how attention to musical perception can forward this project and to argue that perception is best understood as a kind of social practice. The act of perception constitutes musical forms and musical meanings in experience. The act of perception is where the rubber of sound meets the road of social life, and by treating perception as a practice we can draw more intimate connections between songs and subjects, sound and society, than would be possible if we were to start from musical structures and then search for linkages to social context. None of this, of course, is to deny the value of studies focused on musical structures, performance events, broad social contexts or large-scale social history, but to argue that the constitution of musical perception by musicians and listeners deserves greater attention and to suggest how this kind of scrutiny might serve the larger aims of popular music studies.

In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you nine scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation and development of natural history museology in Europe in the 15th–19th centuries. The development of scientific knowledge at that time affects the idea of the world order and the place of man in it, and the combination of knowledge with practical experience leads to the birth of true science. It is shown that one of the most important components of the development of natural sciences, in particular biological sciences, was the collection of naturalia (i.e. objects of natural origin), the rapid surge of interest in which contributed to the Great Geographical Discoveries. In chronological order, the further historical development of museum work from private collections in Italy to the formation of a prototype of a genuine museum, which performs the main museum functions such as amassment, storage and demonstration of collections, is considered. The article by Leonid Griffen and co-authors considers the object and subject of the history of science and technology, its place in the system of sciences. Today, more and more people are turning to the factors that determine the interaction of the society with the environment (productive forces of the society), to study which in the historical aspect and called a special scientific discipline the history of science and technology. The composition and development of the technosphere and noosphere are considered in the article. It is shown that the functioning of the technosphere is based on its interaction with the noosphere, which provides information about the environment and controls the effectiveness of interaction with it. It is formed by combining the mental structures of individuals through sign systems. The production process that ensures the functioning of the society begins with the noosphere, which through individual consciousness controls the actions of each individual, who through the means of production (technosphere) interacts with the natural environment. However, the gradual development of productive forces leads at some point to the fact that the information needed by the individual to perform all necessary actions for the benefit of the society, ceases to fit in his individual consciousness. As a result, there is a new social phenomenon the social division of labor. The cardinal solution to the problem is the prospect of humanity entering infinite space. The article by Jun-Young Oh and Hyesook Han is devoted to the study of what Understanding mathematical abstraction in the formularization of Galileo's law. Galileo's revolution in science introduced an analytical method to science that typifies the overall modern thinking of extracting, abstracting, and grasping only critical aspects of the target phenomena and focusing on “how”, which is a quantitative relationship between variables, instead of “why”. For example, to him, the question of 'why does an object fall' is of no significance; instead, only the quantitative relationship between distance from the falling object and time is important. Yet, the most fundamental aspect of his idea is that he introduced a quantified time t. Because, according to atomic theory, vacuum exists between an atom and an object composed of atoms or between objects – ignoring factors that interfere with motion, such as friction – the space for absolute time, which is a mathematical time, can be geometrically defined. In order to justify this mathematical abstraction strategy, thought experiments were conducted rather than laboratory experiments, which at that time were difficult to perform. The article by Vasyl Andriiashko and co-authors provides a thorough overview of the evolutionary process of the emergence, establishment, and development of the Kyiv school of artistic textiles. It reveals the influence of various factors (ideological, political, economic, and aesthetic) on this process. The historical and factual method allowed us to study socio-economic, as well as historical and cultural factors that contributed to the emergence, establishment, and development of the Kyiv textile school in a chronological sequence. It is established that the very fact of emergence of the Kyiv school of artistic textile, as a community of style, unity of forms, preservation, and continuity of traditions, had unbiased backgrounds since Ukrainian decorative weaving, a part of which is Kyiv weaving, inherited the abundant artistic traditions that were created over the centuries and most vividly manifested through the art of Kyivan Rus. In the next article, the authors Artemii Bernatskyi and Mykola Sokolovskyi is devoted to the study history of military laser technology development in military applications. For better understanding and systematization of knowledge about development of historical applications in the military field, an analysis of publicly known knowledge about their historical applications in the leading world countries was conducted. The study focuses on development that was carried out by the superpowers of the Cold War and the present era, namely the United States, the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China, and were built in metal. Multiple avenues of various applications of laser technology in military applications were studied, namely: military laser rangefinders; ground and aviation target designators; precision ammunition guidance systems; non-lethal anti-personnel systems; systems, designed to disable optoelectronics of military vehicles; as well as strategic and tactical anti-air and missile defense systems. The issues of ethical use of laser weapons and the risks of their use in armed conflicts, which led to an international consensus in the form of conventions of the United Nations and the International Committee of the Red Cross, were also considered. As a result of the analysis, a systematic approach to the classification of applications of laser technology in military products by three main areas of development was proposed: ancillary applications, non-lethal direct action on the human body and optical devices of military equipment, and anti-aircraft and anti-missile defensive systems. The author of the following article considered the front line transporter as the embodiment of the USSR military doctrine in the middle of the 20th century. The paper based on a source analysis of the history of creation, design, and production of LuAZ-967, LuAZ-967M, against the background of the processes of implementing projects of small tactical high mobility wheeled vehicles for the armies of European countries, shows that the developing, testing, and commissioning a front line transporter became a deepening of the process of motorization of the Soviet army. The designs of similar vehicles have been analyzed. An attempt to assess the degree of uniqueness of the front line transporter design and its place in the history of technology, as well as its potential as a reminder of science and technology has been made. An analysis of the front line transporter design, its systems, compared with its foreign counterparts, suggests that it is a Soviet refinement of the concept of a small army vehicle, a more specific means directly for the battlefield. At the same time, it was developed taking into account foreign developments and similar designs, imitating individual designs, adapting to the capabilities of the USSR automotive industry. The next article is devoted to the study, generalization and systematization of scientific knowledge about the history of the establishment, development and operation of the regional railway system in Bukovyna in the second half of XIX – early XX centuries. The authors attempted to analyze the process of creation and operation of railways in Bukovyna during the reign of the Austro-Hungarian Empire based on a wide range of previously unpublished archival documents, periodicals, statistical literature and memoirs. The article studies the development of organizational bases for the construction of railways, the activity of the communication network management, lists a whole range of requirements and tasks set for railway transport in Bukovyna, the progress of their implementation, considers successes and difficulties in this work. The purpose of the article by authors Sana Simou, Khadija Baba and Abderrahman Nounah is to reveal, recreate as accurately as possible the characteristics of an archaeological site or part of it. The restoration and conservation of monuments and archaeological sites is a delicate operation. It requires fidelity, delicacy, precision and archaeological authenticity. Research during the last two decades has proved that 3D modeling, or the digital documentation and visualization of archaeological objects in 3D, is valuable for archaeological research. The study has opted for the technique of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry by 3D surveys of architectural elements, to develop an archetype of the deteriorated Islamic Marinid site (a dynasty between the 13th and 15th centuries), and the Roman site (25 BC), located at the Chellah archaeological site in Rabat and Salé cities. The data acquired build an architectural database to archive and retrieve the entire existing architecture of monuments. This study has been completed by photogrammetrists, architects, and restorers. The issue of the journal ends with an article devoted to the analyzing the prerequisites and conditions for the foundation of an aircraft engine enterprise in Ukraine. Based on the retrospective analysis, the prerequisites and conditions of the foundation of the aircraft engine enterprise in Aleksandrovsk, Ukraine, were considered. There was a severe gap between the Russian Empire and European countries in the development pace of the aviation industry during World War I. This prompted the Russian Empire to raise foreign capital, as well as attract technologies and specialists to develop aircraft engineering and other industries. By 1917, the plant had gained the status of Russia’s largest engine-building enterprise in terms of building area and one of the best in equipment. It is evident that the beginning of aircraft engine production in Aleksandrovsk relates to the establishment of a branch of Petrograd Joint Stock Company of Electromechanical Structures and the plant’s purchase from the Moznaim brothers. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions.

The 2001 field season of the Kalinga Ethnoarchaeological Project addressed ceramic discard and midden formation in Dalupa, an upland community of 380 people in Pasil Municipality, Kalinga Province, the Philippines. Despite the increasing reliance on metal cooking vessels in the project area over time, two seasons of the Kalinga Ethnoarchaeological Project still provided enough data to describe ceramic discard and accumulation within middens. Dalupa middens receive most discarded vessels and a representative sample of discarded vessel types. This is in part because transport to water sources and washing, activities heavily associated with vessel breakage, now occur primarily within the residential area. Vessels often reach middens in a complete or reconstructible state, but are reduced to small sherds by cultural disturbance processes. Because people usually use the closest midden, catchment areas for middens can be predicted if the spatial distribution of contemporaneous residences, other activity areas, and middens is known. This work may help researchers distinguish the discarded ceramics from different households or groups of households, control for any biases in accumulation, and connect ceramic attributes with social variables of interest.

The Swedish archaeological project at the Karian sanctuary of Zeus Labraundos celebrated, in 2008, sixty years of work. The year 2008 was very special, both because of these celebrations, but also because of the important finds that came to light during the excavation of the unusual Roman bath that was discovered in 2007. It is built in the shape of a four-leaf clover (the so-called Tetraconch), and can be dated to the first half of the fourth century AD. A large amount of finds were discovered, including superb pieces of plates in African Red Slip and Late Roman C wares, a water flask, and coloured marble pieces. In the necropolis, we excavated another 19 rock-cut tombs. The finds from these include a golden ring with a cornelian stone and 22 gold appliqués in the shape of rosettes and palmettes. The appliqués had four holes to fasten them to the drapery of the deceased. They are very similar to appliqués found in the burial chamber of the Maussolleion in Halikarnassos. Two coins from before 350 BC show that the burial belongs in the early Hekatomnid period. In the excavations at the Acropolis Fortress Byzantine structures, possibly barracks, dated by the glazed Byzantine pottery to the period between the 11th and the 13th centuries were discovered. At the bottom of the trench there was a wall belonging to fourth-century BC Hekatomnid buildings. As every year, time and work were spent on architectural conservation and measures to increase the value of the site for visitors: a roof was erected over the Roman bath, a new wooden fence built at the entrance to the site, new metal shelves were installed in the storerooms, and finally, a re-excavation of the monumental original staircase up to the Built Tomb was initiated.

The Potential Importance of the detailed measurement and study of the proportions of different elements in metal alloys used for early Anglo-Saxon artefacts has been appreciated for several years now. Such analyses add, for instance, to the direct observations of early Anglo-Saxon metalworking practice that can be made, and have a contribution to make to attempts to construct absolute and relative chronologies. Two ranges of alloys in particular have been profitably studied: alloys predominantly of gold, of the late sixth and seventh centuries, in which a progressive decline in the gold content allows dating estimates to be made on the strength of the results of metallurgical analysis (Hawkes, Merrick and Metcalf 1966; cf. Brown and Schweizer 1973 for the application of such results), and the predominantly copper alloys that are characteristic of the diverse and plentiful range of artefacts—particularly dress-jewellery—found in Anglo-Saxon graves of the Migration Period, dating from the fifth century to some point in the second half of the sixth. Study of these copper alloys has been organized in terms of particular artefact-types—for instance studies by Peter Northover and Tania Dickinson of saucer brooches and by Catherine Mortimer of cruciform brooches (Mortimer 1990: the unpublished results of Northover and Dickinson's earlier work are reported in this thesis)—and in the form of comprehensive surveys of the material recovered from individual cemeteries, such as Spong Hill, Norfolk (Wardley in Hills, Penn and Rickett 1984, 38–40), Watchfield, Oxfordshire, and Lechlade, Gloucestershire (Mortimer, Pollard and Scull 1986; Mortimer 1988).

Globalization is viewed in this work as a critical concept by which we understand the transition of human society into the post-pandemic era. In this vein, this paper attempts to look into the process of globalization and its central feature, technology. Technology has become a global force that affects political, social, ethical, and environmental. The ancient Greeks, such as Plato and Aristotle, who lived in aristocratic societies, rejected discourse on technology as unworthy. Social, political, and theoretical activities, rather than technical, were deemed as the highest forms. Plato, for instance, alluded to the artisans merely as the cheapest form of metal compared to gold associated with the philosopher-rulers, while silver is equivalent to the warrior class. Technological change, defined as "progress," is seen as an inevitable process in modern history. This paper explored issues of globalization and the implications of technology, employing crucial viewpoints of Martin Heidegger, acknowledged as one of the powerful and influential philosophers of the 20th century. Specifically, this paper explored “machination (Machenschaft)” and Heidegger’s Technik (Technology) or Gestell (Enframing). Machination is not just human conduct but the act of manipulation. It is a revelation of beings as a whole as exploitable and manipulable objects. The world seems to be a collection of present-at-hand thing with no intrinsic meaning or purpose, a cold place where we cannot put down any roots. All we can do is calculate and control. We observe and measure everything. We make things go faster and faster. Thus, there is a need to discuss and recognize issues related to technology. Heidegger's thoughts offer analytic tools that contribute to a critical understanding of the multidimensional effects, risks, and possibilities brought about by modernity and its globalization..

Colossus of Rhodes: Where It Stood and How It Was Made The author, just as Ursula Vedder, who has expressed the same opinion recently, has been long sure that the place where the Colossus of Rhodes was located was the acropolis of the town of Rhodes. The paper includes also some arguments that have not been presented by the German scholar. At first, some source information concerning the Colossus has been briefly summarized. For instance, the expression in APV, 171 (Overbeck 1543), ou gar hyper pelagos monon anthesan alla kai en ga, may be understood as confirming its location in the acropolis: “it stood not only close to the sea, but also on the earth.” In fact, there it would have loomed over the land and the sea, and, as big as it was, it could be seen from a distance. The text by Philo of Byzantium is not credible, as it was written quite late. Then the problem has been analyzed critically. As regards the legend of Colossus bestriding the entrance to the harbor, one may add to the already listed counterarguments that for static reasons a piece of sculpture shaped that way would have needed a third footing attached to the sea bottom at the harbor entrance, which would have made the ships’ access to the harbor difficult. Besides, such a pose of a god would have seemed a little indecent. A hypothesis that situates the Colossus at the end of a pier in the Mandraki Bay, preferred by many scholars, also has its weak points. Placed there, the construction site would have been too small, particularly that construction took at least twelve years, and it would have been difficult to move building materials along the narrow and long pier which under such circumstances could not be used as part of the harbor. According to Strabo (XIV, 2, 5) the harbor was accessible only to authorized personnel. Was it then a good location for a work of art intended to glorify the people of Rhodes? Even if the Colossus had been accessible there, it would have been visible only in a shortened perspective, in frog’s eye view. Still, the most important was the problem of proper display of the statue. Placed on the pier, it would have to turn its back either to the town, or to the sea, and in both cases connotations would have been unwelcome. Such details were essential for ancient Greeks. For static and constructional reasons, one must also reject a hypothesis that the Colossus put his palm over the eyes, as if examining the horizon. If it is true that the relics of the statue remained for several hundred years intact, they would have blocked access to the harbor since most probably they would have fallen into the sea. Besides, would the iron elements have resisted corrosion well enough to be recognizable? Placed on the pier, the Colossus would have been invisible to the crews of ships approaching the town from the west and the same would have been true had it been situated at the present location of the palace of the Great Masters of the Knights Hospitaller. The placement of the statue in the sanctuary of Helios at the present corner of Sofouli and Khimaras streets is also improbable, since the area is really small and the Colossus would not have made a prominent component of the town skyline. Hence, the acropolis must have been the most convenient place, just as in other Greek towns, particularly in Athens where it was the site of the city patron’s worship. Some scholars argue that the temple in the acropolis was dedicated to Apollo, but when the Colossus was constructed Apollo was commonly identified with Helios who was the most important patron of the island. The statue, with his face turned to the east – the town and the sea – might have stood near that temple (ill. 1-2), towering over it. From the west, the steep rock of the acropolis practically made it impossible to watch the Colossus from the western shore, while from the sea it was visible only as a silhouette, an orientation point for the approaching ships (ill. 3), particularly if it was gilded like the statue of Athena Promachos in Athens. This can actually be the origin of the legend that the Colossus of Rhodes was also a lighthouse. Situated in the acropolis, the statue would have been visible both from the town and the sea on both sides of the island. If the damaged Colossus remained intact for centuries, it was because removing it from the acropolis was much more difficult than removing from the wharf. The noun “colossus” originally meant “something towering” (cf. Colossae and Colophon, towns upon hills). The other part of the paper focuses on the technology of construction. Some scholars were too eager to draw from Philo’s description conclusions about the Colossus’ structure and the building methods applied. If the statue had stood at the end of the pier, most likely it would not have been hilled up since the area was too small. Due to the pressure of dirt, boarding such an embankment (A. Gabriel’s claim) would have required 40-45 meter long struts for which there was no room. Moreover, with each subsequent raising of the embankment the struts would have to be multiplied and made much longer, which would have been both costly and technologically challenging. With each new layer of dirt, founding furnaces would have to be removed (as, according to Gabriel, they were located on the embankment) and then put back. A high embankment would have required the use of gigantic ladders, unstable and dangerous. What is more, it would have made it impossible to control the form of the work in progress. All that would have been irrational, while ancient Greeks do not really deserve such a charge. In the author’s opinion, the Colossus was erected within a wooden scaffolding. Founding particular elements of the statue on site was rather unlikely. An external dirt coat would not have helped since there was no clay core inside it, which would have made the alloy’s cooling speed radically unequal. Partial casting is also unlikely as it would have required a 1:1 model (30-35 meters high). Had the model been smaller, errors in calculating detailed measurements would have been inevitable. The author believes that the Colossus of Rhodes was made of hammered bronze sheets riveted to the inner metal skeleton. Such a technique made vertical transportation easier and allowed the constructors to correct the process of montage by bending the sheets whenever necessary. It cannot be excluded that the heads of the rivets and lines of contact between the sheets were masked with solders that did not require much alloy, although in higher sections of the statue the wind would have cooled it quite rapidly. The noun “colossus” did not originally imply a gigantic size but only a slightly archaic look of the sculpture so that the Colossus of Rhodes might have been somewhat similar to very ancient and artistically primitive stiff statues of Helios. On the other hand, it might have alluded to the mythic Telchins who were the first to make statues of gods. (For static reasons, contrapposto was out of the question in the statues of that size, besides it would have been impossible to fill its interior with stones.) Another aspect of making the Colossus look archaic was the use of a modified technique of sphyrelaton. In the author’s opinion, the base of the statue and maybe its higher parts as well, up to the level of ankles, contained carefully sized and braced blocks of stone. They were drilled through to hold the lower ends of the metal internal skeleton made according to the schema of a spatial grid, perhaps used on that occasion for the first time in history. Such a fixture protected the Colossus from the wind pressure so effectively that it remained standing for dozens of years, being vulnerable to earthquakes. The fallen Colossus must have looked like a debris of rods and tin, while the stones from the fixture could be seen in the “abyss” (Plinius), below the level of the ankles, where the structure was actually bent (it must have been bent there rather than at the level of the knees, since looking inside the ruin was easy: the ankles were situated about two meters above the base.) The third footing point might have been camouflaged with some attribute (a spear or a torch). It cannot be excluded that originally Chares had been planning a statue half the final size, similar to the previously known colossal pieces of sculpture, but the pride of the people of Rhodes, emulating Athenians, made them want a Colossus twice as big (Sextus Empiricus, pros mathem., VII, 107 n.). Making the statue look archaic and using an old technology plus some innovations allowed Chares to make their extravagant wish come true. The archaic look might have been achieved thanks to a reference to some old statue of Helios, which perhaps could be found in the neighboring temple. The torso might have been topped with the head, cast separately, although the trouble with placing it so high makes one doubt it.

Sacrificial Tradition and Religion during the Early Iron Age in South Scandinavia – with Special Reference to Settlement SacrificesSacrificial customs and religion during the Early Iron Age (500 BC–400 AD) has occupied archaeologists from the infancy of archaeology. Most would probably agree that the religion was primarily fertility related, originating as it was in the existing peasant society. The literature does not reflect any disagreement about the religion of the Early Iron Age being polytheistic and consequently concerned a variety of gods. However, it is still unknown how the religion was integrated in the everyday life, and under which conditions it was practiced.The research interest and the overall synthesis framework have especially addressed sacrifices in bogs and wetlands (for instance weapon sacrifices, bog bodies, deposited earthenware, anthropomorphic wooden figures, domestic animals, cauldrons, ring sacrifices, etc.). Strongly simplified, the existing consensus may be expressed in one single sentence: The overall society-related sacrificial traditions develop from being almost exclusively connected with wetland areas during the Early Iron Age (until c.400 AD) to being primarily connected with dry land after this time, cf. Fig. 1.The question is whether – based on the intense data collection over the recent decades – archaeology can or should maintain this very simple picture of the development of the sacrificial traditions and the religions during the Iron Age? Is it possible that we – rooted in for instance narrow definitions of sacrificial finds, habitual thinking, and a “delusion” consisting of the numerous well-preserved, well-documented, spectacular, and impressive finds of bog sacrifices – fail to see numerous forms of deposits, which (as opposed to the impressive finds of sacrifices in bogs) are hidden in the archaeological material?The settlements of the Iron Age have been excavated in large numbers over the recent decades, and it is the ritual finds from these localities that provide the background for this article.The ritual deposits from the settlements can be divided into two superior groups distinguished by the physical context. One comprises sacrifices made to constructions, which are characterized by being directly connected to a specific structure; the other encompasses settlement sacrifices that are to a higher degree characterized by an overriding affiliation to the settlement. The establishment of a sacrifice definition suitable for scanning the archaeological material for relevant finds is of vital importance. As the definition should not beforehand restrict the search through the material, it is important not to narrow the basis by concentrating only on the physical characteristics of the individual artefacts. The general idea behind the present presentation is that the different ritual dimensions of a society are internally connected as they function within the same overall conventions and, as a consequence, make up parts of a general mental structure, which can leave physically recognizable traces across the different ritual dimensions, cf. Fig. 2. This principal viewpoint creates a theoretical starting point for my work and the established definition of sacrificial finds: All intentionally deposited objects, which analytically show significant similarities as regards their physical appearance and/or their deposition context with other recognized ritual objects/contexts, and which are closely connected to these in time and space, should, when analysed, be considered sacrificial finds.The British religious historian, Ninian Smart, describes religion as consisting of seven thematically describing situations, which – albeit not completely unconnected – may be described individually:1) A dogmatic and philosophical dimension, comprising doctrine systems.2) A mythical and narrative dimension, comprising tales of the deities, of the creation, etc.3) An ethical and judicial dimension, comprising the consequences of the religion in relation to the shaping of the life of the individual.4) A social and institutional dimension comprising organisations and institutions that tie together the individual religious society.5) An empirical and emotional dimension comprising the individual’s experience of god and the divine.6) A ritual and practical dimension comprising prayer, sacrifices, worship, etc.7) A materiel dimension comprising architecture, art, sacred places, buildings, and iconography.As archaeologists, we have a very limited possibility of investigating the very thoughts behind the practiced religion. It is therefore natural to concentrate to a higher extent on the overall setting for it – the ritual dimension and the materiel dimension respectively. The ritual dimension and in particular its sacrificial aspect is traditionally divided into groups characterised by their significance level within the religion as such.1) The first and most “important” group consists of cult rituals. These are characterized by being calendar rites based on the myths of the religion or the history of the people, and by playing a part in the events of the year.2) The next group comprises transition rites (rite de passage), which follow the life cycle of the individual.3) The last group comprises rites of crises, which serve the purpose of averting danger, illness, etc.It is important to realize that the two first ritual groups are predictable cyclic rituals addressing the gods, the myths, and/or the people/the individual respectively. Only the third and least central group of rituals is determined by non-predictable and “not-always” occurring incidences. On this background, it becomes central to analyse, which category one is facing when one wants to assess its importance for the religion as such, in order to evaluate the primary character of the religion.In an attempt to understand the overall importance of a specific ritual practice, one cannot ignore a very complicated problem, which is to evaluate whether the sacrifices were practiced by single individuals or by a larger group of people as part of more common and society-supporting rituals. The issue of the relation between different sacrifice types and the groups causing these has been addressed repeatedly. Often, narrow physical interpretation frames as to who sacrificed what are advanced (i.e. Fig. 3). However, the question is how suitable are these very narrow and rigid interpretation models? As mentioned above, a sacrifice is defined by the intention (context) that caused it rather than by the specific physical form of the object!The above mentioned methodical and theoretical issues provide the background for the author’s investigation of the archaeological sources, in which he focused especially on the relationship between ritual actions as they are expressed in bog deposits and in burial grounds and measured them against the contemporary finds from the settle­ments.The analysis of the archaeological material is based on those find groups (sacrifices of cauldrons, magnificent chariots, humans, animals, metals, and weapons), which have traditionally been presented as a proof that society supporting and more community influenced ritual sacrifices were carried out beside the bogs.The examination of the material supports that sacrifices of cauldrons, magnificent chariots, humans, animals, and earthenware are found in both settlements and wetlands (Figs. 4-12), and that the deposits seem to follow superior ritual conventions, i.e. Fig. 2. The sacrifices were not made in fixed sacred places but in a momentary sacred context, which returns to its daily secular sphere once the rituals have been carried out. Often, the ceremony consists of a ritual cutting up of the sacrificed object, and the pars pro toto principle occurs completely integrated in connection with both burial customs, wetland sacrifice customs, and settlement sacrifice customs. Sacrifices often occur as an expression of a rite de passage connected to the structures, fields, or infrastructure of the village. However, the repeated finds of earthenware vessels, humans, and animals in both wetland areas and in the villages indicates that fertility sacrifices were made regularly as part of the cyclic agricultural world. This places the find groups in a central position when it comes to understanding the religious landscape of the Early Iron Age. In a lot of respects, the settlement finds appear as direct parallel material to the contemporary wetland-related sacrificial custom and so one must assume that major religious events also took place in the settlements, for instance when a human or a cauldron was handed over to the next world. Both the selection of sacrificial objects, the form of depositing, and the preceding ceremonial treatment seem to follow superior ritual structures applying to both funerary rites and wetland sacrifices in Iron Age society.Often, the individual settlement-related sacrificial find seems to be explained by everyday doings, as largely all sacrifice-related objects of the Early Iron Age have a natural affiliation with the settlement and the daily housekeeping. However, it is clear that if the overwhelming amount of data is made subject to a comprehensive and detailed contextual analysis, settlement related find groups and attached action patterns appear, which have direct parallels in the ritual interpretation platform of the bog context. These parallels cannot be explained by pure practical or coincidence-related explanation models!As opposed to ploughed-up Stone Age axe deposits or impressive bronze depots from the Bronze Age and gold depots from the Late Iron Age, a ploughed-up collection of either earthenware, bones, human parts, etc. are not easily explained as sacrificial deposits. However, much indicates that the sacrificial settlement deposits of the Iron Age were not placed very deeply, and so they occur in the arable soil of later times. We must therefore assume that these very settlement-related sacrificial deposits from the Early Iron Age are extremely underrepresented in the available archaeological material. In order to clarify the sacrifice traditions in the Early Iron Age settlements, it is therefore necessary to have localities, which comply with a very rarely occurring find situation. The sites must have fine preservation conditions for bone material and, equally important, thick, continuously accumulated deposits of culture layers, as these preserve the usually shallowly deposited sacrifices. Further, it would be a great advantage if the site has a high degree of settlement continuity, as under optimal conditions, the investigation should comprise the activities of several centuries on the same spot.The Aalborg area holds Early Iron Age localities, which meet all of the above-mentioned conditions – for instance the settlement mound of Nr. Tranders, from which a few results will be pointed out. Time wise, the locality covers all of the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the fist part of the Early Roman Iron Age. Around ten farm units have been excavated from the settlement, each of which can be traced across a period of several hundred years. The houses were constructed with chalk floors (cf. Fig. 13), which give optimal preservation conditions for bone material, and the culture deposits assumed a thickness of up to 2 metres. Around 150 houses were excavated at this site (cf. Fig. 14). The author systematically checked the comprehensive find material, and starting from the theoretical and methodical approach presented in this article, was able to isolate 393 sacrificial deposits – a very comprehensive material in comparison with the sacrificial wetland sites!In 279 cases, it was possible to isolate sacrifices in connection with constructions. These comprised such different items as Stone Age axes, fossils, dress pins, a bronze fibula, iron knives, iron arrowheads, a bronze ring, an iron axe, various pottery sacrifices, amber, bone stilettos, bone spearheads, a bone arrowhead, complete animal skeletons, animal skulls and jaws, various animal bones, an infant, humane skull fragments, etc. (cf. Fig. 15). Just as the sacrificed objects themselves vary, so does the sacrifice intensity in the different constructions. Thus, houses without any registered construction sacrifices occur, whereas other constructions showed up to 5-15 sacrifices. These intense sacrifice activities are mainly connected with the later settlement phases from the Late Pre-Roman and the Early Roman Iron Age.The most ordinary find groups are different animal bones, pottery, Stone Age axes, fossils, and various pointed or edged tools. It is a characteristic of the construction sacrifices that they almost never show any signs of having been burnt prior to the depositing. The fact that all finds are not comparable merely because they are related to a construction is obvious, as the find group comprises as different objects as a sea urchin and an infant! Whereas the first should probably be considered an amulet, human sacrifices are traditionally considered a far more radical and ultimate act, and thus a sacrifice concerning a wider circle than the individual household. The highly varied sacrifice material causes the traditional link between construction sacrifices and an extremely narrow celebrant group to be reassessed. The excavations at Nr. Tranders also stress the fact that the amount of registered construction sacrifices are highly dependant on the preservation conditions and context registration as well as an open mind towards ritual interpretations in a traditionally secular research setting.In 114 cases, it was possible to determine settlement sacrifices at Nr. Tranders (cf. Fig. 16). The variation between the sacrificed objects closely follows the above described construction sacrifice and bog sacrifice traditions – both as regards temporary intensity in the centuries around the birth of Christ and which objects were deposited. From a superior view, the settlement sacrifices are characterized by often having been deposited in small, independent sacrificial pits, which were merely dug down a few centimetres from the surface level of the time, and rarely more than 25 cm. This very limited deposition depth emphasizes the enormous problems and distorting factors, which are probably the reason why the settlement sacrifices are so anonymous in most Iron Age settlements. They were simply ploughed away! The dominating sacrificial animal in the settlements was the sheep, often a lamb. However, the dog, the horse, and the cow also occur frequently in the material, whereas the pig is rarely included in the finds. To judge from both settlement and structure sacrifices, the distribution of sacrificial animals seem to be a direct mirror image of the life basis of the Early Iron Age society in the Aalborg area.One ritual element in particular, however, fundamentally separates the group of settlement sacrifices from those connected to structures, namely fire. Whereas fire does not seem to be part of the ritual make-up concerning structure sacrifices, both burnt and unburnt sacrifices appear in the settlement sacrifice material (cf. Fig. 17 & 18). This condition is especially obvious when examining the deposited animal and human bones. The two maps on Fig. 19 show the finds of burnt and unburnt bone deposits respectively. On the background of these two plots (x, y, and z coordinates) the following analysis has been made: (interpolation “unburnt”)-(interpolation “burnt”), cf. Fig. 20. The analysis clearly points out that the relation between burnt and unburnt bone deposits is time related: the burnt deposits were made in the time before the birth of Christ, whereas the unburnt deposits were made during the following centuries. If this is related to the contemporary development of the grave custom in North Jutland, it is noteworthy that we can establish an obvious parallel development. Thus, the burial custom also changes around the beginning of the birth of Christ from a cremation grave custom to an inhumation grave custom. This coincidence probably indicates that within the two different religious and ritual contexts, the “ritual language” is to some degree identical when it comes to passing on humans and sacrificial animals.Irrespective of the superior sacrificial context – a bog, a lake, a field, a meadow, a structure, or a settlement – both the sacrifice intensity and the sacrificed objects seem to be based on objects from the daily household. As shown in the case of Nr. Tranders, the sacrifices occur in such large numbers on settlements with optimal preservation conditions that it is impossible to maintain the thesis that the Iron Age people had an especially one-sided preference for performing the sacrificial rituals in connection with wetland areas.As a supplement to the archaeological evidence, archaeologists have often sought support in historical accounts written by Romans in the centuries around the birth of Christ. The Roman historian Tacitus’ description of the religious activities of the Teutons is particularly describing and geographically differentiated. He mentions some general features such as the Teutons mainly worshipping Mercury (Mercury is the god of fertility, shepherds, etc.) and that they consider it a sacred duty even to bring him a human sacrifice on fixed days (i.e. a sacrifice cycle). Hercules and Mars (gods of strength and war) can only be reconciled with the allowed animal sacrifices. Besides, the Teutons consider it incompatible with the grandness of the heavenly powers to close them in behind walls and give them human features (cf. the lacking iconography). Tacitus´ overall description of the religion of the Teutons is thus primarily dealing with fertility sacrifices in relation to Mercury and the sacrifice of humans on certain days, i.e. a sacrifice cycle.More specifically, Tacitus describes the religious practice performed by tribes in South Scandinavia and North Germany at the time immediately succeeding the birth of Christ:“Nor in one of these nations does aught remarkable occur, only that they universally join in the worship of Nerthus; that is to say, the Mother Earth [Nerthus is phonetically concordant with the name Njord, a fertility goddess known from Norse mythology]. Her they believe to interpose in the affairs of man, and to visit countries. In an island of the ocean stands the wood Castum: in it is a chariot dedicated to the Goddess, covered over with a curtain, and permitted to be touched by none but the Priest. Whenever the Goddess enters this her holy vehicle, he perceives her; and with profound veneration attends the motion of the chariot, which is always drawn by yoked cows. Then it is that days of rejoicing always ensue, and in all places whatsoever which she descends to honour with a visit and her company, feasts and recreation abound. They go not to war; they touch no arms; fast laid up is every hostile weapon; peace and repose are then only known, then only beloved, till to the temple the same priest reconducts the Goddess when well tired with the conversation of mortal beings. Anon the chariot is washed and purified in a secret lake, as also the curtains; nay, the Deity herself too, if you choose to believe it. In this office it is slaves who minister, and they are forthwith doomed to be swallowed up in the same lake. Hence all men are possessed with mysterious terror; as well as with a holy ignorance what that must be, which none see but such as are immediately to perish.”Traditionally, the text is solely related to the numerous bog finds from the period. The question is, however, whether this is appropriate? Even a very limited analysis of the content of the text clearly reveals that the described religious exertion and the traces it must have left in the archaeological material can only be partly described from the numerous sacrificial bogs. The account of Nerthus may be split into two separate parts. One part that describes the common religious actions and another part comprising rituals carried out by a narrower group of people. The ritual mentioned with a severely limited circle (priest and slaves) comprises the washing of the goddess’ chariot by a lake and the succeeding sacrifice of the slaves chosen for the task. Far larger does the participant group appear throughout the rest of the Nerthus story. At first, there is a short mentioning of Nerthus driving about to the different tribes! This may be interpreted in such a way that the rituals described comprise actions, which take place where people are primarily moving about, i.e. in the villages! Perhaps the larger settlements of the Early Iron Age play a central part in relation to such common society-supporting ritual traditions. Tacitus decribes the physical context to be able to change its rules and norms at this sudden religious activity (cf. “They go not to war; they touch no arms.”) and in this way change sphere from an everyday, secular context to a religious context – a sacrosanct condition arises. The settlement thus enters different spheres at different times! Tacitus´ account of the execution of and the setting for the practiced ritual structure thus closely follows the structure known from archaeological excavations of bogs and settlements.How, then, does the religious practice of the Early Iron Age – and its sacrificial part in particular – appear on the background of the analyses above? (Fig. 22). May the sacrificial activity in actual fact be divided into two overriding groups, as was previously the tradition – individual structure sacrifices on settlements and both common and individual sacrifices in wetland areas – or is it necessary to revise and differentiate this view of Early Iron Age religion and the sacrificial customs in particular?The very unbalanced picture of the ritual displays of the society, involving chosen bogs as an almost “church-like” forum, is neither expressed in the archaeological material nor in the few written sources. On the contrary, the sacrificial activity appears as a very complex area, completely connected to the time and the regional development of the society of which it was part. Sacrificial objects primarily comprising everyday objects in the form of food, earthenware, animals, and humans did not differ from the secular culture until the actual ritual act took place.Considering the fact that the sacrificial objects comprised a wide range of everyday items, it is perhaps not so strange that the context in which the objects were sacrificed also varied considerably. It thus seems as if the conventional sacrificial customs were attached to the complete active resource area of the settlements, both in the form of wetland areas, and to the same degree of settlements. The conditions concerning burial sites, field systems, grazing areas, border markings, etc. still appear unclear, although it can be established that here, too, ritual activities took place according to the same conventions.The exertion of the rituals constituted a just as varied picture during the Early Iron Age as did the choice of sacrificial objects and place of sacrifice. Thus, we see objects deposited intact, as pars pro toto, smashed, burnt, etc. In spite of this very complex picture, patterns do seem to occur. There are thus strong indications that the rituals connected to settlement sacrifices of humans and animals during the Early Iron Age are closely connected with the rituals attached to the burial custom, and as such mirror a conventional communication form between humans and gods. Conversely, it seems as if structure sacrifices through all of the Early Iron Age primarily occur unburnt and that the ritual make-up connected to the finds of structure sacrifices is thus detached from the previously mentioned types of sacrifice, whereas the actual selection of the sacrificial objects seem to follow the same pattern.It is a characteristic of the ritual environments of the Early Iron Age that they appear momentary and as part of the daily life in the peasant community. Much thus indicates that permanent sacred environments and buildings did not exist to any particularly large degree. This does not imply that people would not return to the same sacred sacrificial places but rather that in between the sacrifices, these places formed part of the daily life, just as all the other parts of the cultural landscape.The examination of both published and unpublished material shows that the settlements were parallel contexts to the wetland areas and that these two contexts probably supplemented each other within the religious landscape of the Early Iron Age. In the light of the sacrificial find material there is no need to make a strong distinction between the religious societal roles of the settlements as opposed to the wetlands. The context (wetland and settlement) cannot in itself be understood as a useful parameter for determining whether we are dealing with large collective society-supporting ritual sites or sites connected to a minor village community. The question is whether the variation of sacrificial contexts should be related to different deities and myths, i.e. the mythical and narrative dimension of the religion, rather than to the size of the group of participants. On a few settlements, metal vessels, chariots, and humans were sacrificed – find types that are traditionally associated with the bogs and with groups of participants from a larger area than the individual settlement. This interpretation should also be applied to the settlements.In spite of the fact that from an overall perspective, the practiced religion in South Scandinavia seems homogenous, there is neither archaeological nor historical evidence for the presence of real ritual and religious units comprising large areas, such as complete provinces. However, we must assume that sacrifices of for instance humans, chariots, cauldrons, and the large weapon accumulations were made by groups of people exceeding the number of inhabitants in a single settlement. We thus have no reason for questioning the traditional concept that chosen wetland areas functioned as sacred places from time to time to major sections of the population – whether the sacrifices were brought about by for instance acts of war or as part of a cyclic ritual. The question is whether the large settlements of the Early Iron Age did not play a similar part to a hinterland consisting of a number of minor settlements, as the comprehensive finds from for instance the settlement mounds near Aalborg seem to indicate.During the Late Roman Iron Age and Early Germanic Iron Age, the previously so comprehensive sacrificial activity connected to the wetlands declined considerably. Parallel to this, the frequent settlement-related fertility sacrifices of bones and earthenware vessels in the Early Iron Age recede into the background in favour of knives, lances, craftsmen’s tools, and prestigious items representing the changed society of these centuries. During the Late Iron Age, the iconographic imagery, after having been throttled down for almost a millennia, regains a central role within the religion. This happens by virtue of a varied imagery on prestigious items such as bracteates and “guldgubber,” cf. Fig. 21. Seen as a whole, it seems as if – parallel to the development of the society during the Late Roman Iron Age and the Early Germanic Iron Age – there is a dimension displacement within the ritual and religious world, which manifests itself in an increased focus on the material dimension. The question is whether this very dimension displacement is not reflecting the religious development from the fertility-related Vanir faith to the more elitist Æsir faith.Jesper HansenOdense Bys Museer Translated by Annette Lerche Trolle

This article traces the history of the fine art of decorative binding in India, Egypt, Central Asia and Europe where it was mostly prevalent during ancient and medieval times and the cross cultural influences. Early modern era too had beautiful work on binding covers. Some works have even been called ‘treasure bindings’ made for important people in high social positions. The book bindings are still available across libraries, museums and private collections. Great care was taken to make the binding of a revered text strong and look appealing. The ancient and medieval times craftsmen used various methods and materials like wood, leather to make the bindings and used ivory, metal and pigments for embellishment. The article briefly describes the technique of book binding and showcases some specimens of fine book covers from across the world.

Traditional arts and professions are the carriers of our culture because they carry historical background. For this reason, traditional arts and professions and cultural heritage are easily transferred to future generations. While knife was a tool that facilitated human life in the early periods, it turned into an art in time. The art of knife and the techniques and methods used in this art have been used for many years in history. Today, there are many artists who want to prevent the art of knife from turning into a craft. They intend to take this art to an even more advanced level. In this study, we interviewed three artists as samples who dealt with knifemaking by addressing the art of knife in Düzce. Interviews and works with the artists are visualized in this work. Thus, what has been done about the art of knife in Düzce, which methods and techniques are applied have been revealed. Along with the previous methods applied to this art, traditional Turkish arts such as marbling, illumination and miniature were used as a surface decoration technique in the art of knife which is a branch of Turkish metal arts. The aim of the study is to show the path that knife art has taken from its historical background to the present day and to show the feasibility of new methods in this field and thus to indicate that knife art is open to development. It is believed that this work, in which interviews and images obtained are evaluated using a descriptive analysis, will contribute to literature related to traditional art and the art of knife. Keywords: Knife art, jewelry, metal art, cultural heritage, traditional art

In this work history of world landscape art development as well as texture usage in abstract landscape is researched. Latvian and world artist abstract landscape paintings are viewed, that had experiments with texture usage, techniques and materials, which helped to create these landscapes. Work of Latvian artists, such as Rūdolf Pinnis “Forest Image”, whose works generalized nature image, landscape art of Boris Bērziņš, paintings of Jānis Pauļuks are analyzed as well as art of foreign artists, such as Zao Wou Ki, Peter Doig etc. Attention was put to the modern texture creation, where different materials are used, such as sawdust, sand, marble, metal bits etc. Within works of abstract landscapes different painting styles can be found as an influential and in this work main styles, which influenced beginning of abstract landscape are found to be impressionism, expressionism, symbolism.Research methods: theoretical, literature sources as well as research and analysis of internet sources.

The article presents the first detailed examination of the life and work of Karel Boublík (1869 – 1925), a Lviv architect of Czech origin, who from 1897 to 1914 designed many residential buildings in the city. Boublík also headed the Czech Conversation Club (Česká beseda) in Lviv – the oldest Czech association in the world outside the original Czech lands – where he was also an amateur actor and director. The activities of Karel Boublík assumed an important place in the artistic life of Lviv at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century; consequently, it is important and urgent not only for the study of the architecture of the city to research, preserve and popularize the heritage of this artist. His personality and work have not yet been examined in detail in the intentions of art history and in his homeland, in the Czech Republic, Boublík is still unknown among experts. The purpose of the article is to uncover and define the specifics of Boublík’s architectural legacy. The study is based on a comprehensive approach, using biographical and historical-cultural methods, including artistic analysis. Archival sources and information from the press at the time are an integral part of the study. Boublík’s buildings are an example of the stylistic transition from Historicism in its Neo-Baroque version to Art Nouveau and the second wave of Historicism in 1909 – 1914, with elements of modernized historical styles. His buildings were exceptional in their originality, with a special emphasis on sculptural decoration and metal ornaments. The architect’s tendency to highlight protruding spherical and prismatic forms has been demonstrated, with a sharp vertical accent of roofs, often pyramidal, with complex ends – with multi-level wavy and rounded attics, towers and dormers.

Many Sadat's migrated from the land of the Arabic to Iran were choosen Mazandaran as a seat of government and a safe place for residence. Burial place of Sadat Shia is located in towns and villages of Mazandaran, as a Alavian's capital. In the history Those interested in prophet Mohhammad's family and also shia government have constructed magnificent tomb for propaganda and consolidation of Shia government. These tomb have protected valuable and important samples of Islamic art and architecture. One of the most important shrine that was considered by people, religious leaders and historians is shrine Abraham's tomb in Babolsar. In this tomb that is one of the 9th century hegira/15th century AD in Mazandaran, Beautiful and valuable Inscriptions and decorations, such as tile work, plaster barry, enshrine metal, wooden doors and grave fund, have been used in architectural decoration. Article purposes: Access to Quranic texts and religious Concept in decorations of holy Abraham in Babolsar. Recognizing the spiritual and religious Dimension of inscriptions and traditional art in the Abraham tomb. Article questions: Which Quranic Narratives and inscriptions are used in decorations of Abraham tomb? What is the spiritual message of Quranic verses and inscriptions in the decorations of Abraham holy tomb in Babolar? Raw data has been collected from the research on Abraham holy tomb in babolsar. Additionally, written sources and documents are found in libraries. The descriptive-analytical researches method has been used to explain the data. According to the study Quranic inscriptions, names of God and geometric and herbal motifs in traditional art of this tomb are manifesting the otherwise concepts of Islam in shape of forms and colors in heaven space of studied tomb. These traditional arts and religious contents are reminding and are stabilizing muslim religious beliefs.

Candlesticks, which are functionally utilized as a means of illumination in religious and civil architecture, have also reflected symbolic meanings in many beliefs, especially within the framework of light symbolism, and this symbolism has also affected the design of the works. Candlesticks produced from materials such as ceramic, glass and metal were produced in different sizes according to the place they were used and named accordingly. One of the places where candlesticks used in mosques in religious architecture in Turkish-Islamic societies draw attention to with their symbolic meanings as well as functionality are dervish lodges. In this study, after giving information about candlesticks as a type of work and the functional and symbolic aspects of the concepts of candlestick-candle-candle-cerag in Sufism and sects, thirteen lodge candlesticks, which are in the Çankırı Museum and brought to the museum from the Çankırı Taş Mescid Mevlevihane, are the discipline of art history, in this context, they were introduced and evaluated by dating in terms of material-technical-ornamentation. In this study, it is aimed to determine the place of the lodge candlesticks in Turkish-Islamic art by examining the works within the framework of the art history discipline, as well as the symbolic expressions in the Sufi literature, and to contribute to the literature for further research with the studies on this subject. Although cerag and oil lamps, which are among the lighting tools used in lodges, are mentioned a lot in the sources, both written and visual works and works dated to the 13th-14th centuries, which came to museums from different dervish lodges, show that the candelabra was also used as a lighting tool in the lodge since the early periods, and those adorned with herbal, geometric, figural and written compositions as well as it has also shown the artistic aspects of these works. Nowadays, lodge candlesticks in different museums and collections differ in form. In general, the candlesticks in the squares are similar, however there are also different examples such as the Kırk Budak Candlestick in Bektaşiyya or the eighteen-armed candelabra in Mevleviyye. In the formation of these different forms, the symbolic reflections of the Sufi literature in general and the relevant sect were effective within the framework of Islamic belief. In addition to the symbolic elements that affect the form of candlesticks, there are also some meanings which represent these items. Candlesticks in dervish lodges, like cerag andcandes, were an element that reminds the light of Allah, the Prophet Muhammad, the Qur'an, the leader of the relevant sect, which must be followed constantly by the dervish in the course of his journey and enable him to walk on his path. While the cerags and candles among the lighting tools in the lodges, especially those belonging to the Bektashi order, are the subject of different researches with special names and symbolic aspects in their designs, there are few studies on the lodge candlesticks, which are important examples of Turkish Islamic art with their designs and the symbolic meanings they reflect such as oil cerags and candles. All candlesticks reviewed in this study are metal and were produced by forging and casting techniques. While some of the works with different candle holder, there are also single examples which body and pedestal forms were produced in pairs. There is no decoration element in some of the works except the tulip form seen on the candle holders and the writing texts. When the candlesticks without the date inscription are compared with the similar foundation and lodge candlesticks in different museums and considering the historical process of the Çankırı Mevlevihane, it is seen that they are examples from the 19th century. Nevertheless, while it is realized from the inscription on many candlesticks in different collections that they are foundation works, in the studies there is no any record in the pieces. Apart from dating, another important thing is the issue of the artist. There is no any artist-master expression on the works. However, when the works are compared with the candlesticks utilized in different areas belonging to the same period, it is seen that they reflect the common language of the period because they exhibit the common forms of candlestick found in the 19th century. These examples of the pieces, which reflect the characteristics of the period in which they were produced, are important examples of Turkish-Islamic metal art with their forms and symbolic meanings.

Due to their production sites, as well as to how they are processed and destroyed in stars, the light elements are excellent tools to investigate a number of crucial issues in modern astrophysics: from stellar structure and non-standard processes at work in stellar interiors to age dating of stars; from pre-main sequence evolution to the star formation histories of young clusters and associations and to multiple populations in globular clusters; from Big Bang nucleosynthesis to the formation and chemical enrichment history of the Milky Way Galaxy and its populations, just to cite some relevant examples. In this paper, we focus on lithium, beryllium, and boron (LiBeB) and on carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen (CNO). LiBeB are rare elements, with negligible abundances with respect to hydrogen; on the contrary, CNO are among the most abundant elements in the Universe, after H and He. Pioneering observations of light-element surface abundances in stars started almost 70 years ago and huge progress has been achieved since then. Indeed, for different reasons, precise measurements of LiBeB and CNO are difficult, even in our Sun; however, the advent of state-of-the-art ground- and space-based instrumentation has allowed the determination of high-quality abundances in stars of different type, belonging to different Galactic populations, from metal-poor halo stars to young stars in the solar vicinity and from massive stars to cool dwarfs and giants. Noticeably, the recent large spectroscopic surveys performed with multifiber spectrographs have yielded detailed and homogeneous information on the abundances of Li and CNO for statistically significant samples of stars; this has allowed us to obtain new results and insights and, at the same time, raise new questions and challenges. A complete understanding of the light-element patterns and evolution in the Universe has not been still achieved. Perspectives for further progress will open up soon thanks to the new generation instrumentation that is under development and will come online in the coming years.

When you sit down to eat your delicious meal, it's better that you don't know that most of what you are eating came off a plane from Miami. And before it got on a plane in Miami, who knows where it came from? A good guess is that it came from a place like Antigua first, where it was grown dirt-cheap, went to Miami, and came back. There is a world of something in this, but I can't go into it right now.-- Jamaica Kincaid (14) The exhibit of Argentinean Art that recently travelled to the Phoenix Art Museum in the United States, Cantos Paralelos: Visual Parody in Contemporary Argentinean Art1, features the works of nine contemporary artists, among them Victor Grippo, whose fascination with food pairs economy and chemistry, politics and psychology. Three of his works in the exhibition are particularly interesting to students of food and culture who wish to appreciate art which reveals the structures that become relevant when one begins to consider the larger cultural implications of food: Analogy IV2, The Baker's Little Case3, and The Artist's Dinner4. These works explore presences and absences and so call attention to processes by which the existence of an object outside of the self is established as processes of "othering", as processes involved discursively with food. The art of Victor Grippo exists, on one hand, as a representation of the "other", and, on the other hand, it participates in the structuring of that representation. It is thus made to be a representation of the process of "othering". His art, in other words, creates what it would represent. While Grippo questions the process by which discourse on food becomes discourse on the "other" -- and while he leaves us to understand that the movement from one to the other is itself a process of "othering" involving food and the self -- he presents us with a perspective on how this transformation could occur, suggesting that it is the effect of heat, the effect of the application of excessive heat, a technique of "blackening". NVictor Grippo's sculptural instalments using objects from everyday life encourage a new attention to the relationship between product and process in the making of art and food. Grippo plays with the existence of the work of art as "not-quite-product" through references to the Dada movement in the use of "ready-mades", found objects and everyday materials. In refusing to enter into a hierarchical system that informs the choice of artistic product represented, Grippo rethinks the relationship between product and process in the making both of food and art by simply choosing to valorise process. His work specifically addresses the tension between product and process in food manufacturing through the use of food objects in varying states where the effects of the process, baking or cooking, are visible -- a burnt loaf of bread in The Baker's Little Case, and in The Artist's Dinner, the comparison established, between a dried kernel of corn, a kernel of popped corn to whose initial state a little heat has been applied, and a burnt kernel of corn which has been heated too much and has thereby not been able to "pop". The clue to decoding the transformative process invoked by Grippo's The Artist's Dinner is that it is self-reflexive; it has to do with discourse itself. InThe Artist's Dinner, an installation containing plates of food on a table, Grippo combines object and text on one of the plates with the following equation that alternates between object and script: dried corn kernel (actual object on the plate) "+ heat =" piece of popcorn (actual object on the plate); dried corn kernel (object...) "+ excessive heat =" a burnt corn kernel (object...). While this "not-quite-product" is displayed as object -- we have the presentation of what is on the plate as a product like the other food items that sit on the other plates, but what is on this plate is actually the recipe for a process -- it makes manifest the process involved in the transformed food and which also makes apparent a demonisation of "blackness" that bases itself on ideas about form and function: the extreme case of heat application which results in blackness also results in a product that is unable to be consumed, and in relation to the object preceding it, a product that is wasteful. It is the sum of the visual and the textual, the visual effects of the heating process on the object combined with the listing of the elemental ingredients that make up the object, that offers itself as the discursive space in Grippo's works such as The Artist's Dinner and The Baker's Little Case. Victor Grippo has found a visual recipe for conveying the plasticity of the transformation of energy that occurs as energy crosses borders. This observation is applicable to food substances as well as to cultural substances which food comes to signify (a transformative process in itself). Grippo has found this recipe in his fascination with the effects of heat on various substances, how what we know as an element is altered, made "other" by heat. Societal politics are related to how food signifies cultural identity and it is social critique that ties other elements in Grippo's work together so that the process of transformation that is represented in his pieces is understood as a process of making "other", of "othering" in the cultural sphere. Grippo's work is a graphic (plastic) discourse on the nature of how the addition of heat works in a system of "othering", how discourses on food that would otherwise seem innocuous could be transformed when under "fire", that is, how extremes of process, when put into question, actually reveal cultural "othering". In both the context of the exhibition and in Argentina's larger political context, his perspective is from the "other's" side, as he who has been "othered". Victor Grippo, discussing the influence that his parents' lives had on his work, describes his experience of artistic development in the following terms: "a ceaseless clarity informed my curiosity, my search for a meaning: a path out of darkness towards a glimmer of light" (qtd. in Ramírez 224). His project verges on a confrontation with the notion of demonising that which is dark by associating what is dark with what is "other". The food items present in his work produce a critique of the Argentinean economy and class structure -- the foods are those of the poor: potatoes, eggs, bread -- as well as a critique of the place of the artist in Argentinean society: the sparse dinner is that of the artist, but the table is, in effect, empty, except for the viewer who does not partake but who just passes through the art exhibit. The emptiness of this set table evokes the mass disappearances of Argentinean citizens and intellectuals who have come to be known as "Los Desaparecidos" ("The Disappeared") and who are "present" as a recurring theme in the exhibition: whose presence is produced by the process of showing them to be absent, or of symbolically "othering". Grippo's articulation of the importance of food in constructing selfhood on a national scale and the importance of food in denying selfhood to those we wish to "other" on an international scale is countered by his choice of foods to include in the installations which acts as an examination of identity on a personal level: Grippo's parents were immigrants from Italy who settled in the province of Junín and whom Grippo refers to in this respect as "'eaters of garlic and onion' (and potatoes)" (qtd. in Ramírez 221, 224). His use of the potato is also symbolic of a larger identity that makes reference to the history of colonisation by the Europeans: the potato is native to the Americas and it was only introduced to Europe as a result of the Conquest. Grippo's vision of the process by which food becomes consciousness is an "en-lightening" vision of discourse as a process that transforms food into identity, and thus, by unmasking processes of "othering" food Grippo unmasks processes of "othering" identity. By exceeding the limits of a process by which a substance is transformed (i.e. through the application of too much "heat"), the product can be destroyed. He displays this with items of food in order to simultaneously display how the subjectivity, the identity of certain peoples can be destroyed. It is here that the ethics of Grippo's graphics comes "to light" in the sense of coming to be understood, as well as in the sense of being developed out of how he approaches heat, for the heating process itself remains invisible, its presence only invoked by the visible product, only apparent in the contrast between the piece of popcorn and the dried kernel of corn next to it; done even to "excess" the heating process remains invisible, however its presence is accused by the state of the product, in the display of the burnt corn kernel. The passage at the beginning of this text from Jamaica Kincaid's A Small Place talks about the power and the processes of transformation involved in the movement of food across borders. In this passage Kincaid echoes the dynamic found in the work of Victor Grippo, but where Grippo deals on an individual and national level, Kincaid takes an international approach. This larger scale that operates in A Small Place only reinforces the ideological nature of the dynamic played out in the works of both Grippo and Kincaid: the nature of the process of this transformation is driven by -- while at the same time it reproduces -- a system of political power that refuses to be made present in discourse that seeks to target it. It is this system to which Kincaid refers when she speaks of the "world of something" that is inherent in the global movement of food but which she cannot articulate; although it is this system that participates in processes of "othering", the system itself also remains "other". Grippo contributes to an understanding of this political system in attempting to pin down the contexts concerned by the movement of energy across borders: whether those borders are between the territories of self and other, between interior and exterior, or between the contrasted states of a product that has undergone a transformation. It is in the physical representations of these transformations into "other" that Grippo suggests a genealogy of discourse on how products refer to the processes that made them; how, whether it be in regard to food or in regard to the cultural "other", the effects of a process can be traced but the particulars of it remain hidden. Grippo's contribution reminds us what is lost through process. He reminds us that political and ideological processes, if taken to extreme limits, consume the very object they sought to produce. It is perhaps in the precarious balance between a consciousness of identity and an awareness of the object which represents it, as evidenced in Victor Grippo's work, that we are to find a recipe for undoing the process of making "other". Footnotes 1. The exhibition catalogue written by Mari Carmen Ramírez is available from Amazon.Com, and from the University of Texas Press, http://ftp.cc.utexas.edu/utpress/books/ramcap.html. The University of Texas has a website devoted to the exhibit, http://www.utexas.edu/cofa/hag/cantos2.html, and the Phoenix Art Museum's on-line archives of past exhibitions also has a site at http://www.phxart.org/index_events.html. 2. Analogy IV is a table where one half is covered by a white cloth and the other half is covered by a black cloth. On the white side there is a porcelain plate with three potatoes on it; there is a metal fork on one side of the plate and a metal knife on the other. The black side of the table repeats the same scene but in Plexiglas: there is a Plexiglas dish on which are three Plexiglas "potatoes" and which is flanked by a Plexiglas fork and knife set. 3. The Baker's Little Case (Homage to Marcel Duchamp) is a Plexiglas case containing a partial loaf of burnt bread. Underneath the bread is the title followed by the word equation: "flour + water + heat (excessive)". The case is a reference to Duchamp's use of the "valise" in his own work. 4. The Artist's Dinner consists of a large table with five stools seen through (or around) the frame of an open doorway and on which are placed four ceramic plates with food on them, and one empty plate. References Counihan, Carole, and Penny Van Esterik. Food and Culture: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 1997. De Certeau, Michel. Heterologies: Discourse on the Other. (Theory and History of Literature vol. 17.) Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis, Minnesota: U of Minneapolis P, 1986. Kincaid, Jamaica. A Small Place. New York: Plume, 1988. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980. Ramírez, Mari Carmen. Cantos Paralelos: Visual Parody in Contemporary Argentinean Art. University of Texas at Austin: Jack S. Blanton Museum of Art, 1999. Scapp, Ron, and Brian Seitz, eds. Eating Culture. Albany: State U of New York P, 1998. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Conquest of America. Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Harper, 1984. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Lynn Houston. "A Recipe for 'Blackened "Other"': Process and Product in the Work of Victor Grippo." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2.7 (1999). [your date of access] <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9910/grippo.php>. Chicago style: Lynn Houston, "A Recipe for 'Blackened "Other"': Process and Product in the Work of Victor Grippo," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2, no. 7 (1999), <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9910/grippo.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Lynn Houston. (1999) A recipe for "blackened 'other'": process and product in the work of Victor Grippo. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2(7). <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9910/grippo.php> ([your date of access]).

The quantification of the heat flow distribution in the metal cutting process depending on the cut material and the process parameters is a research area with a long history. However, a quantification of the heat flow distribution between chip, tool, and workpiece is still a not fully solved problem and remains a necessary input value for the further modeling of temperature fields and subsequent tool wear and thermal induced surface alterations, which may impair the workpiece functionality. Thus, the following publication shows the results of orthogonal cutting in order to investigate the heat flow distribution between the chip and workpiece. Therefore, the heat partitions in the cutting process were calculated by a thermodynamic methodology. This methodology considers the temperature rise in the workpiece and the chip, measured by thermography and pyrometry, as the effect of the cutting work dissipated into sensible heat. Four metals, Inconel 718, AISI 1045, Ti6Al4V, and AlMgSi0.5, were cut at varying undeformed chip thicknesses and cutting velocities. By formulating a dimensionless number for the cutting process, the Péclet number, the thermal diffusivity was included as an evaluation criterion of heat partitioning between the chip and workpiece across material properties and process settings. In this way, the validity of the Péclet number as an evaluation criterion for heat partitions in cutting and as a valuable heuristic for process design was confirmed. Another goal was to extend the state of the art approach of empirical process analysis by orthogonal cuts with regard to specific cutting forces into the thermal domain in order to provide the basis for further temperature modeling in cutting processes. The usage of the empirical data basis was finally demonstrated for the analytical modeling of temperature fields in the workpiece during milling. Therefore, the specific heat inputs into the workpiece measured in the orthogonal cuts were transferred to the milling process kinematics in order to model the heat flow into the workpiece during milling. This heat flow was used as input for an existing analytical model in order to predict stationary temperature fields in the milling process for the two-dimensional case.

«For a place to leave an impression on us, it must be made of time as well as space – of its past, its history, its culture» (Sciascia, 1987). Architecture is one the many disciplines which, due to their heteronomous nature, aspire to represent the past, present and future of a community. Just as the construction of buildings is not merely a response to a need, but rather an act that incorporates the concrete translation of desires and aspirations, so too do music, philosophy, and the figurative arts reflect contemporary themes in their evolution. The fragmentation of skills, the specialisation of knowledge, the rapid modification of the tools we work with, the digitalisation and hyperdevelopment of communication are all phenomena that have a substantial impact on the evolution of disciplines in a reciprocal interaction with the intangible values of a community – economic, social and cultural – as well as the material assets of the places where it expresses itself. Interpreting heteronomy as a condition in which an action is not guided by an autonomous principle that is intrinsic to the discipline, but rather determined by its interaction with external factors, a theoretical reflection on the evolution of the tools of knowledge and creation has the task of defining possible scenarios capable of tackling the risk of losing an ability to synthesise the relationships between the conditions that define the identity of architecture itself. The challenge of complexity is rooted in social, technological and environmental shifts: a challenge that involves space, a material resource, in its global scale and its human measure; and time, an immaterial resource, nowadays evaluated in terms of speed and flexibility, but also duration and permanence. These elements impact upon the project as a whole, as a combination of multiple forms of knowledge which, given their constant evolution, is subject to continuous comparison. The cultural debate has investigated at length the topic of art being forced to devote itself to heteronomy whilst also retaining a need for aesthetic autonomy. The risk of forgetting its own ontological status, of losing its own identity in the fragmentation and entropy of the contemporary world, finds an answer in the idea of design as a synthesis between an artistic idea and the social and environmental conditions in which it is places, configuring itself as an element capable of reconciling the antithetical drives towards an autonomous vision of the work, on the one hand, and a heteronomous one linked to its geographical, cultural, sociological and psychological characteristics, on the other. In the systemic and concerted working process so intrinsic to disciplines such as filmmaking and music – but also the visual arts or even philosophy – the act of designing is the expression of the relationship with a community of individuals whose actions are based on a role that is as social as it is technical, given that they act based on material and immaterial values of a public nature. If indeed the sciences – as Thomas Kuhn demonstrated in his writings on the scientific revolutions – cannot be understood without their historical dimension, then disciplines such as those addressed in this Dossier represent cultural phenomena that can only truly be understood in their entirety when considered in the context of their era and the many factors that fed into their creation. However, precisely as demonstrated by Kuhn’s theories (Kuhn, 1987), their evolution also consists of “scientific revolutions”: moments of disruption capable of changing the community’s attitude towards the discipline itself and, perhaps more importantly, its paradigms. Music, cinema, art, architecture and philosophy are all expressions of that which makes us human, in all its complexity: divided and confined to their own disciplinary fields, they are not capable of expressing the poetic quality of life and thus «making people feel and become aware of the aesthetic feeling» (Morin, 2019). Emanuele Coccia, an internationally renowned philosopher and associate professor at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, imagines a world in which everything you see is the product of an intentionality articulated by human, non-human and non-living actors. Design – not only anthropocentric design – is the most universal power in the world. Every living being can, in effect, design the world, but at the same time, every agent of matter can also design, and it is the interplay between these elements that creates a continuous metamorphosis of our environment. In other words, being alive is not a necessary condition for being a designer. The two anthropologists Alfred Gell and Philippe Descola, in their writings on Western society and nature, present contrasting views on the presence of the soul/animism in nature. The result is a sort of architecture of the landscape, in which nature itself is imbued with a sense of design intentionality that exists in a continuum with mankind. Edoardo Tresoldi, a young Italian sculptor, is one of the latest exponents of the heteronomy of architecture, which rejects the limiting confines of individual disciplines so as to imagine a transversal vision of the environment and its construction. Through the interplay of transparencies created with ephemeral metal structures, Tresoldi exalts the geometrical qualities of this raw material, going beyond the simple spatiotemporal dimension to establish a dialogue between place and the artistic representation thereof. Tresoldi recounts this journey of his through five themes: Place, because architecture in itself is markedly conditioned by its context, as is – in his case – art; Design, that is the act of envisaging the work, which is ultimately influenced by everything around us and our imagination; Time, as art is characterised by a potential interweaving, a continuity in the creative processes influenced by the history of the place; Material, or rather, materiality and the duality between the technical and artistic parts; and, finally, “What’s Next”, exploring the idea of what the future holds for us. On this last point, Tresoldi imagines his works further opening up to a diversified range of skills in a way that would also carve out new professional profiles for young people. Cristina Frosini, Director of the Milan Conservatory, with a contribution on music – «the supreme mystery of the sciences of man» (Lévi-Strauss, 2004) – offers reflections on a field with deep affinities with the discipline of architecture, with both sharing a strong relationship between composition and execution. The sheer vastness of musical expression, from the precision of the classical score to the freedom of interpretation exemplified by the conductor or the improvising jazz musician, sees the concepts of overall rhythm and melody, the homogeneity and identity of different instruments, and the circularity of the process as the key themes of music as a public art whose creative process has always been founded upon the relationship between technical factors and cultural factors. The contribution provided by Michele Guerra, an academic and professor of History of Cinema, confirms the words of Edgar Morin. «Nowadays, cinema is widely recognised as an art, and in my opinion, it is a tremendous polyphonic and polymorphous art that is capable of stimulating and integrating into itself the virtues of all the other arts: novel-writing, theatre, music, painting, scenography, photography. [...] it can be said that those who participate in the creation of a film are artisans, artists, who play an important role in the aesthetics of the film» (Morin, 2019). The work of the “cinematographic construction site” is driven by forces which, incorporating the status quo of the technical and material factors, lead to “an idea of imaginary metamorphosis” which reflects the aspirations of a society in its efforts to become contemporary. A concept of a heteronomous approach to “making” is also founded upon recognising the didactic value of the work, as emerges from Luigi Alini’s contribution on the figure of Vittorio Garatti – an intellectual first and architect second – whose pieces are the result of work that is as much immaterial as it is material, with an «experiential rather than mediatic» approach (Frampton, in Borsa and Carboni Maestri, 2018), as true architecture is expected to be. The heteronomy of architecture, much like that of other similar disciplines, is based on engagement on two fronts: an understanding of the relevant international scenarios and the definition of the project charter, with a view to conforming it so that it takes into account any changes, operates in continuity with and with an appreciation for history, and develops in harmony with the universality of the discipline and the teachings of its masters. Stimulating a dialogue between different cultural positions is a means to create the conditions for a degree of adherence to contemporaneity without compromising on a principle of historical continuity. In light of this, the contribution by Ferruccio Resta – the current Rector of the Politecnico di Milano – focuses on the varying cultural and intellectual positions that have animated the culture of the Politecnico over the years, representing a highly valuable heritage for the university. Nowadays, with the presence of certain indispensable premises such as sustainability and connectivity, technology seems to overwhelm the design process, outsourcing it to a sort of management of the engineering and component production aspects. Hence the need to reaffirm a “humanistic and human” dimension of the act of making, starting at the root by orienting the training processes in line with the words of historian and philosopher Yuval Noah Harari, who says: «Many pedagogical experts argue that schools should switch to teaching “the four Cs” – critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. More broadly, they believe, schools should downplay technical skills and emphasize general-purpose life skills. Most important of all will be the ability to deal with change, learn new things, and preserve your mental balance in unfamiliar situations». This need reopens the theme of the dualism between “art” and “discipline”, surpassing it in favour of a coexistence of terminology in that it is the quality of the design and the piece that define where it belongs. Reflecting on the foundations of the paths and tools employed in different disciplines – in light of the innovations that involve the project charter in terms not only of concepts, but also of instruments – means reflecting on the concept of “project culture”, understood as the ability to work through actions which combine different contributions, tackling complex problems by way of a conscious creative process. The ability to envisage the new – as is implicit in the etymology of the word “project” itself – and, at the same time, to interpret continuity in the sense of a coherent system of methods and values, is shared by the disciplines and skills brought together in the Dossier: dealing with culture, society, the city, the landscape and the environment all at once requires a multifaceted vision, an ability to read problems, but also a certain openmindedness towards opportunities, the management of complexities, control of the risks of drops in quality in service of concepts of efficiency based on numerical parameters and the standardisation of languages. A comparison of the various contributions and perspectives throws up a picture in which the importance of relationships, the search for what Eiffell defined «the secret laws of harmony», the disciplinary specificity of design as the ability to relate in order to «understand, criticise, transform» (Gregotti, 1981), the ability to distinguish that which is different by involving it in the transformation of design, all represent the foundations for the evolution of heteronomous disciplines in how they move beyond the notions of technique and context as passive referents which generate possibilities in line with the Rogersian reflection on pre-existing environmental elements as historical conditions for reference, critically taken on as determinants. Hence the validity of a “polytechnic” cultural approach that is not only capable of deploying tools and skills which can deal with the operating conditions to be found in a heteronomous context, but also of stimulating critical approaches oriented towards innovation and managing change with the perspective of a project as an opportunity – in the words of Franco Albini – for «experimentation and verification in relation to the progression of construction techniques, tools for investigation, knowledge in the various fields and in relation to the shifts in contemporary culture» (Albini, 1968). The need for a sense of humanism is strongly linked to the reintroduction of the concept of “beauty”, in its modern meaning, under which it shifts from a subjective value to a universal one. Hence the importance of the dialogue with disciplines that identify with the polytechnic mould – that is, one which has always been deeply attentive to the relationship between theory and practice, to the design of architecture as an action that is at once intellectual and technical. As such, starting from the assumption that «no theory can be pursued without hitting a wall that only practice can penetrate» (Deleuze and Foucault 1972; Deleuze, 2002; Foucault, 1977; Deleuze, 2007), it is now essential to promote the professional profiles of artists, musicians, philosophers, humanistic architects and so on who are capable of managing design as a synthesis of external factors, but also as an internal dialectic, as well as skills capable of creating culture understood as technical knowledge. Sometimes, faced with the difficulty of discerning an identity for disciplines, we attempt to draw a boundary that allows us to better understand their meaning and content. However, going on the points of view that have emerged in the Dossier, it seems more important than ever to «work on the boundaries of each field of knowledge», drawing upon a concept expressed by Salvatore Veca (Veca, 1979), making communication between fields a central value, interpreting relationships and connections, identifying the relational perspective as a fundamental aspect of the creative act. The position of architecture as an “art at the edge of the arts”1, as so often posited by Renzo Piano, allows for a reflection on its identity by placing it in a position that centralises rather than marginalises it. A concept of “edge” that touches upon the sociological viewpoint that distinguishes the “finite limit” (boundary) from the “area of interaction” (border) (Sennet, 2011; Sennet, 2018), in which the transformational yet constructive contact with the entities necessary for its realisation takes place. The heteronomy of architecture coincides with its “universality”, a concept that Alberto Campo Baeza (Campo Baeza, 2018) believes to represent the identity of architecture itself. Indeed, its dependence upon human life, the development of society, of its cultural growth, derives from a single and inalienable factor: its heteronomy, the necessary condition for a process as artistic as it is technical, tasked with expressing the values of a community over time and representing the “beautiful” rather than the “new”. A design practice based on – to borrow some concepts already expressed years ago by Edgar Morin – “contaminations that are necessary as well as possible”, on the contribution of “knowledge as an open system”, but above all, one aimed at working “against the continuities incapable of grasping the dynamics of change” (Morin, 1974), thus becomes an opportunity to develop a theory on the identity of the discipline itself, striking a balance between the technical and poetic spheres, but necessarily materialising in the finished work, lending substance to the «webs of intricate relationships that seek form» (Italo Calvino).

In 1998 a massive gold signet ring was found by metal detecting in the parish of Raglan, Monmouthshire (Gwent), close to Raglan Castle. Now generally known as the Raglan ring, it is a remarkable example of late medieval goldsmiths’ work. This paper considers its motifs, legend, date and stylistic affinities. Its findspot is close to the castle-building programme at Raglan continued by William Herbert (executed 1469), who projected his position as premier supporter of the House of York in a variety of ways. Possible ownership is discussed, as is its wider context (including newly discovered signet rings from Wales).

The small molecule oxidation reaction instead of oxygen evolution reaction coupled with hydrogen evolution reaction can greatly reduce the reaction overpotential of electrochemical water splitting, which is a very efficient and energy-saving hydrogen evolution strategy. Herein, we report an interface engineering constructed two-dimensional ultrathin curled Pt/Pd hetero-metallene for efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution assisted by methanol. The thin-sheet structure of Pt/Pd hetero-metallene provides a large specific surface area and exposes numerous surface atoms that could act as reactive sites, thus accelerating the reaction mass transfer process. More importantly, the constructed Pt/Pd hetero-metallene possesses abundant Pt/Pd heterointerface, which can maximize the strong metal-metal interaction and increase the utilization of metal atoms, thereby optimizing the adsorption and activation of reactants during the reaction. Pt/Pd hetero-metallene can produce hydrogen stably and efficiently in 1 M KOH + 1 M CH3OH, and the voltage only needs 0.83 V at @100 mA cm-2 when used in electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution, which is much lower than the voltage required for the traditional electrochemical water splitting process (1.94 V). This work not only provides a powerful approach to rational design and construction of hetero-metallene through interface engineering, but also builds a bridge between hetero-metallene and methanol-assisted hydrogen evolution.

Whatever a work of art may be, the artist certainly cannot dare to be simple. (Rebecca West) Van Gogh's Sunflowers is [not] considered worthy of inclusion in a new selection of the world's finest art. The compilers of the Folio Society's lavish and expensive Book of the 100 Greatest Paintings believe that some works are so overexposed and have been reproduced so often that they can no longer be viewed with a fresh eye. The Independent, 24.8.2001. Sometimes the day just falls down on you. One day they'll measure the weight of a day. One day science will be able to measure the density of 24 hours. And then I can claim the burden of getting through a day as part of my fitness programme. She imagined filling in her exercise diary. Lifted three fallen days from shoulders. Pumped up biceps, triceps, amassed muscle gain in legs. Strengthened heart tissue. Deepened lung capacity. She shouldn't joke about it. But of course she did. Sometimes it was how she coped. She'd tried not joking, joking, paying attention, ignoring, running away from, facing head on, talking, not talking, sharing, selfishly selflessly, hopefully hopelessly, alone and in company. Of course some methods of dealing with it were more fun than others. She used to have sex a lot when she felt most depressed. What she'd liked most about the sex was the feeling of being what she called underneath, somewhere darker, more primal. Crawling around on the inside of things. That was how she eventually looked at it. As if it was a special sort of art she had created, woven through the threads of her brain cells and tendrils of her nerve endings. Sometimes profoundly scary, sometimes just a cheap thrill. Why can't you just be happy? she'd heard people ask. People who cared and those who didn't particularly. As if she had willed it upon herself and could just as easily will herself out of it. I choose. Or I do not choose, she might say. Either way it remains because I have understood it ultimately is not a matter of choice. I will be happy when happiness comes around again. Just the same as the sunshine comes out after the rain clouds disappear. It is a cycle and I am part of its nature. And I haven't yet learnt to control the weather. Of course shamans could do it. Certain sorts of yogis. Witches. Tap into energy flows and seismic quivers. Even then it was not a matter of controlling shifts in temperature but rather surrendering to it. Making them not just observers of natural phenomena. But participants. Adding their own energy to the natural energy. Bringing about change through focus and attention rather than resistance and will. It would be hard to stay that sensitive in the city. Too hard with all the relentless metal, the swabs of smoke and smog blinding the eyes, the clang and grrrs of the smashing traffic, all the urban thoughts circling your brain like gangs out for some kicks. She made herself scarce when the days fell like this one. Right on top of her like a mountain of collapsing ash. Even though the others had what always seemed a grudging respect for it. As if she limped. Or was blind in one eye. They sensed its genetic implications. And almost admired the way she wore it like a piece of dark, sombre clothing. Instead of letting it wear her. Still These dark days. These black moods. Like a monstrous pet She had to walk Endlessly through the city streets Until it had walked off Its rage. She closed her eyes. Somewhere in the distance she could faintly detect the scent of a certain sort of coffee, which she craved. She opened her eyes and headed up King St, peering into cafes as she passed, twitching her nostrils like a sniffer dog, nosing out the secret stash of illicit nectar that would, of course, be the momentary answer to all her problems. She walked past Café Bleu. Too stark, too gloomy. Past El Bache. Too fluorescent, too sugary. Straight past CITRUS. Too friendly, too trendy. Criss-crossed King St to Macro Whole Foods. Too positive, too pure. Back over the other side to the Marleborough Hotel. Oh no, too desperate before midday. Turned left, walked down past the hospital, briefly thought about their cafeteria. But no, way too hopeless and pessimistic. Back onto City Road, past the Uni. Way too cool and know it all. Across Broadway, past IKU. Same problem as Macro, and almost up to Badde Manors. Eek! Way, way too hip. She got herself back down almost to Paramatta Road and stopped. She briefly wondered whether she should go back to Essential Energies and see the Clairvoyant. But she was sick at the idea of handing over forty bucks for someone to tell her that everything, even depression, eventually had to pass. She may as well go up to a complete stranger on the street and ask them: Tell me what to do, please tell me what to do. In certain cultures she was sure this would work. Older, more spiritual ethnicities, which had long ago given up the idea that human beings could control everything that happened in life. They'd even laugh at the concept. They might say something ancient and wise and comforting. Something about death and rebirth and transformation and illness being a sign of health and everything the other way round. But here, pioneer's children, building, growing, planning, committing, grasping, holding on, they'd tell her to pull herself together and get on with it. If you'd just tell me what IT was, maybe I'd be able to get on with it. She might answer them if she was in the mood for a conversation. But of course she wasn't going to accost anyone. Not today. Not in Glebe. Not just down the road from Gleebooks. Too literary, too secure. She bought some Turkish bread from the Lebanese place next door, intending to feed the ducks in City Park, but slipped back inside Essential Energies, with the bread tucked under her arm, just to stand for a few moments near the oil burner. The scents were Orange, Marjoram and Lavender, a soothing combination, the sign said, to calm the troubled mind and open the third eye. Jesus, she thought to herself, suddenly laughing out loud, on days like this I'm lucky if I can keep one good eye open. Let alone two. Without realizing it, she'd been making a racket. Aware of the shop assistant staring disapprovingly at her, she backed out the door, chattering to herself like a madwoman, fleetingly remembering how being in a church always seemed to create the same sense of misadventure as being in a New Age Shop. Too clean, too quiet, too affluent, too aromatic. Back on Paramatta Road she felt like crying. Some days that was all she felt like doing, tears gathering inside her, not like great thunderstorms about to explode, but grey sheets of drizzle with their slow, maddening incessant drip drip drip on the brain. She remembered Emerald Green telling her that depression would be the Super Disease of the Millennium. Sometimes she wondered how she would last that long. If you chart your course through it, you'll mark the map for others, Emerald had told her. Maybe the true pioneers of tomorrow are those with the courage to go out alone into the most forbidding terrain and return intact. It sounded encouraging when Emerald said it, but it never helped when she was standing at crossroads such as these wondering which way to go. Walk down Broadway into Chinatown. Wolf down a Laksa for lunch. Burn her mouth and body back to life. Halfway down Broadway she stopped as she always did, at the Broadway Framers. They'd taken down the Whitely that had been in the window for ages, and replaced it with the usual assortment of famous and popular prints, framed unnecessarily, she'd always thought, in ostentatious gold. Matisse's Blue Nude, Picasso's Harlequin from his Rose period and Van Gogh's Sunflowers. When she was younger and more easily impressed, her post modernist friends had told her painting was dead and that figurative art was bogus. They seemed so sure of everything, she'd never been sure of anything and so she'd been almost ashamed to admit that one of her favourite pictures was Sunflowers. She'd never analyzed why she liked it. If pressed to give an intelligent answer it would have been something along the lines of the visceral textures of the flowers, still so apparently immediate even in the hundreds of flat prints that had crowded the waiting rooms of her life since she was a little girl. It would have had something to do with the extravagance with which the stems were stuffed into the case, the overloaded slightly bedraggled, lushness of nature crammed by the artist into the humble little pot on which he'd scrawled his name. It could have been the energy of the brush strokes, which seem to thrust the flowers towards you with such force, as if Vincent is saying to you personally: LOOK LOOK. Have you ever seen anything so beautiful? He was just doing his job, Painter Bob had said, the job that artists do. To make us look at things that mostly we're too distracted, too busy, too depressed to see. The stars in the sky at night. Swirling clouds. The sloping downwards of a face and all the stories which that particular angle tells. She thought of Van Gogh whenever she saw that picture. On his lonely road to pure painting, too crazy, to stubborn to do anything else. Painter Bob had said he'd been a shaman, a channel through which his subjects passed in order to be delivered onto paper so that … we, the rest of the world, us, the rest of history, decade after decade of casual and not so casual observers of art, could see, feel, absorb through the nerve endings in our eyes the essence of what is was, not just to see the sunflowers but to be the sunflowers. Yellow, she thought. And amber. Orange. Bits of gold. They've always made me feel so happy. It couldn't be that simple, she thought. To have the courage to cross the gap that separates the subject from the object. To become the thing which you see. To empathize. To inhabit. To break down the disconnection between matter. Plump, healthy flowers, slightly past their prime. Still, she thought, they'd cost a packet at the florists. She liked sunflowers. Despite their larger than life, exotic qualities they'd always seemed to her to be completely and utterly ordinary. ..in the end only someone who suffered deeply could see the radiance in such simple things Painter Bob was right. He was after all an expert in such things. Sometimes she felt as if she didn't know much about anything at all. Here she was looking at reproductions through plate glass windows, while above her the sun was almost coming out. Feeling hopeful, she put on her sunglasses. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Neil, Linda. "Sunflowers " M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5.2 (2002). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/0205/sunflower.php>. Chicago Style Neil, Linda, "Sunflowers " M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5, no. 2 (2002), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/0205/sunflower.php> ([your date of access]). APA Style Neil, Linda. (2002) Sunflowers . M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5(2). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/0205/sunflower.php> ([your date of access]).

IntroductionI have been studying the creation of Metro style train travel in Sydney for over a decade. My focus has been on the impact that media has had on the process (see Richardson, “Curatorial”; “Upheaval”; “Making”). Through extensive expert, public, and media research, I have investigated the coalitions and alliances that have formed (and disintegrated) between political, bureaucratic, news media, and public actors and the influences at work within these actor-networks. As part of this project, I visited an underground Métro turning fifty in Montreal, Canada. After many years studying the development of a train that wasn’t yet tangible, I wanted to ask a functional train the simple ethnomethodological/Latourian style question, “what do you do for a city and its people?” (de Vries). Therefore, in addition to research conducted in Montreal, I spent ten days wandering through many of the entrances, tunnels, staircases, escalators, mezzanines, platforms, doorways, and carriages of which the Métro system consists. The purpose was to observe the train in situ in order to broaden potential conceptualisations of what a train does for a city such as Montreal, with a view of improving the ideas and messages that would be used to “sell” future rapid rail projects in other cities such as Sydney. This article outlines a selection of the pathways wandered, not only to illustrate the power of social research based on physical wandering, but also the potential power the metaphorical and conceptual wandering an Actor-Network Theory (ANT) assemblage affords social research for media communications.Context, Purpose, and ApproachANT is a hybrid theory/method for studying an arena of the social, such as the significance of a train to a city like Montreal. This type of study is undertaken by following the actors (Latour, Reassembling 12). In ANT, actors do something, as the term suggests. These actions have affects and effects. These might be contrived and deliberate influences or completely circumstantial and accidental impacts. Actors can be people as we are most commonly used to understanding them, and they can also be texts, technological devices, software programs, natural phenomena, or random occurrences. Most significantly though, actors are their “relations” (Harman 17). This means that they are only present if they are relating to others. These relations and the resulting influences and impacts are called networks. A network in the ANT sense is not as simple as the lines that connect train stations on a rail map. Without actions, relations, influences, and impacts, there are no actors. Hence the hyphen in actor-network; the actor and the network are symbiotic. The network, rendered visible through actor associations, consists of the tenuous connections that “shuttle back and forth” between actors even in spite of the fact their areas of knowledge and reality may be completely separate (Latour Modern 3). ANT, therefore, may be considered an empirical practice of tracing the actors and the network of influences and impacts that they both help to shape and are themselves shaped by. To do this, central ANT theorist Bruno Latour employs a simple research question: “what do you do?” This is because in the process of doing, somebody or something is observed to be affecting other people or things and an actor-network becomes identifiable. Latour later learned that his approach shared many parallels with ethnomethodology. This was a discovery that more concretely set the trajectory of his work away from a social science that sought explanations “about why something happens, to ontological ones, that is, questions about what is going on” (de Vries). So, in order to make sense of people’s actions and relations, the focus of research became asking the deceptively simple question while refraining as much as possible “from offering descriptions and explanations of actions in terms of schemes taught in social theory classes” (14).In answering this central ANT question, studies typically wander in a metaphorical sense through an array or assemblage (Law) of research methods such as formal and informal interviews, ethnographic style observation, as well as the content analysis of primary and secondary texts (see Latour, Aramis). These were the methods adopted for my Montreal research—in addition to fifteen in-depth expert and public interviews conducted in October 2017, ten days were spent physically wandering and observing the train in action. I hoped that in understanding what the train does for the city and its people, the actor-network within which the train is situated would be revealed. Of course, “what do you do?” is a very broad question. It requires context. In following the influence of news media in the circuitous development of rapid rail transit in Sydney, I have been struck by the limited tropes through which the potential for rapid rail is discussed. These tropes focus on technological, functional, and/or operational aspects (see Budd; Faruqi; Hasham), costs, funding and return on investment (see Martin and O’Sullivan; Saulwick), and the potential to alleviate peak hour congestion (see Clennell; West). As an expert respondent in my Sydney research, a leading Australian architect and planner, states, “How boring and unexciting […] I mean in Singapore it is the most exciting […] the trains are fantastic […] that wasn’t sold to the [Sydney] public.” So, the purpose of the Montreal research is to expand conceptualisations of the potential for rapid rail infrastructure to influence a city and improve communications used to sell projects in the future, as well as to test the role of both physical and metaphorical ANT style wanderings in doing so. Montreal was chosen for three reasons. First, the Métro had recently turned fifty, which made the comparison between the fledgling and mature systems topical. Second, the Métro was preceded by decades of media discussion (Gilbert and Poitras), which parallels the development of rapid transit in Sydney. Finally, a different architect designed each station and most stations feature art installations (Magder). Therefore, the Métro appeared to have transcended the aforementioned functional and numerically focused tropes used to justify the Sydney system. Could such a train be considered a long-term success?Wandering and PathwaysIn ten days I rode the Montreal Métro from end to end. I stopped at all the stations. I wandered around. I treated wandering not just as a physical research activity, but also as an illustrative metaphor for an assemblage of research practices. This assemblage culminates in testimony, anecdotes, stories, and descriptions through which an actor-network may be glimpsed. Of course, it is incomplete—what I have outlined below represents only a few pathways. However, to think that an actor-network can ever be traversed in its entirety is to miss the point. Completion is a fallacy. Wandering doesn’t end at a finish line. There are always pathways left untrodden. I have attempted not to overanalyse. I have left contradictions unresolved. I have avoided the temptation to link paths through tenuous byways. Some might consider that I have meandered, but an actor-network is never linear. I can only hope that my wanderings, as curtailed as they may be, prove nuanced, colourful, and rich—if not compelling. ANT encourages us to rethink social research (Latour, Reassembling). Central to this is acknowledging (and becoming comfortable with) our own role as researcher in the illumination of the actor-network itself.Here are some of the Montreal pathways wandered:First Impressions I arrive at Montreal airport late afternoon. The apartment I have rented is conveniently located between two Métro stations—Mont Royal and Sherbrooke. I use my phone and seek directions by public transport. To my surprise, the only option is the bus. Too tired to work out connections, I decide instead to follow the signs to the taxi rank. Here, I queue. We are underway twenty minutes later. Travelling around peak traffic, we move from one traffic jam to the next. The trip is slow. Finally ensconced in the apartment, I reflect on how different the trip into Montreal had been, from what I had envisaged. The Métro I had travelled to visit was conspicuous in its total absence.FloatingIt is a feeling of floating that first strikes me when riding the Métro. It runs on rubber tyres. The explanation for the choice of this technology differs. There are reports that it was the brainchild of strong-willed mayor, Jean Drapeau, who believed the new technology would showcase Montreal as a modern world-scale metropolis (Gilbert and Poitras). However, John Martins-Manteiga provides a less romantic account, stating that the decision was made because tyres were cheaper (47). I assume the rubber tyres create the floating sensation. Add to this the famous warmth of the system (Magder; Hazan, Hot) and it has a thoroughly calming, even lulling, effect.Originally, I am planning to spend two whole days riding the Métro in its entirety. I make handwritten notes. On the first day, at mid-morning, nausea develops. I am suffering motion sickness. This is a surprise. I have always been fine to read and write on trains, unlike in a car or bus. It causes a moment of realisation. I am effectively riding a bus. This is an unexpected side-effect. My research program changes—I ride for a maximum of two hours at a time and my note taking becomes more circumspect. The train as actor is influencing the research program and the data being recorded in unexpected ways. ArtThe stained-glass collage at Berri-Uquam, by Pierre Gaboriau and Pierre Osterrath, is grand in scale, intricately detailed and beautiful. It sits above the tunnel from which the trains enter and leave the platform. It somehow seems wholly connected to the train as a result—it frames and announces arrivals and departures. Other striking pieces include the colourful, tiled circles from the mezzanine above the platform at station Peel and the beautiful stained-glass panels on the escalator at station Charlevoix. As a public respondent visiting from Chicago contends, “I just got a sense of exploration—that I wanted to have a look around”.Urban FormAn urban planner asserts that the Métro is responsible for the identity and diversity of urban culture that Montreal is famous for. As everyone cannot live right above a Métro station, there are streets around stations where people walk to the train. As there is less need for cars, these streets are made friendlier for walkers, precipitating a cycle. Furthermore, pedestrian-friendly streets promote local village style commerce such as shops, cafes, bars, and restaurants. So, there is not only more access on foot, but also more incentive to access. The walking that the Métro induces improves the dynamism and social aspects of neighbourhoods, a by-product of which is a distinct urban form and culture for different pockets of the city. The actor-network broadens. In following the actors, I now have to wander beyond the physical limits of the system itself. The streets I walk around station Mont Royal are shopping and restaurant strips, rich with foot traffic at all times of day; it is a vibrant and enticing place to wander.Find DiningThe popular MTL blog published a map of the best restaurants the Métro provides access to (Hazan, Restaurant).ArchitectureStation De La Savane resembles a retro medieval dungeon. It evokes thoughts of the television series Game of Thrones. Art and architecture work in perfect harmony. The sculpture in the foyer by Maurice Lemieux resembles a deconstructed metal mace hanging on a brutalist concrete wall. It towers above a grand staircase and abuts a fence that might ring a medieval keep. Up close I realise it is polished, precisely cut cylindrical steel. A modern fence referencing another time and place. Descending to the platform, craggy concrete walls are pitted with holes. I get the sense of peering through these into the hidden chambers of a crypt. Overlaying all of this is a strikingly modern series of regular and irregular, bold vertical striations cut deeply into the concrete. They run from floor to ceiling to add to a cathedral-like sense of scale. It’s warming to think that such a whimsical train station exists anywhere in the world. Time WarpA public respondent describes the Métro:It’s a little bit like a time machine. It’s a piece of the past and piece of history […] still alive now. I think that it brings art or form or beauty into everyday life. […] You’re going from one place to the next, but because of the history and the story of it you could stop and breathe and take it in a little bit more.Hold ups and HostagesA frustrated General Manager of a transport advocacy group states in an interview:Two minutes of stopping in the Métro is like Armageddon in Montreal—you see it on every media, on every smartphone [...] We are so captive in the Métro [there is a] loss of control.Further, a transport modelling expert asserts:You’re a hostage when you’re in transportation. If the Métro goes out, then you really are stuck. Unfortunately, it does go out often enough. If you lose faith in a mode of transportation, it’s going to be very hard to get you back.CommutingIt took me a good week before I started to notice how tired some of the Métro stations had grown. I felt my enthusiasm dip when I saw the estimated arrival time lengthen on the electronic noticeboard. Anger rose as a young man pushed past me from behind to get out of a train before I had a chance to exit. These tendrils of the actor-network were not evident to me in the first few days. Most interview respondents state that after a period of time passengers take less notice of the interesting and artistic aspects of the Métro. They become commuters. Timeliness and consistency become the most important aspects of the system.FinaleI deliberately visit station Champ-de-Mars last. Photos convince me that I am going to end my Métro exploration with an experience to savour. The station entry and gallery is iconic. Martins-Manteiga writes, “The stained-glass artwork by Marcelle Ferron is almost a religious experience; it floods in and splashes down below” (306). My timing is off though. On this day, the soaring stained-glass windows are mostly hidden behind protective wadding. The station is undergoing restoration. Travelling for the last time back towards station Mont Royal, my mood lightens. Although I had been anticipating this station for some time, in many respects this is a revealing conclusion to my Métro wanderings.What Do You Do?When asked what the train does, many respondents took a while to answer or began with common tropes around moving people. As a transport project manager asserts, “in the world of public transport, the perfect trip is the one you don’t notice”. A journalist gives the most considered and interesting answer. He contends:I think it would say, “I hold the city together culturally, economically, physically, logistically—that’s what I do […] I’m the connective tissue of this city”. […] How else do you describe infrastructure that connects poor neighbourhoods to rich neighbourhoods, downtown to outlying areas, that supports all sorts of businesses both inside it and immediately adjacent to it and has created these axes around the city that pull in almost everybody [...] And of course, everyone takes it for granted […] We get pissed off when it’s late.ConclusionNo matter how real a transportation system may be, it can always be made a little less real. Today, for example, the Paris metro is on strike for the third week in a row. Millions of Parisians are learning to get along without it, by taking their cars or walking […] You see? These enormous hundred-year-old technological monsters are no more real than the four-year-old Aramis is unreal: They all need allies, friends […] There’s no inertia, no irreversibility; there’s no autonomy to keep them alive. (Latour, Aramis 86)Through ANT-based physical and metaphorical wanderings, we find many pathways that illuminate what a train does. We learn from various actors in the actor-network through which the train exists. We seek out its “allies” and “friends”. We wander, piecing together as much of the network as we can. The Métro does lots of things. It has many influences and it influences many. It is undeniably an actor in an actor-network. Transport planners would like it to appear seamless—commuters entering and leaving without really noticing the in-between. And sometimes it appears this way. However, when the commuter is delayed, this appearance is shattered. If a signal fails or an engine falters, the Métro, through a process mediated by word of mouth and/or social and mainstream media, is suddenly rendered tired and obsolete. Or is it historic and quaint? Is the train a technical problem for the city of Montreal or is it characterful and integral to the city’s identity? It is all these things and many more. The actor-network is illusive and elusive. Pathways are extensive. The train floats. The train is late. The train makes us walk. The train has seeded many unique villages, much loved. The train is broken. The train is healthy for its age. The train is all that is right with Montreal. The train is all that is wrong with Montreal. The artwork and architecture mean nothing. The artwork and architecture mean everything. Is the train overly limited by the tyres that keep it underground? Of course, it is. Of course, it isn’t. Does 50 years of history matter? Of course, it does. Of course, it doesn’t. It thrives. It’s tired. It connects. It divides. It’s functional. It’s dirty. It’s beautiful. It’s something to be proud of. It’s embarrassing. A train offers many complex and fascinating pathways. It is never simply an object; it lives and breathes in the network because we live and breathe around it. It stops being effective. It starts becoming affective. Sydney must learn from this. My wanderings demonstrate that the Métro cannot be extricated from what Montreal has become over the last half century. In May 2019, Sydney finally opened its first Metro rail link. And yet, this link and other ongoing metro projects continue to be discussed through statistics and practicalities (Sydney Metro). This offers no affective sense of the pathways that are, and will one day be, created. By selecting and appropriating relevant pathways from cities such as Montreal, and through our own wanderings and imaginings, we can make projections of what a train will do for a city like Sydney. We can project a rich and vibrant actor-network through the media in more emotive and powerful ways. Or, can we not at least supplement the economic, functional, or technocratic accounts with other wanderings? Of course, we can’t. Of course, we can. ReferencesBudd, Henry. “Single-Deck Trains in North West Rail Link.” The Daily Telegraph 20 Jun. 2012. 17 Jan. 2018 <https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/single-deck-trains-in-north-west-rail-link/news-story/f5255d11af892ebb3938676c5c8b40da>.Clennell, Andrew. “All Talk as City Chokes to Death.” The Daily Telegraph 7 Nov. 2011. 2 Jan 2012 <http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/opinion/all-talk-as-city-chokes-to-death/story-e6frezz0-1226187007530>.De Vries, Gerard. Bruno Latour. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2016.Faruqi, Mehreen. “Is the New Sydney Metro Privatization of the Rail Network by Stealth?” Sydney Morning Herald 7 July 2015. 19 Jan. 2018 <http://www.smh.com.au/comment/is-the-new-sydney-metro-privatisation-of-the-rail-network-by-stealth-20150707-gi6rdg.html>.Game of Thrones. HBO, 2011–2019.Gilbert, Dale, and Claire Poitras. “‘Subways Are Not Outdated’: Debating the Montreal Métro 1940–60.” The Journal of Transport History 36.2 (2015): 209–227. Harman, Graham. Prince of Networks: Bruno Latour and Metaphysics. Melbourne: re.press, 2009.Hasham, Nicole. “Driverless Trains Plan as Berejiklian Does a U-Turn.” Sydney Morning Herald 6 Jun. 2013. 16 Jan. 2018 <https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/driverless-trains-plan-as-berejiklian-does-a-u-turn-20130606-2ns4h.html>.Hazan, Jeremy. “Montreal’s First-Ever Official Metro Restaurant Map.” MTL Blog 17 May 2010. 11 Oct. 2017 <https://www.mtlblog.com/things-to-do-in-mtl/montreals-first-ever-official-metro-restaurant-map/1>.———. “This Is Why Montreal’s STM Metro Has Been So Hot Lately.” MTL Blog 22 Sep. 2017. 11 Oct. 2017 <https://www.mtlblog.com/whats-happening/this-is-why-montreals-stm-metro-has-been-so-hot-lately>. Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993.———. Aramis: Or the Love of Technology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996. ———. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.Law, John. After Method: Mess in Social Science Research. New York: Routledge, 2004.Magder, Jason. “The Metro at 50: Building the Network.” Montreal Gazette 13 Oct. 2016. 18 Oct. 2017 <http://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/the-metro-at-50-building-the-network>.Martin, Peter, and Matt O’Sullivan. “Cabinet Leak: Sydney to Parramatta in 15 Minutes Possible, But Not Preferred.” Sydney Morning Herald 14 Aug. 2017. 7 Dec. 2017 <https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/cabinet-leak-sydney-to-parramatta-in-15-minutes-possible-but-not-preferred-20170813-gxv226.html>.Martins-Manteiga, John. Métro: Design in Motion. Dominion Modern: Canada 2011.Richardson, Nicholas. “Political Upheaval in Australia: Media, Foucault and Shocking Policy.” ANZCA Conference Proceedings 2015. Eds. D. Paterno, M. Bourk, and D. Matheson.———. “A Curatorial Turn in Policy Development? Managing the Changing Nature of Policymaking Subject to Mediatisation” M/C Journal 18.4 (2015). 7 Aug. 2019 <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/view/998>.———. “‘Making it Happen’: Deciphering Government Branding in Light of the Sydney Building Boom.” M/C Journal 20.2 (2017). 7 Aug. 2019 <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/view/1221>.Saulwick, Jacob. “Plenty of Sums in Rail Plans But Not Everything Adds Up.” Sydney Morning Herald 7 Nov. 2011. 17 Apr. 2012 <http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/politics/plenty-of-sums-in-rail-plans-but-not-everything-adds-up-20111106-1n1wn.html>.Sydney Metro. 16 July 2019. <https://www.sydneymetro.info/>.West, Andrew. “Second Harbour Crossing – or Chaos.” Sydney Morning Herald 31 May 2010. 17 Jan. 2018 <http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/second-harbour-crossing--or-chaos-20100530-wnik.html>.

Introduction Cookbooks are an exceptional written record of what is largely an oral tradition. They have been described as “magician’s hats” due to their ability to reveal much more than they seem to contain (Wheaton, “Finding”). The first book printed in Germany was the Guttenberg Bible in 1456 but, by 1490, printing was introduced into almost every European country (Tierney). The spread of literacy between 1500 and 1800, and the rise in silent reading, helped to create a new private sphere into which the individual could retreat, seeking refuge from the community (Chartier). This new technology had its effects in the world of cookery as in so many spheres of culture (Mennell, All Manners). Trubek notes that cookbooks are the texts most often used by culinary historians, since they usually contain all the requisite materials for analysing a cuisine: ingredients, method, technique, and presentation. Printed cookbooks, beginning in the early modern period, provide culinary historians with sources of evidence of the culinary past. Historians have argued that social differences can be expressed by the way and type of food we consume. Cookbooks are now widely accepted as valid socio-cultural and historic documents (Folch, Sherman), and indeed the link between literacy levels and the protestant tradition has been expressed through the study of Danish cookbooks (Gold). From Apicius, Taillevent, La Varenne, and Menon to Bradley, Smith, Raffald, Acton, and Beeton, how can both manuscript and printed cookbooks be analysed as historic documents? What is the difference between a manuscript and a printed cookbook? Barbara Ketchum Wheaton, who has been studying cookbooks for over half a century and is honorary curator of the culinary collection in Harvard’s Schlesinger Library, has developed a methodology to read historic cookbooks using a structured approach. For a number of years she has been giving seminars to scholars from multidisciplinary fields on how to read historic cookbooks. This paper draws on the author’s experiences attending Wheaton’s seminar in Harvard, and on supervising the use of this methodology at both Masters and Doctoral level (Cashman; Mac Con Iomaire, and Cashman). Manuscripts versus Printed Cookbooks A fundamental difference exists between manuscript and printed cookbooks in their relationship with the public and private domain. Manuscript cookbooks are by their very essence intimate, relatively unedited and written with an eye to private circulation. Culinary manuscripts follow the diurnal and annual tasks of the household. They contain recipes for cures and restoratives, recipes for cleansing products for the house and the body, as well as the expected recipes for cooking and preserving all manners of food. Whether manuscript or printed cookbook, the recipes contained within often act as a reminder of how laborious the production of food could be in the pre-industrialised world (White). Printed cookbooks draw oxygen from the very fact of being public. They assume a “literate population with sufficient discretionary income to invest in texts that commodify knowledge” (Folch). This process of commoditisation brings knowledge from the private to the public sphere. There exists a subset of cookbooks that straddle this divide, for example, Mrs. Rundell’s A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806), which brought to the public domain her distillation of a lifetime of domestic experience. Originally intended for her daughters alone, Rundell’s book was reprinted regularly during the nineteenth century with the last edition printed in 1893, when Mrs. Beeton had been enormously popular for over thirty years (Mac Con Iomaire, and Cashman). Barbara Ketchum Wheaton’s Structured Approach Cookbooks can be rewarding, surprising and illuminating when read carefully with due effort in understanding them as cultural artefacts. However, Wheaton notes that: “One may read a single old cookbook and find it immensely entertaining. One may read two and begin to find intriguing similarities and differences. When the third cookbook is read, one’s mind begins to blur, and one begins to sense the need for some sort of method in approaching these documents” (“Finding”). Following decades of studying cookbooks from both sides of the Atlantic and writing a seminal text on the French at table from 1300-1789 (Wheaton, Savouring the Past), this combined experience negotiating cookbooks as historical documents was codified, and a structured approach gradually articulated and shared within a week long seminar format. In studying any cookbook, regardless of era or country of origin, the text is broken down into five different groupings, to wit: ingredients; equipment or facilities; the meal; the book as a whole; and, finally, the worldview. A particular strength of Wheaton’s seminars is the multidisciplinary nature of the approaches of students who attend, which throws the study of cookbooks open to wide ranging techniques. Students with a purely scientific training unearth interesting patterns by developing databases of the frequency of ingredients or techniques, and cross referencing them with other books from similar or different timelines or geographical regions. Patterns are displayed in graphs or charts. Linguists offer their own unique lens to study cookbooks, whereas anthropologists and historians ask what these objects can tell us about how our ancestors lived and drew meaning from life. This process is continuously refined, and each grouping is discussed below. Ingredients The geographic origins of the ingredients are of interest, as is the seasonality and the cost of the foodstuffs within the scope of each cookbook, as well as the sensory quality both separately and combined within different recipes. In the medieval period, the use of spices and large joints of butchers meat and game were symbols of wealth and status. However, when the discovery of sea routes to the New World and to the Far East made spices more available and affordable to the middle classes, the upper classes spurned them. Evidence from culinary manuscripts in Georgian Ireland, for example, suggests that galangal was more easily available in Dublin during the eighteenth century than in the mid-twentieth century. A new aesthetic, articulated by La Varenne in his Le Cuisinier Francois (1651), heralded that food should taste of itself, and so exotic ingredients such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger were replaced by the local bouquet garni, and stocks and sauces became the foundations of French haute cuisine (Mac Con Iomaire). Some combinations of flavours and ingredients were based on humoral physiology, a long held belief system based on the writings of Hippocrates and Galen, now discredited by modern scientific understanding. The four humors are blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. It was believed that each of these humors would wax and wane in the body, depending on diet and activity. Galen (131-201 AD) believed that warm food produced yellow bile and that cold food produced phlegm. It is difficult to fathom some combinations of ingredients or the manner of service without comprehending the contemporary context within they were consumeSome ingredients found in Roman cookbooks, such as “garum” or “silphium” are no longer available. It is suggested that the nearest substitute for garum also known as “liquamen”—a fermented fish sauce—would be Naam Plaa, or Thai fish sauce (Grainger). Ingredients such as tea and white bread, moved from the prerogative of the wealthy over time to become the staple of the urban poor. These ingredients, therefore, symbolise radically differing contexts during the seventeenth century than in the early twentieth century. Indeed, there are other ingredients such as hominy (dried maize kernel treated with alkali) or grahams (crackers made from graham flour) found in American cookbooks that require translation to the unacquainted non-American reader. There has been a growing number of food encyclopaedias published in recent years that assist scholars in identifying such commodities (Smith, Katz, Davidson). The Cook’s Workplace, Techniques, and Equipment It is important to be aware of the type of kitchen equipment used, the management of heat and cold within the kitchen, and also the gradual spread of the industrial revolution into the domestic sphere. Visits to historic castles such as Hampton Court Palace where nowadays archaeologists re-enact life below stairs in Tudor times give a glimpse as to how difficult and labour intensive food production was. Meat was spit-roasted in front of huge fires by spit boys. Forcemeats and purees were manually pulped using mortar and pestles. Various technological developments including spit-dogs, and mechanised pulleys, replaced the spit boys, the most up to date being the mechanised rotisserie. The technological advancements of two hundred years can be seen in the Royal Pavilion in Brighton where Marie-Antoinin Carême worked for the Prince Regent in 1816 (Brighton Pavilion), but despite the gleaming copper pans and high ceilings for ventilation, the work was still back breaking. Carême died aged forty-nine, “burnt out by the flame of his genius and the fumes of his ovens” (Ackerman 90). Mennell points out that his fame outlived him, resting on his books: Le Pâtissier Royal Parisien (1815); Le Pâtissier Pittoresque (1815); Le Maître d’Hôtel Français (1822); Le Cuisinier Parisien (1828); and, finally, L’Art de la Cuisine Française au Dix-Neuvième Siècle (1833–5), which was finished posthumously by his student Pluméry (All Manners). Mennell suggests that these books embody the first paradigm of professional French cuisine (in Kuhn’s terminology), pointing out that “no previous work had so comprehensively codified the field nor established its dominance as a point of reference for the whole profession in the way that Carême did” (All Manners 149). The most dramatic technological changes came after the industrial revolution. Although there were built up ovens available in bakeries and in large Norman households, the period of general acceptance of new cooking equipment that enclosed fire (such as the Aga stove) is from c.1860 to 1910, with gas ovens following in c.1910 to the 1920s) and Electricity from c.1930. New food processing techniques dates are as follows: canning (1860s), cooling and freezing (1880s), freeze drying (1950s), and motorised delivery vans with cooking (1920s–1950s) (den Hartog). It must also be noted that the supply of fresh food, and fish particularly, radically improved following the birth, and expansion of, the railways. To understand the context of the cookbook, one needs to be aware of the limits of the technology available to the users of those cookbooks. For many lower to middle class families during the twentieth century, the first cookbook they would possess came with their gas or electrical oven. Meals One can follow cooked dishes from the kitchen to the eating place, observing food presentation, carving, sequencing, and serving of the meal and table etiquette. Meal times and structure changed over time. During the Middle Ages, people usually ate two meals a day: a substantial dinner around noon and a light supper in the evening (Adamson). Some of the most important factors to consider are the manner in which meals were served: either à la française or à la russe. One of the main changes that occurred during the nineteenth century was the slow but gradual transfer from service à la française to service à la russe. From medieval times to the middle of the nineteenth century the structure of a formal meal was not by “courses”—as the term is now understood—but by “services”. Each service could comprise of a choice of dishes—both sweet and savoury—from which each guest could select what appealed to him or her most (Davidson). The philosophy behind this form of service was the forementioned humoral physiology— where each diner chose food based on the four humours of blood, yellow bile, black bile, or phlegm. Also known as le grand couvert, the à la française method made it impossible for the diners to eat anything that was beyond arm’s length (Blake, and Crewe). Smooth service, however, was the key to an effective à la russe dinner since servants controlled the flow of food (Eatwell). The taste and temperature of food took centre stage with the à la russe dinner as each course came in sequence. Many historic cookbooks offer table plans illustrating the suggested arrangement of dishes on a table for the à la française style of service. Many of these dishes might be re-used in later meals, and some dishes such as hashes and rissoles often utilised left over components of previous meals. There is a whole genre of cookbooks informing the middle class cooks how to be frugal and also how to emulate haute cuisine using cheaper or ersatz ingredients. The number dining and the manner in which they dined also changed dramatically over time. From medieval to Tudor times, there might be hundreds dining in large banqueting halls. By the Elizabethan age, a small intimate room where master and family dined alone replaced the old dining hall where master, servants, guests, and travellers had previously dined together (Spencer). Dining tables remained portable until the 1780s when tables with removable leaves were devised. By this time, the bread trencher had been replaced by one made of wood, or plate of pewter or precious metal in wealthier houses. Hosts began providing knives and spoons for their guests by the seventeenth century, with forks also appearing but not fully accepted until the eighteenth century (Mason). These silver utensils were usually marked with the owner’s initials to prevent their theft (Flandrin). Cookbooks as Objects and the World of Publishing A thorough examination of the manuscript or printed cookbook can reveal their physical qualities, including indications of post-publication history, the recipes and other matter in them, as well as the language, organization, and other individual qualities. What can the quality of the paper tell us about the book? Is there a frontispiece? Is the book dedicated to an employer or a patron? Does the author note previous employment history in the introduction? In his Court Cookery, Robert Smith, for example, not only mentions a number of his previous employers, but also outlines that he was eight years working with Patrick Lamb in the Court of King William, before revealing that several dishes published in Lamb’s Royal Cookery (1710) “were never made or practis’d (sic) by him and others are extreme defective and imperfect and made up of dishes unknown to him; and several of them more calculated at the purses than the Gôut of the guests”. Both Lamb and Smith worked for the English monarchy, nobility, and gentry, but produced French cuisine. Not all Britons were enamoured with France, however, with, for example Hannah Glasse asserting “if gentlemen will have French cooks, they must pay for French tricks” (4), and “So much is the blind folly of this age, that they would rather be imposed on by a French Booby, than give encouragement to an good English cook” (ctd. in Trubek 60). Spencer contextualises Glasse’s culinary Francophobia, explaining that whilst she was writing the book, the Jacobite army were only a few days march from London, threatening to cut short the Hanoverian lineage. However, Lehmann points out that whilst Glasse was overtly hostile to French cuisine, she simultaneously plagiarised its receipts. Based on this trickling down of French influences, Mennell argues that “there is really no such thing as a pure-bred English cookery book” (All Manners 98), but that within the assimilation and simplification, a recognisable English style was discernable. Mennell also asserts that Glasse and her fellow women writers had an enormous role in the social history of cooking despite their lack of technical originality (“Plagiarism”). It is also important to consider the place of cookbooks within the history of publishing. Albala provides an overview of the immense outpouring of dietary literature from the printing presses from the 1470s. He divides the Renaissance into three periods: Period I Courtly Dietaries (1470–1530)—targeted at the courtiers with advice to those attending banquets with many courses and lots of wine; Period II The Galenic Revival (1530–1570)—with a deeper appreciation, and sometimes adulation, of Galen, and when scholarship took centre stage over practical use. Finally Period III The Breakdown of Orthodoxy (1570–1650)—when, due to the ambiguities and disagreements within and between authoritative texts, authors were freer to pick the ideas that best suited their own. Nutrition guides were consistent bestsellers, and ranged from small handbooks written in the vernacular for lay audiences, to massive Latin tomes intended for practicing physicians. Albala adds that “anyone with an interest in food appears to have felt qualified to pen his own nutritional guide” (1). Would we have heard about Mrs. Beeton if her husband had not been a publisher? How could a twenty-five year old amass such a wealth of experience in household management? What role has plagiarism played in the history of cookbooks? It is interesting to note that a well worn copy of her book (Beeton) was found in the studio of Francis Bacon and it is suggested that he drew inspiration for a number of his paintings from the colour plates of animal carcasses and butcher’s meat (Dawson). Analysing the post-publication usage of cookbooks is valuable to see the most popular recipes, the annotations left by the owner(s) or user(s), and also if any letters, handwritten recipes, or newspaper clippings are stored within the leaves of the cookbook. The Reader, the Cook, the Eater The physical and inner lives and needs and skills of the individuals who used cookbooks and who ate their meals merit consideration. Books by their nature imply literacy. Who is the book’s audience? Is it the cook or is it the lady of the house who will dictate instructions to the cook? Numeracy and measurement is also important. Where clocks or pocket watches were not widely available, authors such as seventeenth century recipe writer Sir Kenelm Digby would time his cooking by the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer. Literacy amongst protestant women to enable them to read the Bible, also enabled them to read cookbooks (Gold). How did the reader or eater’s religion affect the food practices? Were there fast days? Were there substitute foods for fast days? What about special occasions? Do historic cookbooks only tell us about the food of the middle and upper classes? It is widely accepted today that certain cookbook authors appeal to confident cooks, while others appeal to competent cooks, and others still to more cautious cooks (Bilton). This has always been the case, as has the differentiation between the cookbook aimed at the professional cook rather than the amateur. Historically, male cookbook authors such as Patrick Lamb (1650–1709) and Robert Smith targeted the professional cook market and the nobility and gentry, whereas female authors such as Eliza Acton (1799–1859) and Isabella Beeton (1836–1865) often targeted the middle class market that aspired to emulate their superiors’ fashions in food and dining. How about Tavern or Restaurant cooks? When did they start to put pen to paper, and did what they wrote reflect the food they produced in public eateries? Conclusions This paper has offered an overview of Barbara Ketchum Wheaton’s methodology for reading historic cookbooks using a structured approach. It has highlighted some of the questions scholars and researchers might ask when faced with an old cookbook, regardless of era or geographical location. By systematically examining the book under the headings of ingredients; the cook’s workplace, techniques and equipment; the meals; cookbooks as objects and the world of publishing; and reader, cook and eater, the scholar can perform magic and extract much more from the cookbook than seems to be there on first appearance. References Ackerman, Roy. The Chef's Apprentice. London: Headline, 1988. Adamson, Melitta Weiss. Food in Medieval Times. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood P, 2004. Albala, Ken. Eating Right in the Renaissance. Ed. Darra Goldstein. Berkeley: U of California P, 2002. Beeton, Isabella. Beeton's Book of Household Management. London: S. Beeton, 1861. Bilton, Samantha. “The Influence of Cookbooks on Domestic Cooks, 1900-2010.” Petit Propos Culinaires 94 (2011): 30–7. Blake, Anthony, and Quentin Crewe. Great Chefs of France. London: Mitchell Beazley/ Artists House, 1978. Brighton Pavilion. 12 Jun. 2013 ‹http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/interactive/2011/sep/09/brighton-pavilion-360-interactive-panoramic›. Cashman, Dorothy. “An Exploratory Study of Irish Cookbooks.” Unpublished Master's Thesis. M.Sc. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology, 2009. Chartier, Roger. “The Practical Impact of Writing.” Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. A History of Private Lives: Volume III: Passions of the Renaissance. Ed. Roger Chartier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap P of Harvard U, 1989. 111-59. Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food. New York: Oxford U P, 1999. Dawson, Barbara. “Francis Bacon and the Art of Food.” The Irish Times 6 April 2013. den Hartog, Adel P. “Technological Innovations and Eating out as a Mass Phenomenon in Europe: A Preamble.” Eating out in Europe: Picnics, Gourmet Dining and Snacks since the Late Eighteenth Century. Eds. Mark Jacobs and Peter Scholliers. Oxford: Berg, 2003. 263–80. Eatwell, Ann. “Á La Française to À La Russe, 1680-1930.” Elegant Eating: Four Hundred Years of Dining in Style. Eds. Philippa Glanville and Hilary Young. London: V&A, 2002. 48–52. Flandrin, Jean-Louis. “Distinction through Taste.” Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. A History of Private Lives: Volume III : Passions of the Renaissance. Ed. Roger Chartier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap P of Harvard U, 1989. 265–307. Folch, Christine. “Fine Dining: Race in Pre-revolution Cuban Cookbooks.” Latin American Research Review 43.2 (2008): 205–23. Glasse, Hannah. The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy; Which Far Exceeds Anything of the Kind Ever Published. 4th Ed. London: The Author, 1745. Gold, Carol. Danish Cookbooks: Domesticity and National Identity, 1616-1901. Seattle: U of Washington P, 2007. Grainger, Sally. Cooking Apicius: Roman Recipes for Today. Totnes, Devon: Prospect, 2006. Hampton Court Palace. “The Tudor Kitchens.” 12 Jun 2013 ‹http://www.hrp.org.uk/HamptonCourtPalace/stories/thetudorkitchens› Katz, Solomon H. Ed. Encyclopedia of Food and Culture (3 Vols). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2003. Kuhn, T. S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1962. Lamb, Patrick. Royal Cookery:Or. The Complete Court-Cook. London: Abel Roper, 1710. Lehmann, Gilly. “English Cookery Books in the 18th Century.” The Oxford Companion to Food. Ed. Alan Davidson. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1999. 277–9. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín. “The Changing Geography and Fortunes of Dublin’s Haute Cuisine Restaurants 1958–2008.” Food, Culture & Society 14.4 (2011): 525–45. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín, and Dorothy Cashman. “Irish Culinary Manuscripts and Printed Cookbooks: A Discussion.” Petit Propos Culinaires 94 (2011): 81–101. Mason, Laura. Food Culture in Great Britain. Ed. Ken Albala. Westport CT.: Greenwood P, 2004. Mennell, Stephen. All Manners of Food. 2nd ed. Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1996. ---. “Plagiarism and Originality: Diffusionism in the Study of the History of Cookery.” Petits Propos Culinaires 68 (2001): 29–38. Sherman, Sandra. “‘The Whole Art and Mystery of Cooking’: What Cookbooks Taught Readers in the Eighteenth Century.” Eighteenth Century Life 28.1 (2004): 115–35. Smith, Andrew F. Ed. The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. New York: Oxford U P, 2007. Spencer, Colin. British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History. London: Grub Street, 2004. Tierney, Mark. Europe and the World 1300-1763. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1970. Trubek, Amy B. Haute Cuisine: How the French Invented the Culinary Profession. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 2000. Wheaton, Barbara. “Finding Real Life in Cookbooks: The Adventures of a Culinary Historian”. 2006. Humanities Research Group Working Paper. 9 Sep. 2009 ‹http://www.phaenex.uwindsor.ca/ojs/leddy/index.php/HRG/article/view/22/27›. Wheaton, Barbara Ketcham. Savouring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300-1789. London: Chatto & Windus, 1983. White, Eileen, ed. The English Cookery Book: Historical Essays. Proceedings of the 16th Leeds Symposium on Food History 2001. Devon: Prospect, 2001.

1. Make a list of things to do2. Copy list of things left undone from previous list3. Add items to list of new things needing to be done4. Add some of the things already done from previous list and immediately cross off so as to put off the feeling of an interminable list of never accomplishable tasks5. Finish writing list and sit back feeling an overwhelming sense of listlessnessIt started so well. Get up: make list: get on. But lists can breed listlessness. It can’t always be helped. The word “list” referring to a sequence of items comes from the Italian and French words for “strip”—as in a strip of material. The word “list” that you find in the compound “listlessness” comes from the old English word for pleasing (to list is to please and to desire). To be listless is to be without desire, without the desire to please. The etymologies of list and listless don’t correspond but they might seem to conspire in other ways. Oh, and by the way, ships can list when their balance is off.I list, like a ship, itemising my obligations to job, to work, to colleagues, to parenting, to family: write a reference for such and such; buy birthday present for eighty-year-old dad; finish article about lists – and so on. I forget to add to the list my necessary requirements for achieving any of this: keep breathing; eat and drink regularly; visit toilet when required. Lists make visible. Lists hide. I forget to add to my list all my worries that underscore my sense that these lists (or any list) might require an optimism that is always something of a leap of faith: I hope that electricity continues to exist; I hope my computer will still work; I hope that my sore toe isn’t the first sign of bodily paralysis; I hope that this heart will still keep beating.I was brought up on lists: the hit parade (the top one hundred “hit” singles); football leagues (not that I ever really got the hang of them); lists of kings and queens; lists of dates; lists of states; lists of elements (the periodic table). There are lists and there are lists. Some lists are really rankings. These are clearly the important lists. Where do you stand on the list? How near the bottom are you? Where is your university in the list of top universities? Have you gone down or up? To list, then, for some at least is to rank, to prioritise, to value. Is it this that produces listlessness? The sense that while you might want to rank your ten favourite films in a list, listing is something that is constantly happening to you, happening around you; you are always in amongst lists, never on top of them. To hang around the middle of lists might be all that you can hope for: no possibility of sudden lurching from the top spot; no urgent worries that you might be heading for demotion too quickly.But ranking is only one aspect of listing. Sometimes listing has a more flattening effect. I once worked as a cash-in-hand auditor (in this case a posh name for someone who counts things). A group of us (many of whom were seriously stoned) were bussed to factories and warehouses where we had to count the stock. We had to make lists of items and simply count what there was: for large items this was relatively easy, but for the myriad of miniscule parts this seemed a task for Sisyphus. In a power-tool factory in some unprepossessing town on the outskirts of London (was it Slough or Croydon or somewhere else?) we had to count bolts, nuts, washers, flex, rivets, and so on. Of course after a while we just made it up—guesstimates—as they say. A box of thousands of 6mm metal washers is a homogenous set in a list of heterogeneous parts that itself starts looking homogenous as it takes its part in the list. Listing dedifferentiates in the act of differentiating.The task of making lists, of filling-in lists, of having a list of tasks to complete encourages listlessness because to list lists towards exhaustiveness and exhaustion. Archives are lists and lists are often archives and archived. Those that work on lists and on archives constantly battle the fatigue of too many lists, of too much exhaustiveness. But could exhaustion be embraced as a necessary mood with which to deal with lists and archives? Might listlessness be something of a methodological orientation that has its own productivity in the face of so many lists?At my university there resides an archive that can appear to be a list of lists. It is the Mass-Observation archive, begun at the end of 1936 and, with a sizeable hiatus in the 1960s and 1970s, is still going today. (For a full account of Mass-Observation, see Highmore, Everyday Life chapter 6, and Hubble; for examples of Mass-Observation material, see Calder and Sheridan, and Highmore, Ordinary chapter 4; for analysis of Mass-Observation from the point of view of the observer, see Sheridan, Street, and Bloome. The flavour of the project as it emerges in the late 1930s is best conveyed by consulting Mass-Observation, Mass-Observation, First Year’s Work, and Britain.) It was begun by three men: the filmmaker Humphrey Jennings, the poet and sociologist Charles Madge, and the ornithologist and anthropologist-of-the-near Tom Harrisson. Both Jennings and Madge were heavily involved in promoting a form of social surrealism that might see buried forces in the coincidences of daily life as well as in the machinations and contingency of large political and social events (the abdication crisis, the burning of the Crystal Palace—both in late 1936). Harrisson brought a form of amateur anthropology with him that would scour football crowds, pub clientele, and cinema queues for ritualistic and symbolic forms. Mass-Observation quickly recruited a large group of voluntary observers (about a thousand) who would be “the meteorological stations from whose reports a weather-map of popular feeling can be compiled” (Mass-Observation, Mass-Observation 30). Mass-Observation combined the social survey with a relentless interest in the irrational and in what the world felt like to those who lived in it. As a consequence the file reports often seem banal and bizarre in equal measure (accounts of nightmares, housework routines, betting activities). When Mass-Observation restarted in the 1980s the surrealistic impetus became less pronounced, but it was still there, implicit in the methodology. Today, both as an on-going project and as an archive of previous observational reports, Mass-Observation lives in archival boxes. You can find a list of what topics are addressed in each box; you can also find lists of the contributors, the voluntary Mass-Observers whose observations are recorded in the boxes. What better way to give you a flavour of these boxes than to offer you a sample of their listing activities. Here are observers, observing in 1983 the objects that reside on their mantelpieces. Here’s one:champagne cork, rubber band, drawing pin, two hearing aid batteries, appointment card for chiropodist, piece of dog biscuit.Does this conjure up a world? Do we have a set of clues, of material evidence, a small cosmology of relics, a reduced Wunderkammer, out of which we can construct not the exotic but something else, something more ordinary? Do you smell camphor and imagine antimacassars? Do you hear conversations with lots of mishearing? Are the hearing aid batteries shared? Is this a single person living with a dog, or do we imagine an assembly of chiropodist-goers, dog-owners, hearing aid-users, rubber band-pingers, champagne-drinkers?But don’t get caught imagining a life out of these fragments. Don’t get stuck on this list: there are hundreds to get through. After all, what sort of an archive would it be if it included a single list? We need more lists.Here’s another mantelpiece: three penknives, a tube of cement [which I assume is the sort of rubber cement that you get in bicycle puncture repair kits], a pocket microscope, a clinical thermometer.Who is this? A hypochondriacal explorer? Or a grown-up boy-scout, botanising on the asphalt? Why so many penknives? But on, on... And another:1 letter awaiting postage stamp1 diet book1 pair of spare spectacles1 recipe for daughter’s home economics1 notepad1 pen1 bottle of indigestion tablets1 envelope containing 13 pence which is owed a friend1 pair of stick-on heels for home shoe repairing session3 letters in day’s post1 envelope containing money for week’s milk bill1 recipe cut from magazine2 out of date letters from schoolWhat is the connection between the daughter’s home economics recipe and the indigestion tablets? Is the homework gastronomy not quite going to plan? Or is the diet book causing side-effects? And what sort of financial stickler remembers that they owe 13p; even in 1983 this was hardly much money? Or is it the friend who is the stickler? Perhaps this is just prying...?But you need more. Here’s yet another:an ashtray, a pipe, pipe tamper and tobacco pouch, one decorated stone and one plain stone, a painted clay model of an alien, an enamelled metal egg from Hong Kong, a copper bracelet, a polished shell, a snowstorm of Father Christmas in his sleigh...Ah, a pipe smoker, this much is clear. But apart from this the display sounds ritualistic – one stone decorated the other not. What sort of religion is this? What sort of magic? An alien and Santa. An egg, a shell, a bracelet. A riddle.And another:Two 12 gauge shotgun cartridges live 0 spread Rubber plantBrass carriage clockInternational press clock1950s cigarette dispenser Model of Panzer MKIV tankWWI shell fuseWWI shell case ash tray containing an acorn, twelve .22 rounds of ammunition, a .455 Eley round and a drawing pinPhoto of Eric Liddell (Chariots of Fire)Souvenir of Algerian ash tray containing marbles and beach stonesThree 1930s plastic duck clothes brushesLetter holder containing postcards and invitations. Holder in shape of a cow1970s Whizzwheels toy carWooden box of jeweller’s rottenstone (Victorian)Incense holderWorld war one German fuse (used)Jim Beam bottle with candle thereinSol beer bottle with candle therein I’m getting worried now. Who are these people who write for Mass-Observation? Why so much military paraphernalia? Why such detail as to the calibrations? Should I concern myself that small militias are holding out behind the net curtains and aspidistra plants of suburban England?And another:1930s AA BadgeAvocado PlantWooden cat from MexicoKahlua bottle with candle there in1950s matchbook with “merry widow” cocktail printed thereonTwo Britain’s model cannonOne brass “Carronade” from the Carron Iron Works factory shopPhotography pass from Parkhead 12/11/88Grouse foot kilt pinBrass incense holderPheasant featherNovitake cupBlack ash tray with beach pebbles there inFull packet of Mary Long cigarettes from HollandPewter cocktail shaker made in ShanghaiI’m feeling distance. Who says “there in” and “there on?” What is a Novitake cup? Perhaps I wrote it down incorrectly? An avocado plant stirs memories of trying to grow one from an avocado stone skewered in a cup with one “point” dunked in a bit of water. Did it ever grow, or just rot? I’m getting distracted now, drifting off, feeling sleepy...Some more then – let’s feed the listlessness of the list:Wood sculpture (Tenerife)A Rubber bandBirdJunior aspirinToy dinosaur Small photo of daughterSmall paint brushAh yes the banal bizarreness of ordinary life: dinosaurs and aspirins, paint brushes and rubber bands.But then a list comes along and pierces you:Six inch piece of grey eyeliner1 pair of nail clippers1 large box of matches1 Rubber band2 large hair gripsHalf a piece of cough candy1 screwed up tissue1 small bottle with tranquillizers in1 dead (but still in good condition) butterfly (which I intended to draw but placed it now to rest in the garden) it was already dead when I found it.The dead butterfly, the tranquillizers, the insistence that the mantelpiece user didn’t actually kill the butterfly, the half piece of cough candy, the screwed up tissue. In amongst the rubber bands and matches, signs of something desperate. Or maybe not: a holding on (the truly desperate haven’t found their way to the giant tranquillizer cupboard), a keeping a lid on it, a desire (to draw, to place a dead butterfly at rest in the garden)...And here is the methodology emerging: the lists works on the reader, listing them, and making them listless. After a while the lists (and there are hundreds of these lists of mantle-shelf items) begin to merge. One giant mantle shelf filled with small stacks of foreign coins, rubber bands and dead insects. They invite you to be both magical ethnographer and deadpan sociologist at one and the same time (for example, see Hurdley). The “Martian” ethnographer imagines the mantelpiece as a shrine where this culture worships the lone rubber band and itinerant button. Clearly a place of reliquary—on this planet the residents set up altars where they place their sacred objects: clocks and clippers; ammunition and amulets; coins and pills; candles and cosmetics. Or else something more sober, more sombre: late twentieth century petite-bourgeois taste required the mantelpiece to hold the signs of aspirant propriety in the form of emblems of tradition (forget the coins and the dead insects and weaponry: focus on the carriage clocks). And yet, either way, it is the final shelf that gets me every time. But it only got me, I think, because the archive had worked its magic: ransacked my will, my need to please, my desire. It had, for a while at least, made me listless, and listless enough to be touched by something that was really a minor catalogue of remainders. This sense of listlessness is the way that the archive productively defeats the “desire for the archive.” It is hard to visit an archive without an expectation, without an “image repertoire,” already in mind. This could be thought of as the apperception-schema of archival searching: the desire to see patterns already imagined; the desire to find the evidence for the thought whose shape has already formed. Such apperception is hard to avoid (probably impossible), but the boredom of the archive, its ceaselessness, has a way of undoing it, of emptying it. It corresponds to two aesthetic positions and propositions. One is well-known: it is Barthes’s distinction between “studium” and “punctum.” For Barthes, studium refers to a sort of social interest that is always, to some degree, satisfied by a document (his concern, of course, is with photographs). The punctum, on the other hand, spills out from the photograph as a sort of metonymical excess, quite distinct from social interest (but for all that, not asocial). While Barthes is clearly offering a phenomenology of viewing photographs, he isn’t overly interested (here at any rate) with the sort of perceptional-state the viewer might need to be in to be pierced by the puntum of an image. My sense, though, is that boredom, listlessness, tiredness, a sort of aching indifference, a mood of inattentiveness, a sense of satiated interest (but not the sort of disinterest of Kantian aesthetics), could all be beneficial to a punctum-like experience. The second aesthetic position is not so well-known. The Austrian dye-technician, lawyer and art-educationalist Anton Ehrenzweig wrote, during the 1950s and 1960s, about a form of inattentive-attention, and a form of afocal-rendering (eye-repelling rather than eye-catching), that encouraged eye-wandering, scanning, and the “‘full’ emptiness of attention” (Ehrenzweig, The Hidden Order 39). His was an aesthetics attuned to the kind of art produced by Paul Klee, but it was also an aesthetic propensity useful for making wallpaper and for productively connecting to unconscious processes. Like Barthes, Ehrenzweig doesn’t pursue the sort of affective state of being that might enhance such inattentive-attention, but it is not hard to imagine that the sort of library-tiredness of the archive would be a fitting preparation for “full emptiness.” Ehrenzweig and Barthes can be useful for exploring this archival mood, this orientation and attunement, which is also a disorientation and mis-attunement. Trawling through lists encourages scanning: your sensibilities are prepared; your attention is being trained. After a while, though, the lists blur, concentration starts to loosen its grip. The lists are not innocent recipients here. Shrapnel shards pull at you. You start to notice the patterns but also the spaces in-between that don’t seem to fit sociological categorisations. The strangeness of the patterns hypnotises you and while the effect can generate a sense of sociological-anthropological homogeneity-with-difference, sometimes the singularity of an item leaps out catching you unawares. An archive is an orchestration of order and disorder: however contained and constrained it appears it is always spilling out beyond its organisational structures (amongst the many accounts of archives in terms of their orderings, see Sekula, and Stoler, Race and Along). Like “Probate Inventories,” the mantelpiece archive presents material objects that connect us (however indirectly) to embodied practices and living spaces (Evans). The Mass-Observation archive, especially in its mantelpiece collection, is an accretion of temporalities and spaces. More crucially, it is an accumulation of temporalities materialised in a mass of spaces. A thousand mantelpieces in a thousand rooms scattered across the United Kingdom. Each shelf is syncopated to the rhythms of diverse durations, while being synchronised to the perpetual now of the shelf: a carriage clock, for instance, inherited from a deceased parent, its brass detailing relating to a different age, its mechanism perpetually telling you that the time of this space is now. The archive carries you away to a thousand living rooms filled with the momentary (dead insects) and the eternal (pebbles) and everything in-between. Its centrifugal force propels you out to a vast accrual of things: ashtrays, rubber bands, military paraphernalia, toy dinosaurs; a thousand living museums of the incidental and the memorial. This vertiginous archive threatens to undo you; each shelf a montage of times held materially together in space. It is too much. It pushes me towards the mantelshelves I know, the ones I’ve had a hand in. Each one an archive in itself: my grandfather’s green glass paperweight holding a fragile silver foil flower in its eternal grasp; the potions and lotions that feed my hypochondria; used train tickets. Each item pushes outwards to other times, other spaces, other people, other things. It is hard to focus, hard to cling onto anything. Was it the dead butterfly, or the tranquillizers, or both, that finally nailed me? Or was it the half a cough-candy? I know what she means by leaving the remnants of this sweet. You remember the taste, you think you loved them as a child, they have such a distinctive candy twist and colour, but actually their taste is harsh, challenging, bitter. There is nothing as ephemeral and as “useless” as a sweet; and yet few things are similarly evocative of times past, of times lost. Yes, I think I’d leave half a cough-candy on a shelf, gathering dust.[All these lists of mantelpiece items are taken from the Mass-Observation archive at the University of Sussex. Mass-Observation is a registered charity. For more information about Mass-Observation go to http://www.massobs.org.uk/]ReferencesBarthes, Roland. Camera Lucida. Translated by Richard Howard. London: Fontana, 1984.Calder, Angus, and Dorothy Sheridan, eds. Speak for Yourself: A Mass-Observation Anthology 1937–1949. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1985.Ehrenzweig, Anton. The Psychoanalysis of Artistic Vision and Hearing: An Introduction to a Theory of Unconscious Perception. Third edition. London: Sheldon Press, 1965. [Originally published in 1953.]---. The Hidden Order of Art. London: Paladin, 1970.Evans, Adrian. “Enlivening the Archive: Glimpsing Embodied Consumption Practices in Probate Inventories of Household Possessions.” Historical Geography 36 (2008): 40-72.Highmore, Ben. Everyday Life and Cultural Theory. London: Routledge, 2002.---. Ordinary Lives: Studies in the Everyday. Abingdon: Routledge, 2011.Hubble, Nick. Mass-Observation and Everyday Life: Culture, History, Theory, Houndmills and New York: Palgrave, 2006.Hurdley, Rachel. “Dismantling Mantelpieces: Narrating Identities and Materializing Culture in the Home.” Sociology 40, 4 (2006): 717-733Mass-Observation. Mass-Observation. London: Fredrick Muller, 1937.---. First Year’s Work 1937-38. London: Lindsay Drummond, 1938.---. Britain. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939.Sekula, Allan. “The Body and the Archive.” October 39 (1986): 3-64.Sheridan, Dorothy, Brian Street, and David Bloome. Writing Ourselves: Mass-Observation and Literary Practices. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, 2000.Stoler, Ann Laura. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Durham and London: Duke UP, 1995. Stoler, Ann Laura. Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2009.