Journal articles: 'Archaeological tools'

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Dudko, А. А., and Yu A. Vasileva. "Archaeological Observations in a Section of the Cultural Layer of the City of Tomsk in 2020." Problems of Archaeology, Ethnography, Anthropology of Siberia and Neighboring Territories 27 (2021): 945–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.17746/2658-6193.2021.27.0945-0950.

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This article describes the results of rescue archaeological works at the site of archaeological heritage “Section of the cultural layer of the city of Tomsk on Altaiskaya St., 6, second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries,” in the area of constructing apartment building. The site is located in the central part of Tomsk (historical region) on the left bank of the Ushaika River (right tributary of the Tom River). In the course of archaeological observations, fundamentally new information on stratigraphic and planigraphic context of the site was obtained. A collection of archaeological objects (831 artifacts), including fragments of pottery, porcelain dishware, earthenware, meta dishware and glassware, leather and birch bark shoes, metal tools, jewelry and household items, coins, glazed and unglazed clay tiles, and cast-iron gravestone was collected in the destroyed cultural layer. The complex of things dates back to the period from 1830 to 1910, and enriches our understanding of various aspects of everyday life in Tomsk at that time. During archaeological observations, areas of undisturbed cultural layer at that site of archaeological heritage have not been found. As a special type of archaeological field works, archaeological observations make it possible to successfully employ the entire set of methodological tools available to archaeologists, focus on archaeologically promising sites, and accelerate works on unpromising or ruined areas.

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Odess, Daniel, and Jeffrey T. Rasic. "Toolkit Composition and Assemblage Variability: The Implications of Nogahabara I, Northern Alaska." American Antiquity 72, no. 4 (October 2007): 691–718. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/25470441.

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Nogahabara I is a late Pleistocene age archaeological site located in interior northwestern Alaska. In contrast to most archaeological assemblages left by mobile hunter-gatherers, which consist largely of manufacturing debris and a few worn or broken tools, the site contains 267 largely whole, useful tools, which we interpret as a lost or abandoned toolkit. As a snapshot of the tools carried by an individual or small group during an archaeological instant, the toolkit offers insights into specific technological behaviors and general processes that influence the formation of lithic assemblages. The toolkit exhibits a surprisingly wide range of tool forms and production technologies. It also shows direct archaeological evidence of transport and episodic use and maintenance of tools and cores. This evidence suggests intensive toolstone conservation that would have reduced the frequency with which toolkit depletion would have forced people to re-provision. One implication of these behaviors is that lithic assemblages left scattered across the landscape should be highly variable. Another is that there are profound differences between systemic toolkits and the archaeological assemblages from which they are derived.

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Haslam, Michael, Lydia Luncz, Alejandra Pascual-Garrido, Tiago Falótico, Suchinda Malaivijitnond, and Michael Gumert. "Archaeological excavation of wild macaque stone tools." Journal of Human Evolution 96 (July 2016): 134–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.05.002.

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Sims, D. "Archaeological models: pretty pictures or research tools?" IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 17, no. 1 (1997): 13–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/38.576850.

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Montalvo, Carlos, Andres Mosquera, Eric Dyrdahl, Valeria Rivera, Santiago Solines, Maria Gracia Riofrío, and Gabriela Granja. "Quito’s Archaeological Heritage Protection: The “Delimitación de Áreas Arqueológicas del Bloque Quito” Project as a Case of Study." Ex Novo: Journal of Archaeology 6 (February 11, 2022): 85–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.32028/vol6isspp85-103.

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This work aims to outline and discuss the challenges and issues related to the protection of archaeological sites in urban contexts from an interdisciplinary approach, focusing on the collaboration and regulation between academia, consultants, local government offices and citizens. To achieve this objective, a team formed by archaeologists, geographers, and lawyers, coordinated and financed by a local government office (Municipality of Quito), was formed to develop tools to incorporate in the city’s cadastral map and draft specific legislation to regulate the land use in archaeologically sensitive areas. GIS (geographic information system) tools were applied to collect the geographical data (generation of an archaeological map) of the sites and compared with Quito’s cadastral data. The drafted law also pretends to raise awareness of landowners, construction companies, and the broader community, providing them with information about the properties located in archaeologically sensitive areas and establishing channels of dialogue between the relevant parties that will lead to the development of research projects in sensitive areas prior to their destruction.

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Frison, George C. "Experimental Use of Clovis Weaponry and Tools on African Elephants." American Antiquity 54, no. 4 (October 1989): 766–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/280681.

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Clovis projectile points and chipped-stone tools have been recovered in a number of archaeological sites in the New World, but these cannot be tested on mammoths, which we know from the archaeological evidence Clovis hunters were able to procure. Extensive culling of elephants in Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe provided the necessary animals to test replicas of Clovis tools and weaponry. The experiments leave little doubt that Clovis projectile points can inflict lethal wounds on African elephants and that simple stone tools will perform the necessary butchering tasks. The physiology of mammoths and elephants is similar enough to make positive statements on the potential of this kind of stone-tool and weaponry assemblage, but we will never be able to compare elephant and mammoth behavior directly.

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Lychagina, Evgeniya Leonidovna, and Aleksey Nikolaevich Sarapulov. "Fisheries on Chashkino micro-region archaeological sites." Samara Journal of Science 7, no. 4 (November 30, 2018): 177–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201874204.

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Chashkinskoye Lake is the Kama river palaeochannel. More than 20 archaeological sites are known on its eastern shore. They refer to the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Middle Ages. We divided all the tools that could be used for fishing in the Stone Age, into the tools directly and indirectly indicative of the development of fishing. We refer to the direct signs - the finds of sinkers and ice-splitting tools. We believe that the indirect signs include finds of axes, adzes and chisels that could be used to make boats. To this group we also include liners of composite throwing tools that could be used as harpoon blades. Mesolithic sites with tools associated with fishing were not found. On Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites large sinkers, chisels, adzes were found. This indicates that during the Neolithic-Chalcolithic period, fishing began to play an increasingly important role in the economic structure of the Chashkino micro-region population. In Middle Age settlements fishhooks, leisters, sinkers were found. The main forms of fishing were the spicy fishing, the setting up of nets and individual fishing with fishing rods.

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Lidström Holmberg, Cecilia. "Prehistoric Grinding Tools as Metaphorical Traces of the Past." Current Swedish Archaeology 6, no. 1 (June 10, 2021): 123–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.37718/csa.1998.10.

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The predominant interpretation of reciprocating grinding tools is generally couched in terms of low archaeological value, anonymity, simplicity, functionality and daily life of women. It is argued that biased opinions and a low form-variability have conspired to deny grinding tools all but superficial attention. Saddle-shaped grinding tools appear in the archaeological record in middle Sweden at the time of the Mesolithic — Neolithic transition. It is argued that Neolithic grinding tools are products of intentional design. Deliberate depositions in various ritual contexts reinforce the idea of grinding tools as prehistoric metaphors, with functional and symbolic meanings interlinked.

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Guideri, Silvia, and Tessa Matteini. "Cultivating Archaeological Landscape." Joelho Revista de Cultura Arquitectonica, no. 11-12 (September 9, 2021): 101–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/1647-8681_11_12_6.

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The paper proposes an interdisciplinary exploration in order to define a set of strategies and tools oriented at planning/design/management of archaeological landscapes, especially featured by productive layers. The article adopts as a key dimension the “cultivating” approach, which can become a fertile ground for experimentation for developing sustainable and innovative planning methodologies to be applied in layered landscapes. In an extended semantic dimension, the term cultivation can be interpreted as a continuous attitude of taking care of (archaeological) places over time, to preserve and regenerate resources for the future in a holistic vision, also considering economic sustainability and liveability for inhabitants and local fauna. The cultivating approach can preserve heritage places by an active and inventive conservation, also fostering biodiversity and temporal diversity. As a case study, the article proposes the Landscape Masterplan for the Baratti and Populonia Archaeological Park.

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Rząsa, Krzysztof, and Mateusz Ciski. "Archaeological monuments of the Warmian-Masurian voivodeship – spatial analysis using GIS tools." E3S Web of Conferences 63 (2018): 00019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186300019.

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Archaeological monuments are one of the forms of monument protection in Poland. It includes various objects, among which one can distinguish: field remnants of prehistoric and historical settlements, graveyards, burial mounds and single graves, as well as relics of industrial, religious and artistic activity. All these objects are of great importance in spatial planning, and its location possess a big impact on the possibilities of land development. According to The National Heritage Board of Poland database for September 2018, there are 7 672 archaeological monuments registered in the polish register of objects of cultural heritage. The number of archaeological objects entered in the register in individual voivodeships is varied. The majority of monuments is located in the Lower Silesian voivodeship, the least in Łódź voivodeship. In this article, archaeological monuments in the Warmian-Masurian voivodeship were analysed, in which there are 286 of such objects. Identification with regard to function was carried out, and a detailed location was specified. With the use of GIS tools, a series of maps was created, which after analysing became the basis for formulating final conclusions. Some of it can be used in the preparation of planning documents at the voivodeship and municipal level.

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Shott, Michael J. "On Tool-Class Use Lives and the Formation of Archaeological Assemblages." American Antiquity 54, no. 1 (January 1989): 9–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/281329.

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The importance of tool-class use lives in the formation of archaeological assemblages is established both in theory and empirically, and accurate inference from the material record requires that use lives be measured or estimated with confidence. Unfortunately, no method of measuring use lives directly from archaeological remains has been developed. However, this important quantity may be related to elementary properties of tool classes such as size and weight, properties which are themselves directly measurable. Ethnographic data on ceramic vessels, in which use life is related to such properties, is described and analyzed. Using!Kung San and Ingalik data, a similar analysis is performed for a variety of nonceramic tools and objects, although few of the stone-tool classes common to archaeological assemblages are included. There, use life is related most strongly to manufacturing cost and curation rate, an archaeological measure of which is proposed. Neither is an elementary property, but they can be estimated accurately for many tool classes. These results are noteworthy but not definitive, and they underscore the continued value of museum ethnographic collections and ethnoarchaeological research.

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Rodríguez-Álvarez, Emilio. "MOOCs and Archaeological Advocacy." Advances in Archaeological Practice 5, no. 1 (February 2017): 107–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aap.2016.9.

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This review assesses the capabilities of the technology of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) as tools for increasing the presence of archaeology in our digital society. Instead of focusing on the academic value of the content of these courses, I explore their usefulness as promoters of rigorous archaeological practices and ethics, as well as the protection and preservation of cultural heritage. After enrolling as a student in six MOOCs, I have analyzed whether these courses successfully provided students with an informed and critical understanding of the field, as well as creating networks of advocates that can share this knowledge across their communities.

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Bornik, Alexander, and Wolfgang Neubauer. "3D Visualization Techniques for Analysis and Archaeological Interpretation of GPR Data." Remote Sensing 14, no. 7 (April 1, 2022): 1709. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14071709.

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The non-invasive detection and digital documentation of buried archaeological heritage by means of geophysical prospection is increasingly gaining importance in modern field archaeology and archaeological heritage management. It frequently provides the detailed information required for heritage protection or targeted further archaeological research. High-resolution magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) became invaluable tools for the efficient and comprehensive non-invasive exploration of complete archaeological sites and archaeological landscapes. The analysis and detailed archaeological interpretation of the resulting large 2D and 3D datasets, and related data from aerial archaeology or airborne remote sensing, etc., is a time-consuming and complex process, which requires the integration of all data at hand, respective three-dimensional imagination, and a broad understanding of the archaeological problem; therefore, informative 3D visualizations supporting the exploration of complex 3D datasets and supporting the interpretative process are in great demand. This paper presents a novel integrated 3D GPR interpretation approach, centered around the flexible 3D visualization of heterogeneous data, which supports conjoint visualization of scenes composed of GPR volumes, 2D prospection imagery, and 3D interpretative models. We found that the flexible visual combination of the original 3D GPR datasets and images derived from the data applying post-processing techniques inspired by medical image analysis and seismic data processing contribute to the perceptibility of archaeologically relevant features and their respective context within a stratified volume. Moreover, such visualizations support the interpreting archaeologists in their development of a deeper understanding of the complex datasets as a starting point for and throughout the implemented interactive interpretative process.

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Calzado-Sánchez, Itziar. "Evaluación y análisis de herramientas digitales en el yacimiento arqueológico de Empúries, Catalunya." Tourism and Heritage Journal 2 (July 23, 2020): 58–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1344/thj.2020.2.5.

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Within the scope of the evolution of technologies, there are more and more heritage and cultural spaces that include in their dissemination and mediation technological tools, specifically and significantly, those catalogued as digital tools. This study takes into account heritage spaces that have permanently included digital tools as mediation resources in archaeological spaces. To this end, the case of the archaeological site of Empúries, Catalonia, has been taken as an example, where an evaluation of these digital tools has been carried out based on their capacity to create and transmit knowledge to users, on the understanding of the material remains present in the site and on the satisfaction generated by these tools. This research is of an exploratory nature and has been carried out using a qualitative methodology. The aim is to establish to what extent the technological or digital tools (specifically, the audio guide and Virtual Reality) help to understand the material remains present in the archaeological site, and the extent to which the digital tools chosen in the mediation of the heritage encourage interaction between visitor and environment is analysed. The results show that it is not possible to say that digital tools significantly increase visitor satisfaction, since the average response of all visitors, regardless of the visit made, is positive.

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Scalercio, Emiliano, Francesco Sangiovanni, Alessandro Gallo, and Loris Barbieri. "Underwater Power Tools for In Situ Preservation, Cleaning and Consolidation of Submerged Archaeological Remains." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9, no. 6 (June 19, 2021): 676. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060676.

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In situ protection and conservation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage are now considered a primary choice by the scientific community to be preferred, when possible, over the practice of recovery. The conservation of the artefacts within their environmental context is essential in fact for a correct interpretation of archaeological presences and to preserve their true value intact for future generations. However, this is not an easy task because modern technological equipment is necessary to make the work carried out by underwater restorers and archaeologists faster and more efficient. To this end, the paper presents three innovative underwater power tools for the cleaning, conservation, and consolidation activities to be performed in submerged archaeological sites. The first one is an underwater cleaning brush tool for a soft cleaning of the underwater archaeological structures and artefacts; the second one is a multifunctional underwater hammer drill suitable to be used as a corer sampler, chisel, or drill; the last one is an injection tool specifically designed to dispense mortar underwater for consolidation techniques of submerged structures.

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Akhatov, Al'bert Tagirovich. "Woodworking tools of the Bashkirs in the XVI I– XVIII centuries (based on the data of archaeological and written materials)." Genesis: исторические исследования, no. 12 (December 2021): 250–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-868x.2021.12.37169.

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The subject of this research is the woodworking tools of the Bashkirs in in the XVII– XVIII centuries. The goal lies in examination of the tools used by the Bashkirs for wood processing during the XVII – XVIII centuries leaning on the archaeological materials obtained in the course of exploration of Aznayevo settlement and Berekovo rural localities. The article also involves the written record of the authors of the late XVIII sources and the data of historical-ethnographic researcher of later periods. The research relies in the comprehensive approach of the available archaeological, written and ethnographic materials; as well as descriptive, historical-comparative methods, and analysis of real sources. This article is first to examine the woodworking tools used by the Bashkirs in XVII – XVIII centuries. The archaeological collections allows establishing that the Bashkirs used axes, knives, scraper, graver and drill for wood processing. For basket weaving from bast and birch bark was used the curved awl. According to the written sources, the woodworking tools also included adzes and chisels. The explored archaeological and written materials allow concluding that the woodworking tools of the XVII – XVIII centuries continued to exist among the Bashkir population until the XIX – early XXI centuries, which is proven by the results of historical-ethnographic research.

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Debruyne, Sofie. "Tools and souvenirs: the shells from Kilise Tepe (1994–1998)." Anatolian Studies 60 (December 2010): 149–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0066154600001071.

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AbstractIn the summers of 1994–1998 a rescue excavation took place at Kilise Tepe, an archaeological site occupied from the Early Bronze Age to the Byzantine period, located in the Göksu valley in Cilicia in southern Turkey. This article analyses the shell finds from environmental and archaeological perspectives. Three categories of molluscs are identified: terrestrial, freshwater and marine. The first two are the remnants of local fauna that lived on or near the site; the marine shells came from the Mediterranean shore adjacent to the Göksu delta and the delta itself. There are indications that freshwater mussels served as tools. Marine shells were worn as ornaments.

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Saláta, D., E. Krausz, L. Reményi, Ákos Kenéz, and Á. Pető. "Combining historical land-use and geoarchaeological evidence to support archaeological site detection." Agrokémia és Talajtan 63, no. 1 (June 1, 2014): 99–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/agrokem.63.2014.1.11.

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The present state of our landscapes is not only the result of various natural processes, but of the anthropogenic effect that humankind had since its occurrence within the landscape. These processes reach back as far as the beginning of the known archaeological eras. One of the major problems in the reconstruction of landscape evolution is bridging the gap between the archaeologically well-defined periods and the extensively documented last three centuries. Remains of the various archaeological periods are conserved in the soil and form part of the soil’s memory function; but soils develop and might get destroyed over time. However, soils also bridge the heritage of once lived cultures with those events of the last few centuries that are reconstructable, based on written and map sources. It must be noted that the possibility of human-induced soil destruction is significantly higher within the mentioned centuries, therefore the understanding of land-use changes, land-use trajectories are essential in assessing the possible degradation of soils, archaeological sites and heritage.The present contribution attempts to integrate the tools of geoarchaeology, soil science and landscape ecology with the archaeological knowledge of the Cikola valley (Mezőföld, Hungary). The historic land-use changes within the target area of the valley were detected and quantified with the trajectory tracking method. This was compared to soil conditions, geoarchaeological data and to information collected through on-site archaeological field walking. The comparisons of archaeological sites that have been less or more intensively used in the past, differ both in soil conditions, and in the condition of the archaeological phenomena they preserve. The trajectory values gave a good estimate on the possible and predictable disturbance of the archaeological phenomena preserved at the examined sites.

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Howland, Matthew D., Anthony Tamberino, Ioannis Liritzis, and Thomas E. Levy. "Digital Deforestation: Comparing Automated Approaches to the Production of Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) in Agisoft Metashape." Quaternary 5, no. 1 (January 14, 2022): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/quat5010005.

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This paper tests the suitability of automated point cloud classification tools provided by the popular image-based modeling (IBM) software package Agisoft Metashape for the generation of digital terrain models (DTMs) at moderately-vegetated archaeological sites. DTMs are often required for various forms of archaeological mapping and analysis. The suite of tools provided by Agisoft are relatively user-friendly as compared to many point cloud classification algorithms and do not require the use of additional software. Based on a case study from the Mycenaean site of Kastrouli, Greece, the mostly-automated, geometric classification tool “Classify Ground Points” provides the best results and produces a quality DTM that is sufficient for mapping and analysis. Each of the methods tested in this paper can likely be improved through manual editing of point cloud classification.

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Maqueda García-Morales, Raúl, and Manuel Luque Cortina. "Paleocatálogo 3D: Photogrammetry for the realization of a high quality, accessible and free 3D Virtual Catalog." Virtual Archaeology Review 6, no. 13 (November 24, 2015): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/var.2015.4369.

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To develop quality tools for dissemination and outreach today is no longer a problem. The access to archaeological collections, to have at our disposal a repertoire of portable art, tools, etc. of European Prehistory, neither will be. In these lines we will see the project in which we combine technology, information and accessibility to that information, as a tool for the study and dissemination of prehistory for all educational levels.

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Cassidy, Brendan, Gavin Sim, David Wayne Robinson, and Devlin Gandy. "A Virtual Reality Platform for Analyzing Remote Archaeological Sites." Interacting with Computers 31, no. 2 (March 1, 2019): 167–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwz011.

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Abstract This paper describes a Virtual Reality (VR) prototype developed to help archaeologists and other stakeholders explore and analyse archaeological data in a more immersive context. We describe a VR reconstruction of Pleito Cave, a fragile world class rock-art site with accessibility limitation. Key stakeholders are identified and a prototype is described that provides a VR platform for visualizing and interacting with complex archaeological data (gathered from techniques such as decorrelation stretch and X-ray fluorescence) virtually ‘in situ’, in a way that would not be possible at the real site. The prototype allows multiple remote users to interact with the cave together remotely providing opportunities for collaborative interpretation and analysis of archaeological data. We also present a survey-based evaluation in which both archaeologists and Native American stakeholders indicate positive responses for measures of both engagement and value. Research Highlights An interactive, multi-user, immersive archaeological data visualization tool is described. Survey evaluation elicits insights into where the system provides value and engagement for key stakeholders. Thematic Analysis provides further design insights for future development of immersive archaeological data visualization tools.

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Butalag, K., L. Calcagnile, G. Quarta, L. Maruccio, and M. D’Elia. "PIXE analysis of obsidian tools from radiocarbon dated archaeological contexts." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 266, no. 10 (May 2008): 2353–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2008.03.079.

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Kooyman, Brian, Margaret E. Newman, and Howard Ceri. "Verifying the reliability of blood residue analysis on archaeological tools." Journal of Archaeological Science 19, no. 3 (May 1992): 265–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(92)90016-v.

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Al-Zubaidy, Aqeel. "Mineralogy and Chemical Composition of Basalt Stone Tools in Some Iraqi Archaeological Sites." Iraqi Geological Journal 54, no. 1C (March 31, 2021): 101–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.46717/igj.54.1c.8ms-2021-03-28.

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Basalt stone tools were collected from some Iraqi Archaeological Sites. Twenty-one samples were studied petrographically, mineralogically, and chemical composition. Five samples were from the Gaara Depression north of Rutba town, seven samples from Tarmiya, north Baghdad, seven samples from Dalmij site, east of Diwaniya city, and two samples from Jordan, which were used for comparison. The studied samples were classified into three groups, according to their mineralogy and texture: Group A: Vesicular Basalt, Group B: Dolerite, and Group C: Olivine Basalt. These stones most probably were used as a hand axe, grinder, hammer, and other uses, as well as for buildings, like those used in Qasar Al- Azraq and Umm Al- Jamal archaeological sites in Jordan. These basalt rocks most probably were transported by an ancient man from Harrat Al-Sham, which extends through Syria-Jordan-Saudi Arabia, or from NE Syria through a trade route that connected between source areas and the studied archaeological sites in Iraq.

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Nami, Hugo G. "Paleoamerican Occupation, Stone Tools from the Cueva del Medio, and Considerations for the Late Pleistocene Archaeology in Southern South America." Quaternary 2, no. 3 (August 12, 2019): 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/quat2030028.

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Archaeological excavations at the Cueva del Medio performed during the 1980s and 1990s yielded an important record of both faunal and stone tool remains, as well as data, to discuss issues that occurred during the Terminal Pleistocene. Due to that, the shaped Paleoamerican artifacts collected in the author’s excavations were partially informed. The present article provides unpublished data on the field-work, the results of a techno-morphological analysis of the stone tools, and considerations about early hunter-gatherer societies along with their regional paleo-environmental interactions, as well other topics regarding the regional archaeological process during the last millennium of the Pleistocene. Findings from there have been extremely useful for discussing diverse paleo-ecological and archaeological topics and have extended the knowledge and discussions about different Pleistocene scientific issues, mainly related with flora, fauna, and the colonization of southern Patagonia.

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Stout, Dietrich, and Nada Khreisheh. "Skill Learning and Human Brain Evolution: An Experimental Approach." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25, no. 4 (October 15, 2015): 867–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774315000359.

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Increasing reliance on skill-intensive subsistence strategies appears to be a hallmark of human evolution, with wide-ranging implications for sociality, brain size, life-history and cognitive adaptations. These parameters describe a human technological niche reliant on efficient intergenerational reproduction of increasingly complex foraging techniques, including especially the production and effective use of tools. The archaeological record provides a valuable source of evidence for tracing the emergence of this modern human condition, but interpretation of this evidence remains challenging and controversial. Application of methods from psychology and neuroscience to Palaeolithic tool-making experiments offers new avenues for establishing empirical links between technological behaviours, neurocognitive substrates and archaeologically observable material residues. Here we review recent progress and highlight key challenges for the future.

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Wynn, Thomas. "Tools, Grammar and the Archaeology of Cognition." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1, no. 2 (October 1991): 191–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774300000354.

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Use of archaeological evidence in discussions of the origin and evolution of grammar has proved unconvincing largely because of undeveloped theoretical assumptions about the cognitive connection between language and tool behaviour. This paper examines the cognitive basis of tool use and tool making and concludes that there is no sound theoretical basis for inferring grammatical abilities from prehistoric stone tools. Our knowledge concerning the cognitive basis of tool behaviour can, however, be used to document evolutionary developments in hominid cognition. Analysis of early biface culture, for example, reveals a cognitive complexity greater than that demonstrable for the earlier Oldowan or for modern apes.

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Sánchez Climent, Álvaro, and María Luisa Cerdeño Serrano. "Propuesta metodológica para el estudio volumétrico de cerámica arqueológica a través de programas free-software de edición 3D: el caso de las necrópolis celtibéricas del área meseteña." Virtual Archaeology Review 5, no. 11 (October 23, 2014): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/var.2014.4173.

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Nowadays the free-software programs have been converted into the ideal tools for the archaeological researches, reaching the same level as other commercial programs. For that reason, the 3D modeling tool Blender has reached in the last years a great popularity offering similar characteristics like other commercial 3D editing programs such as 3D Studio Max or AutoCAD. Recently, it has been developed the necessary script for the volumetric calculations of three-dimnesional objects, offering great possibilities to calculate the volume of the archaeological ceramics. In this paper, we present a methodological approach for the volumetric studies with Blender and a study case of funerary urns from several celtiberians cemeteries of the Spanish Meseta. The goal is to demonstrate the great possibilities that the 3D editing free-software tools have in the volumetric studies at the present time.

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Douglass, Matthew J., Zachary R. Day, Jeremy C. Brunette, Peter Bleed, and Douglas Scott. "Virtual Reconstruction as Archaeological Observation: Embracing New Ways of Treating Sites, Places and Landscapes." Advances in Archaeological Practice 7, no. 2 (April 5, 2019): 127–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aap.2018.49.

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AbstractVirtual Reconstruction is a powerful tool broadly suited to a diverse array of archaeological heritage applications. In practice, however, reconstruction has largely focused on grand and monumental sites. Here we present two case studies–one from southern Oklahoma, the other from western Nebraska–to explore the use of this technology for more common heritage applications. The goal of this article is to advertise the dilemma we faced with communicating information on ephemeral sites and how we, as nonspecialists, solved the issue using affordable and accessible digital tools. Our workflow makes use of common tools (GIS) and open source software and online tutorials provide step by step instruction to support its replication. In presenting our experiences and the results of these efforts, we hope to spur similar applications in the use of Virtual Reconstruction to communicate information on archaeological heritage more broadly.

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Agudo, Paula, Jorge Pajas, Fernando Pérez-Cabello, Jaime Redón, and Beatriz Lebrón. "The Potential of Drones and Sensors to Enhance Detection of Archaeological Cropmarks: A Comparative Study Between Multi-Spectral and Thermal Imagery." Drones 2, no. 3 (August 29, 2018): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/drones2030029.

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This paper presents experimentation carried out at the Roman Republican city of La Caridad (Teruel, Spain), where different tools have been applied to obtain multispectral and thermal aerial images to enhance detection of archaeological cropmarks. Two different drone systems were used: a Mikrokopter designed by Tecnitop SA (Zaragoza, Spain) and an eBee produced by SenseFly Company (Cheseaux-sur-Lausanne, Switzerland). Thus, in this study, we have combined in-house manufacturing with commercial products. Six drone sensors were tested and compared in terms of their ability to identify buried remains in archaeological settlements by means of visual recognition. The sensors have different spectral ranges and spatial resolutions. This paper compares the images captured with different spectral range sensors to test the potential of this technology for archaeological benefits. The method used for the comparison of the tools has been based on direct visual inspection, as in traditional aerial archaeology. Through interpretation of the resulting data, our aim has been to determine which drones and sensors obtained the best results in the visualization of archaeological cropmarks. The experiment in La Caridad therefore demonstrates the benefit of using drones with different sensors to monitor archaeological cropmarks for a more cost-effective assessment, best spatial resolution and digital recording of buried archaeological remains.

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Kaimaris, Dimitris, Charalampos Georgiadis, Petros Patias, and Vassilis Tsioukas. "Aerial and Remote Sensing Archaeology." International Journal of Computational Methods in Heritage Science 1, no. 1 (January 2017): 58–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijcmhs.2017010104.

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New techniques and methodological procedures, which would allow at a short time and at low cost for the identification of a new archaeological site, were always in the interest of archaeologists. In this paper, aerial and remote sensing archaeology issues will be analyzed, both as measuring tools for the documentation of existing archaeological structures as well as tools of archaeology prospection, which are based on the appearance of the reflection of covered structures in images, i.e. the so-called marks.

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Andrefsky, William. "Experimental and Archaeological Verification of an Index of Retouch for Hafted Bifaces." American Antiquity 71, no. 4 (October 2006): 743–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40035887.

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The relative amount of retouch on stone tools is central to many archaeological studies linking stone tool assemblages to broader issues of human social and economic land-use strategies. Unfortunately, most retouch measures deal with flake and blade tools and few (if any) have been developed for hafted bifaces and projectile points. This paper introduces a new index for measuring and comparing amount of retouch on hafted bifaces and projectile points that can be applied regardless of size or typological variance. The retouch index is assessed initially with an experimental data set of hafted bifaces that were dulled and resharpened on five occasions. The retouch index is then applied to a hafted biface assemblage made from tool stone that has been sourced by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). Results of both assessments show that the hafted biface retouch index (HRI) is effective for determining the amount of retouch and the degree to which the hafted bifaces have been curated.

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Weiss, Bernhard. "From Tools to Rules." Philosophical Topics 50, no. 1 (2022): 55–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/philtopics20225014.

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The paper is interested in likely routes for the evolution of normative practice, which, it is here assumed, is a necessary precursor to the development of language. It argues that each normative practice requires a policing practice, consisting of, at least, moves of commendation, condemnation, and retraction, and it contrasts policing with mere monitoring practice. So the evolution of norms can be seen to be the development of policing from mere monitoring practice. It conjectures that a likely site for such a development to take place is in the active transmission of technology, notably, toolmaking technology. Using data and observations drawn from the archaeological record and the psychology of mimicry, it attempts to illustrate the likely emergence of policing practices.

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Gordon, Bryan C. "8000 years of caribou and human seasonal migration in the Canadian Barrenlands." Rangifer 25, no. 4 (May 1, 2005): 155. http://dx.doi.org/10.7557/2.25.4.1780.

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Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are the common thread running through thousands of years of cultural evolution in northern mainland Canada. From the earliest Indian traditions, through the Pre-Dorset and Dene cultural evolution, up to historic times, the vast herds of migratory Barrenland caribou provided food, clothing and shelter. They determined the human cycle -- seasonal migrations, seasonal levels of fitness, and season of procreation. Caribou even permeated Dene mythology and supernatural beliefs. Within the Beverly caribou (R. t. groenlandicus) range in the Canadian Barrenlands, investigation of 1002 archaeological sites points to long-term stability of human band and caribou herd interaction. Caribou bone and hunting tools occur in multiple levels, the earliest to 8000 years, based on 131 radiocarbon dates. Through time, specific hunting bands aligned with specific migratory barren-ground caribou herds. This relationship helps to explain observed archaeological and ethnological differences within different caribou ranges for these hunting bands. In general, biological evidence concurs with ethnographic and archaeological evidence. But short-term variations in migration routes between northern boreal forest, taiga and tundra may have followed changes in herd size and environment, e.g., unfavorable snow and ice conditions or forest fires. However, such influences were not discernible archaeologically.

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Kharevich, Alena V., Vladimir M. Kharevich, Alexander Yu Fedorchenko, and Ksenia A. Kolobova. "Experimental Analysis of Splintered Pieces from Upper Paleolithic Assemblages of Central Asia." Archaeology and Ethnography 20, no. 5 (2021): 55–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2021-20-5-55-68.

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Purpose. The subject of the article are splintered pieces and their variability from the Upper Paleolithic assemblies from Central Asia, which have not yet undergone special study. The authors employed an experimental approach to verify data obtained through the analysis of archaeological splintered pieces and to explore modification patterns of these tools. Results. Experiments included splitting various soft organic materials with splintered pieces, including red deer antler, wood, and bone. The experimental use of splintered pieces allowed to draw the following conclusions. The edge characteristic to splintered pieces was shaped by contact with hammers, but not with the soft material to be processed. Double-edged splintered pieces were produced when the tool was rotated and a new stage of use was performed. The morphology of splintered pieces varies depending on the intensity of their use. Conclusion. In the case of Central Asian splintered pieces (Tien-Shan and Siberia), the authors believe that only tools are being researched, not cores for the following reasons: 1. very small size of most double- edged splintered pieces, not allowing them to be considered as cores; 2. metric parameters of the splintered pieces are stacked in one reduction model, which is not typical for cores; 3. there is one bladelet core in Kulbulak’s assemblage, which was later used as a splintered piece; 4. morphometric characteristics of experimental tools used for processing of soft organic materials (wood, bone, horn) are almost identical to archaeological ones; 5. use-wear analysis demonstrated the use of all archaeological pièces esquillées as tools for processing hard organic materials; 6. there are other types of cores in the assemblages, which allow for the serial production of small blanks corresponding to those used for the manufacture of tools; 7. there is no shortage of raw materials that could explain the need to use such a miniature core.

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Morrow, Toby A. "Bigger is Better: Comments on Kuhn's Formal Approach to Mobile Tool Kits." American Antiquity 61, no. 3 (July 1996): 581–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/281842.

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Kuhn (1994) argues that small lithic tools provide an optimal means of reducing the weight of mobile tool kits while maximizing potential utility. This assertion contradicts much of the current thinking about mobility and the organization of lithic technology and is at odds with the archaeological record. A flaw in Kuhn's equation for calculating the utility/mass ratio of retouched tools leads him to this erroneous conclusion. Problems with Kuhn's utility/mass ratio equation are described and an alternative formula is offered. The corrected formula indicates that larger stone tools maximize utility at a lower transport cost. Experimental evidence for additional advantages of larger stone tools is also provided.

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Tashak, V. I., and Yu E. Antonova. "On the Criteria of Archaeological Cultures’ Distinguishing in Paleolithic of Transbaikalia." Bulletin of the Irkutsk State University. Geoarchaeology, Ethnology, and Anthropology Series 38 (2021): 24–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2227-2380.2021.38.24.

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An archaeological culture is one of the base terms of archaeology. The content of this term was discussed from the time of its introduction into scientific discourse. During the investigations in Transbaikalia, researchers asserted about Stone Age archaeological cultures for the first time at the beginning of the 1930s. Till the beginning of the 1890s, A. P. Okladnikov’s opinion has prevailed. According to him, Transbaikalia Paleolithic represented a monocultural phenomenon. This point of view is developed by some archaeologists in the present day. Additionally beginning from the 1960s the idea about existing of several archaeological cultures in the Transbaikalia Paleolithic has been generated. In the 1930s the distinguishing archaeological cultures in Transbaikalia Stone Age was based on morphology and typology of stone artifacts. In this sense, the technology of stone tools production was considered to a lesser degree. At the end of the 20th century, the main emphasis has been given to the tools’ production technology as the key component of the stone industry. Therefore, while a theoretical base of Transbaikalia Paleolithic developed stone industry was in the base of identifying archaeological cultures with the shift of some accents from morphology and typology to the technology of production. Gradually together with stone industry data of cultural horizons spatial organization becomes involved as supporting elements in distinguishing archaeological cultures in Transbaikalia. At the same time often the only stone industry is accessible for the investigations, and it demonstrates the main trend of Paleolithic material culture development. Using the complex of different criteria for distinguishing archaeological culture corresponds to the system approach which is recently developed intensively. As a result of the assessment of the synchronous stone industries of Transbaikalia, we concluded that the archaeological culture is the tool of the interpretational level and reflects phenomena that really existed in the past. It is proposed to use as criteria not only typology, morphology, and technology, reconstructed on the base of the stone industry but also life subsistent strategies reconstructed with the taking into consideration all available data. Such strategies could be conditioned by the environment, but also are the reflection of the development of the technological traditions inherent to the given culture.

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Chibunichev, A. G., V. A. Knyaz, D. V. Zhuravlev, and V. M. Kurkov. "PHOTOGRAMMETRY FOR ARCHAEOLOGY: COLLECTING PIECES TOGETHER." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-2 (May 30, 2018): 235–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-2-235-2018.

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The complexity of retrieving and understanding the archaeological data requires to apply different techniques, tools and sensors for information gathering, processing and documenting. Archaeological research now has the interdisciplinary nature involving technologies based on different physical principles for retrieving information about archaeological findings. The important part of archaeological data is visual and spatial information which allows reconstructing the appearance of the findings and relation between them. Photogrammetry has a great potential for accurate acquiring of spatial and visual data of different scale and resolution allowing to create archaeological documents of new type and quality. The aim of the presented study is to develop an approach for creating new forms of archaeological documents, a pipeline for their producing and collecting in one holistic model, describing an archaeological site. A set of techniques is developed for acquiring and integration of spatial and visual data of different level of details. The application of the developed techniques is demonstrated for documenting of Bosporus archaeological expedition of Russian State Historical Museum.

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Nolan, Kevin C., Michael J. Shott, and Eric Olson. "The Central Ohio Archaeological Digitization Survey." Advances in Archaeological Practice 10, no. 1 (January 26, 2022): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aap.2021.33.

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AbstractSignificant parts of the archaeological record are in private hands, including those of responsible and responsive stewards (RRS). This is not necessarily a bad thing. The Central Ohio Archaeological Digitization Survey (COADS) engages RRS in collaborative study of central Ohio prehistory. COADS leverages the mass of RRS data constructively to add depth and breadth to a regional archaeological record. We recorded over 12,000 diagnostic points and about 5,000 other stone tools from 32 RRS collections. All were scanned as two-dimensional (2D) images, and a sample as three-dimensional (3D) models for landmark-based geometric morphometric (LGM) analysis and GIS analysis of prehistoric land use. The resulting dataset is >4.7 times the number of diagnostics recorded in the Ohio SHPO database for the region, shedding new light on land use and tool use over millennia. In addition to academic research, COADS creates an accessible collection of 3D models available to RRS colleagues and to society at large. This reciprocal sharing mutually benefits professionals and the RRS community. Professionals are not the only ones who research the cultural past; the more and better we collaborate with RRS and others with legitimate interests, the better our common understanding of that past.

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Marcos, Celia, María de Uribe-Zorita, Pedro Álvarez-Lloret, Alaa Adawy, Patricia Fernández, and Pablo Arias. "Quartz Crystallite Size and Moganite Content as Indicators of the Mineralogical Maturity of the Carboniferous Chert: The Case of Cherts from Eastern Asturias (Spain)." Minerals 11, no. 6 (June 7, 2021): 611. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11060611.

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Chert samples from different coastal and inland outcrops in the Eastern Asturias (Spain) were mineralogically investigated for the first time for archaeological purposes. X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, transmission electron microscopy, infrared and Raman spectroscopy and total organic carbon techniques were used. The low content of moganite, since its detection by X-ray diffraction is practically imperceptible, and the crystallite size (over 1000 Å) of the quartz in these cherts would be indicative of its maturity and could potentially be used for dating chert-tools recovered from archaeological sites. Also, this information can constitute essential data to differentiate the cherts and compare them with those used in archaeological tools. However, neither composition nor crystallite size would allow distinguishing between coastal and inland chert outcrops belonging to the same geological formations.

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Péntek, Attila, and János Gyarmati. "Agricultural stone implements from the Paria Basin (Oruro Department, Bolivia)." Archeometriai Műhely 19, no. 3 (2022): 233–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.55023/issn.1786-271x.2022-017.

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During the field research initiated by the Paria Archaeological Project (PAP) in 2004 in the area of the Paria Basin (Oruro Dept., Bolivia), and then during the excavation in the municipality of Paria, several agricultural stone tools were discovered. Their raw material is partly volcanic rock and partly sandstone. The stone tools have not yet been described in more detail. In the present article, from the whole set of artefacts 22 stone tools classified into different archaeological periods will be presented. As the area of the Paria Basin itself is less researched and there are relatively few publications on the topic, the amount of information gathered during the processing of the finds will also be outlined. The review also includes a brief discussion of the potential geological sources of raw materials for stone tools.

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Al- Zubaidi, Aqeel A., Varoujan Sissakian, and Hassan K. Jassim. "PETROLOGY AND PROVENANCE OF THE NATURAL STONE TOOLS FROM Al-DALMAJ ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, MESOPOTAMIAN PLAIN, IRAQ." Bulletin of the Iraq Natural History Museum 16, no. 3 (June 20, 2021): 231–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.26842/binhm.7.2021.16.3.0231.

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Many stone tools were found on a hill south of the Hor Al-Dalmaj which is located in the central part of the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The types of rocks from which the studied stone tools were made are not found in the alluvial plain, because it consists of friable sand, silt, and clay. All existing sediments were precipitated in riverine environments such as point bar, over bank, and floodplain sediments. The collected stone tools were described with a magnifying glass (10 x) and a polarized microscope after they were thin sectioned. Microscopic analysis showed that these stone tools are made of sedimentary, volcanic igneous and metamorphic rocks, such as: sandstones, limestones, chert, conglomerate, rhyolite, basalt, mica schist, and quartzite. The current studied stone tools were used by ancient humans as pestles, querns, scrapers, and knives. The present study showed that these tools were transported from outside the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia. A stone tool at the archaeological site of Al-Dalmaj indicates that there were some trade routes that connected this site with its surrounding; in addition to the economic, and that might occurred cultural exchanges during the Neolithic Period.

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Liritzis, I., T. Ganetsos, and N. Laskaris. "Dating of Obsidian Tools by Water Diffusion (SIMS-SS) with a Novel Software." HNPS Proceedings 13 (February 20, 2020): 234. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/hnps.2974.

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Diffusion of environmental water into the surface of obsidian tools of archaeological origin is monitored by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), which provides a H+ concentration (C) versus hydration depth profile. The modeling of this diffusion process, as one-dimensional phenomena, is based on the idea that a saturated surface (SS) layer is encountered near the surface. A novel software program has been developed, using MATLAB, incorporating all numerical parameters for the dating of hydrated obsidians using the SIMS profile. This approach has been applied to several archaeological obsidians from the Aegean, Hungary, and Asia Minor and compared with samples from radiocarbon dated cultural phases where the agreement is excellent.

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Groß, Daniel, Henny Piezonka, Erica Corradini, Ulrich Schmölcke, Marco Zanon, Walter Dörfler, Stefan Dreibrodt, et al. "Adaptations and transformations of hunter-gatherers in forest environments: New archaeological and anthropological insights." Holocene 29, no. 10 (June 25, 2019): 1531–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683619857231.

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Like any other living being, humans constantly influence their environment, be it intentionally or unintentionally. By extracting natural resources, they shape their environment and also that of plants and other animals. A great difference setting people apart from all other living beings is the ability to construct and develop their own niche intentionally, and the unique tool for this is cultural behaviour. Here, we discuss anthropogenic environmental changes of hunter-gatherers and present new palaeoecological and palynological data. The studies are framed with ethnoarchaeological data from Western Siberia to gain a better understanding of how different triggers lead to coping mechanisms. For archaeological implication, we use two Mesolithic case studies from Germany: One of them focuses on hazelnut economy around ancient Lake Duvensee, and the other broaches the issue of selective roe deer hunt and its consequences at the site of Friesack. We address the archaeological evidence from the perspective of active alteration and its consequences, starting our argumentation from a perspective of niche construction theory. This approach has rarely been applied to early Holocene hunter-gatherers in Northern Europe even though the available data render possible to discuss human–environment interaction from such a perspective. It is demonstrated that archaeological research has tools at hand that enables to detect anthropogenic niche construction. However, the ethnoarchaeological example shows limitations and archaeologically invisible triggers and consequent results of human adaptations. The critical revision of such perspectives based on empirical data provides a better understanding of social and environmental transformations in the early- and mid-Holocene.

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Doménech-Carbó, Antonio, and María Teresa Doménech-Carbó. "Electroanalytical techniques in archaeological and art conservation." Pure and Applied Chemistry 90, no. 3 (February 23, 2018): 447–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/pac-2017-0508.

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AbstractThe application of electrochemical techniques for obtaining analytical information of interest in the fields of archaeometry, conservation and restoration of cultural heritage goods is reviewed. Focused on voltammetry of immobilised particles and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques, electrochemical measurements offer valuable information for identifying and quantifying components, tracing provenances and manufacturing techniques and provide new tools for authentication and dating.

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Doménech-Carbó, Antonio, Marianne Mödlinger, and María Teresa Doménech-Carbó. "Multiple-scan voltammetry and OCP: Archaeometric tools for dating archaeological bronzes." Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 893 (July 2021): 115336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115336.

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Overmann, Karenleigh A., and Thomas Wynn. "On Tools Making Minds: an Archaeological Perspective on Human Cognitive Evolution." Journal of Cognition and Culture 19, no. 1-2 (May 2, 2019): 39–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685373-12340047.

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AbstractUsing a model of cognition as extended and enactive, we examine the role of materiality in making minds as exemplified by lithics and writing, forms associated with conceptual thought and meta-awareness of conceptual domains. We address ways in which brain functions may change in response to interactions with material forms, the attributes of material forms that may cause such change, and the spans of time required for neurofunctional reorganization. We also offer three hypotheses for investigating co-influence and change in cognition and material culture.

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Bleed, Peter, and Douglas D. Scott. "Contexts for Conflict: Conceptual Tools for Interpreting Archaeological Reflections of Warfare." Journal of Conflict Archaeology 6, no. 1 (January 2011): 42–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/157407811x12958860458497.

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Baeza Santamaría, Unai. "Realidad Virtual para la dinamización de entornos rurales. Un caso práctico: Red Parque Cultural." Virtual Archaeology Review 2, no. 3 (April 15, 2011): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/var.2011.4626.

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<p>In the last few decades, there has been an intense work on the way of promoting and adding value to the cultural, natural and archaeological heritages in rural sites. At this point, there is a new point of view searching new tools closer to the society, which enable to show their wealth, while observing and preserving all its essence. Among these tools, Virtual Reality provides an exceptional instrument in this spirited bet of archaeological and cultural sites managers with excellent exploitation results in some real cases that prove this evidence.</p>

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Krzyżanowska, Marta, and Mateusz Frankiewicz. "„Paciorki mozaikowe w otwartym palenisku?”. Kontynuacja badań." Slavia Antiqua. Rocznik poświęcony starożytnościom słowiańskim, no. 58 (June 20, 2018): 41–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/sa.2017.58.4.

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The aim of the experiment was to confirm the hypothesis about the possibility of Scandinavian bead makers crafting complex mosaic glass beads. For this purpose, raw glass material and tools from archaeological sites were examined. Metal tools and glass mosaic canes were made, for the purpose of the experiment, based on archaeological finds. All the glass beads were made during the experiment on a specially constructed open hearth. As a result of the experiments, the possibility of making mosaic glass beads on an open hearth was confirmed. A theoretical and practical procedure for making complex glass beads has been proposed.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Archaeological tools'

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