Journal articles on the topic 'Arabian Peninsula - Religion'

Each society has a unique cuisine and taste which has been developed over time. Furthermore, each region and climate offer different options, health and life perception varies in each society. In the Arabian Peninsula where The Prophet Muhammad lived, cuisine was shaped according to the region, climate and life perception according to conditions of the era. Indeed, The Prophet Muhammad was a human being lived in Arabian region. He was in close relation with his own society’s cuisine in terms of personal taste before he conveyed the Islamic religion. Islam as a religion has contributed to daily life of people in terms of different point of views beside perception about world blessings. In this text, variety of foods consumed in Arabian Peninsula, distribution of these according to types and variety of dishes, pots and pans that were used during The Prophet Muhammad era was mentioned. This study aimed to enlighten whether religion has an influence on cuisine and Islamic religion suggests a life devoid of food and drink.

Each society has a unique cuisine and taste which has been developed over time. Furthermore, each region and climate offer different options, health and life perception varies in each society. In the Arabian Peninsula where The Prophet Muhammad lived, cuisine was shaped according to the region, climate and life perception according to conditions of the era. Indeed, The Prophet Muhammad was a human being lived in Arabian region. He was in close relation with his own society’s cuisine in terms of personal taste before he conveyed the Islamic religion. Islam as a religion has contributed to daily life of people in terms of different point of views beside perception about world blessings. In this text, variety of foods consumed in Arabian Peninsula, distribution of these according to types and variety of dishes, pots and pans that were used during The Prophet Muhammad era was mentioned. This study aimed to enlighten whether religion has an influence on cuisine and Islamic religion suggests a life devoid of food and drink.

The pre-Islamic history of the Arabian Peninsula and the history of Islam show what different communities have united and continue to unite religion, and it is in history that we find the factors that divide the Arab people and the Islamic world. The complexity of these relationships stretches from the past, and modern realities only add problems and questions.

Beginning in the seventh century, the expansion of Islam brought with it an outpouring of peoples from the Arabian Peninsula. While the composition of these Islamic armies became more diverse as the religion spread through the Near East and across North Africa to Western Europe, there were clearly elements of both the urban Arabian population, of which the Prophet was a member, and the rural Bedouins, whose migrations from their original homeland continued sporadically for several centuries. This slowed during the period of Turkish hegemony, but it left a scattering of enclaves identifying themselves as ethnic Arabs throughout the Islamic world.

The study of the Arabian Peninsula in terms of religion that preceded the emergence of Islam from the important studies that concern the history of the Arabs because of the relevance of the events that contributed in one way or another in the crystallization of the Arab social system later and formed one of the elements of the historical development of the Arabs. Their religious life is generally characterized by paganism, although it is a pagan of a special kind. It recognizes the existence of God, yet idols take a means to approach him. Paganism emerged alongside the pagan religious streams that played an active and important role in influencing the Arab mindset and preparing it to accept its historical role in embracing the last great divine messages. The research dealt with these monotheistic religious currents that were represented in Judaism, Christianity and Tafsia and discussed their existence and their impact on the Arab mentality in the Arabian Peninsula before Islam and was based on a number of mothers of primary sources and important references.

Hamka's political thoughts and behavior are based on his view of the interrelationship between religion and the state. Hamka has no objection to the statement that 'Islam is a religion and the state states, the correct formulation is Islam is a religion. his belief above that the ideals of monotheism cannot be implemented if it is not accompanied by strength. And Muslims should be proud, because since the beginning of its establishment, this Islamic religion has not only been an example of how to carry out the prayers it teaches, but also how to establish a state and maintain politics, and this has been blatantly demonstrated, Hamka wrote. It was explained that Muhammad SAW was present in the Arabian Peninsula with the teachings of monotheism and had united the tribes there so that later they would become a strong country and a respected nation

The pagan religion was the most widespread religion in the region of the Arabian Peninsula before Islam. It was a religion that is based on the worship of a certain idol or monument, which they considered as their gods. The purpose of their worship was to obtain the approval of these gods and avoid their anger and resentment, and to obtain success in their socio-economic, religious and political lives. Therefore, these deities were revered. Before Islam, Arabs reached the limit of reverence for their gods to offer vows and offerings, and they reached the point of offering human, animal and material offerings. At the same time, these idols were exposed to abuse and underestimation by some people. The study shows how Arabs reverence their idols as well as underestimate them, and how do they reach to this duality in dealing with deities .

In this paper we analyse Max Weber's view on Islam as a religion of warriors who lived at the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century, and also, we analyse this interpretation in the context of Edward Said’s (orientalistic) theoretical approach. The first part of the paper presents various aspects of the analysis of Islam by Max Weber, which must be taken into the context of comparative theology, that is, in the light of considering the characteristics of Islam against the background of other world religions. In the second part of the work, we will analyse the concept of Said’s orientalism. We will construct the framework of moderate orientalism, which, according to the author of this paper, is an important conceptual adjustment that can contribute to a better understanding and analysis of various oriental discourses, including Weber discourse. Taking into account that we are talking about the most influential classics sociologists, especially in the case of the sociology of religion, it is very important to critically analyse his understanding of Islam so that we can determine which of his conclusions are significant for the sociology of religion and the sociology of Islam today, and which of his hypotheses can we attribute to some kind of reductionism or orientalism.

In this paper we analyse Max Weber's view on Islam as a religion of warriors who lived at the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century, and also, we analyse this interpretation in the context of Edward Said’s (orientalistic) theoretical approach. The first part of the paper presents various aspects of the analysis of Islam by Max Weber, which must be taken into the context of comparative theology, that is, in the light of considering the characteristics of Islam against the background of other world religions. In the second part of the work, we will analyse the concept of Said’s orientalism. We will construct the framework of moderate orientalism, which, according to the author of this paper, is an important conceptual adjustment that can contribute to a better understanding and analysis of various oriental discourses, including Weber discourse. Taking into account that we are talking about the most influential classics sociologists, especially in the case of the sociology of religion, it is very important to critically analyse his understanding of Islam so that we can determine which of his conclusions are significant for the sociology of religion and the sociology of Islam today, and which of his hypotheses can we attribute to some kind of reductionism or orientalism.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is one of the largest Islamic countries lies in Arabian Peninsula. The government bases its legitimacy on its interpretation of Sharia (Islamic law) and the 1992 Basic Law. The Basic Law sets out the system of governance, rights of citizens, and powers and duties of the government. The law also provides that the Qur'an and the Traditions (Sunna) of the Prophet Muhammad serve as the country's constitution. As an Islamic country which is rich in culture and natural resources, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia plays prominent influence in Islamic world for various aspects in politics, culture, economics, trading and education. The contribution of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia can be clearly seen in education sector, particularly in Al-Quran and Sunnah studies. The country provides a wide opportunity and great facilitation for those who wants to study in Saudi Arabia in their own country. The founding of the Institute of Islamic and Arabic Science (LIPIA) in Indonesia as an important affiliation of Al Imaam University is regarded as real concern of Saudi Arabia in Islamic studies development. Further, pursuant to history of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ulama plays respected crucial roles in the government. They are not merely respected for the high and exclusive knowledge in religion, but they are also regarded having capability in balancing the stability of the country. It implies that the government and ulama mutually work to protect the glory of Islam and the Kingdom

According to a large number of chronicles and records, Islam is thought to have entered Nusantara directly from the Arabian Peninsula as early as the VII century AD. However, the power of Islam as a political entity has not appeared in the region since the end of the XII and XIII centuries AD. The period was marked by the introduction of a number of Arabic-inscribed currencies minted by local Muslim rulers in an effort to propagate the Islamic religion. The method used in this study is a qualitative descriptive method based on the humanities. The purpose of this research is to find out the type of khat (writing style) as well as the context of the terms contained in the currency of the Samudera-Pasai and Melaka sultanates in an effort to uncover the history of the greatness of Samudera-Pasai and Malacca, which are located on the Spice Route.

This article aims to study the views of Nurcholish Madjid in the concept of Asbab Al-Nuzul and how these views have influenced his deals with the Holy Qur’an. The researcher adopted the method of induction and analysis to study this topic, where the researcher collected the writings of Nurcholish Madjid related to the causes of revelation, and then analyzed these writings to get out of them with the expected results. Among the most important of his writings on the causes of revelation is his article "Konsep Asbab Al-Nuzul Relevansinya bagi Pandangan Historis Segi-Segi Tertentu Pandangan Keagamaan", in his book "Kontekstualisasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah". Perhaps one of the most important results of this research is that Nurcholish Madjid has expanded a lot in the circle of Asbab Al-Nuzul, as he sees that there are general reasons for the revelation of the Qur’an that include the social, cultural and political conditions in the Arabian Peninsula at the time of revelation, and then proceeds from this idea to new jurisprudence in the religion fields.

This study describes the values contained in Hadrah art in Pontianak, West Kalimantan. Hadrah is closely related to Islamic art because the poetry that is sung contains praise for the Creator and Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam and advice. Using qualitative research methods with an anthropological approach. Data collection techniques used interviews, observation, literature study, and data validity testing by extending observations and triangulation. Based on the data analysis, it can be concluded that Hadrah art has existed in Pontianak since the 17th century. This art was brought by traders from Hadramaut Arabian Peninsula, South Yemen. Initially, this art was used as a means of spreading Islam in the city of Pontianak. Along with the development of the times, this art is used as a spectacle to entertain the audience. In Hadrah art there are several values, among others, the value of truth, beauty, morals, and religion. Through the values contained in the art of Hadrah, it can form human beings who believe and fear Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta'ala, have noble character according to the example of the Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam and become good citizens.

Andalusian civilization was formed by a combination of complex societies consisting of Arabs, Berbers, Goths, Israelis, Africans, and Salsabes. Logically it is difficult for multi-ethnic communities to coexist peacefully. This social mosaic is a challenge when Islam entered Andalusia. That is because Islam was born in the Arabian Peninsula which has a different culture from Andalusia. Based on the problem of how the influence of Islamic and Muslim tolerance on freedom of religion, culture and thought in Andalusia and through literature study with a historical approach; data collection (heuristic), verification, interpretation and historiography, the authors get the conclusion that cultural assimilation has interacted with tolerance as an influence of Islamic teachings. The influence is not only limited to the development of teachings, but the life of the Andalusian people. For example the birth of the Moor and Mozarabic groups, the development of linguistics and politics. Another indication is the attitude of the Andalusian community and especially Muslims who tolerate religious schools, sects that are different from Islam. Andalusian people lived side by side peacefully for centuries. Educated Jewish and Christian communities are satisfied with their situation under Islamic hegemony and its laws.

This article mainly tells the story of Falsafa, and also tells about the mentality of the Muslim worldview. The history of the development of Falsafa includes the IX-XVI centuries. This is a special teaching that originates in the Arabian Peninsula and has had a significant impact on Western European culture. While Falsafa's goal was to revive the works of Plato and Aristotle, this task was carried out along the lines of the Muslim worldview and implemented through the Arabic language. The disputes and problems grouped around Falsafa are not subsiding now. The article covered this issue accordingly. It was about the propaganda of ancient natural sciences by the Islamic Filasuf of the Middle Ages from the point of view of the Muslim worldview. The main question in the article is the definition of the specifics of Falsafa and philosophy from the point of view of faith and knowledge. The main focus was on Western European philosophers and Muslim philosophers about religion. The article presents the views of such philosophers as Garifolla Yessim, A. A. Ignotenko, B. Ainabekov, S. Brabantsky, B. Russell, K. Armstrong, K. Jaspers, B. E. Bykhovsky.

Some people think that Islam is a religion that originated from the Arabs. This statement arises because Islam requires all Muslim women to always cover their genitals and wear the headscarf. This is because the clothing that is obligatory for Muslim women contains elements of the culture of the Arabian peninsula. In fact, these clothes have been around since the ancient Persians who were included in the clothing of choice. This is caused by an understanding that is not in accordance with the history of civilization about the hijab from time to time. Through this research explores Islamic sources, such as the Qur’an, Hadith, and related interpretations, to understand the legal basis and traditional understanding of the headscarf, veil, and burqa. By using qualitative methods and a narrative study approach that includes recordings of life history, as well as researching issues that are basically general, then gets a focus on things that are more specific. This scientific writing aims to research about promoting culture, the issue which states that Islam has changed the customs that exist in Indonesia, and the laws of the veil, headscarf and burqa. So that in this research it has been found about the history of the development of the veil, headscarf, and burqa, as well as the law. The use of the headscarf is basically just to cover the nakedness and protect them from social evils.

Background. Islam is the second largest religion in South Asia, with more than 600 million Muslims living there, making up about a third of the region's population. The history of Islam in South Asia began along the coastal regions of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka, after its beginnings in the Arabian Peninsula. Purpose. This research was made to thoroughly explore the history of Islamic civilization in the modern era in South Asia and Southeast Asia. With this research, it is hoped that it can add insight to the readers in the study of the history of Islamic civilization and can answer various questions about when Islam entered South Asia and Southeast Asia, how the process and impact on the people who live there, and who plays an important role in the spread of Islam on both continents. Method. The data collected will be analyzed by identifying the themes, arguments or main ideas in the texts and analyzing how they influenced and were influenced by the development of Islamic civilization in Southeast and South Asia. Results. Southeast Asia is home to the largest Muslim population in the world. Islam is the majority religion in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam. Islam in Southeast Asia was spread through the activities of traders and Sufis. Unlike other Islamic regions of the world, it was spread through the Arab and Turkish conquests. Conclusion. Thus the presentation of material about Islamic Civilization in Southeast Asia and South Asia and how the method of its spread. We as writers realize that the results of the papers we compile are far from perfect, for the future we will try to be even better in presenting writing or discussion.

Billions of tons of waste are generated annually, with the amount of waste rapidly increasing and its management expected to worsen. Qatar is a small and wealthy country in the Arabian Peninsula that is undergoing enormous economic and urban development. This study presents the results of a systematic literature review on waste management in Qatar and offers recommendations for system strengthening based on an analysis of the available evidence. The PRISMA guidelines were followed to review literature from the ProQuest and SCOPUS platforms, from which 82 unique publications were analyzed according to ten themes. The results draw upon diverse disciplinary and research focus areas related to waste management, ranging from the generation of value-added products from wastes to the role of religion in waste management awareness. The main recommendations emerging from the available evidence include the need for a holistic approach to address increasing waste generation, which must include diverse stakeholders such as government entities, researchers, and broad community representation for decision making as well as raising awareness for behavior change. Additionally, the main waste types, including construction, food, plastic, and electronic wastes, require specific attention since the cause of generation and type of management varies accordingly. The rise of interest in improving waste management, in particular to work toward meeting the targets of the Qatar National Vision and the National Development Strategy should bring about positive outcomes for strengthening waste management systems.

Narratives of the origins, the history, and the present state of Islam always entail spatial claims. Accordingly, Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula, spread over its so-called heartlands, and became a world religion. A common understanding inscribes Islam onto the Orient and opposes it to Europe, the Occident, or the West. Such spatial claims are faced with fundamental challenges and epistemological shortcomings because neither Islam nor space are naturally given, bounded entities. Rather, different historical actors and observers produce spatialized Islam. In this chapter, I challenge the notion that “Muslim space” is a useful analytical concept, and scrutinize the ways in which academic discourses inscribe Islam onto space and history. As an alternative, I propose a topology that understands the production of space as a multi-dimensional social process, including Muslim and non-Muslim perspectives at the same time. Thus, I delineate the topology of Islam as variegated, dynamic, and multi-religious from its inception. My argument is that Islam’s trans-regional spread turned it into a polycentric, mutable mobile characterized by internal and external diversity. I further argue that images of Islam are an integral, yet often concealed part of European and Western knowledge production and self-understanding. Epistemologically, this perspective argues that the “Islamization of Islam” is nowhere better visible than in the spatial ramifications of discourses that marginalize, exclude, or obfuscate both the multi-religious experiences in Islamic contexts and the continuous presence of Islam in European history.

In island Southeast Asia, since the first centuries of the Muslim era, the Hadhramaut Arab diaspora has been steadily present. Arabs controlled maritime trade south of the Arabian Peninsula since pre-Islamic times. They have long traded with India, and sometimes sailed even further to their cherished goal - the Spice Islands (Moluccas). With the advent of Islam, the presence of Arabs in the ports of the Archipelago increased and was generally perceived positively: they acted as bearers and preachers of the new religion. Over time, their business contacts with the local merchant community grew stronger. The most powerful influx of Arabs to Nusantara dates back to the beginning of the 18th century. Subsequently, with the opening of the Suez Canal (1869), this process gained even greater scope. Over the years, the aliens, step by step, won a place for themselves in the field of commerce, in agriculture and shipbuilding, Islamic preaching and diplomacy, education and politics. Some of them laid the foundation for new Malay dynasties (the sultanates of Siak and Kalimantan, 18th century) or simply entered the circle close to local rulers. Since the beginning of the twentieth century Arab merchants participate in the organization of the first political parties in Indonesia. The paper briefly examines the biographies of some members of the Hadhramaut aristocracy, Sayyids and Sharifs, who took a prominent place in the cultural, economic and political life of Malaysia and Indonesia in the pre-colonial and post-colonial era.

أبستراك أڬاما إسلام تيداك ديلاهيركان دي إيندونيسييا, نامون جوسترو نيڬارا إينيلاه ياڠ ميميليكي ڤيندودوك مسليم ديڠان جملاه تيربيسار دي دونييا. باڬايماناكاه چارا أڬاما إيني ماسوك دان بيركيمبانڬ دي أنتارا سوكو دان بودايا ياڠ بيراڬام دي نوسانتارا؟ ڤارا ڤيداڬاڠ عراب ياڠ بيراسال داي سيمينانجوڠ عرابيا كي ڤيسيسير أوتارا سوماتيرا (أچيه) ڤادا أباد كي-٧ ماسيهي إيتو سيلإين بيرداڬاڠ ميريكا جوڬا مينجادي ڤيۑيبار أڬاما إسلام دان ميلاكوكان ڤيركاوينان ديڠان وانيتا سيتيمڤات. سيكاليڤون ڤيندودوك ڤريبومي بيلوم باۑاك ياڠ ميميلوك أڬاما إسلام, تاڤي كومونيتاس مسليم ڤيرتاما تيلاه تيربينتوك ياڠ تيرديري داري أوراڠ-أوراڠ عراب ڤينداتاڠ دان ڤيندودوك لوكال.سيڤيرتي ياڠ ديداڤاتكان ڤارا ڤيڠيلانا چينا دي ڤيسيسير أوتارا سوماتيرا (أچيه) دان كومونيتاس إسلام دي ويلاياه سريويجايا. Abstrak Agama Islam tidak dilahirkan di Indonesia, namun justru negara inilah yang memiliki penduduk muslim dengan jumlah terbesar di dunia. Bagaimanakah cara agama ini masuk dan berkembang di antara suku dan budaya yang beragam di nusantara? Para pedagang Arab yang berasal dari semenanjung Arabia ke pesisir utara Sumatera (Aceh) pada Abad ke-7 Masehi itu selain berdagang mereka juga menjadi penyebar agama Islam dan melakukan perkawinan dengan wanita setempat. Sekalipun penduduk pribumi belum banyak yang memeluk agama Islam, tapi komunitas Muslim pertama telah terbentuk yang terdiri dari orang-orang Arab pendatang dan penduduk lokal, seperti yang didapatkan para pengelana Cina di pesisir utara Sumatera (Aceh) dan komunitas Islam di wilayah Sriwijaya. Abstract Islam was not born in Indonesia, but it is this country which has the largest Muslim population in the world. How does this religion enter and develop among the various ethnic groups and cultures in the Nusantara ? Arab traders who came from the Arabian peninsula to the north coast of Sumatra (Aceh) in the 7th century AD, apart from trading, they also spread Islam and married local women. Although not many indigenous people have embraced Islam, the first Muslim community has been formed consisting of Arab immigrants and local residents, as found by Chinese travelers on the north coast of Sumatra (Aceh) and the Islamic community in the Sriwijaya region.

Entrepreneurship is the act of earning through engagement in business and investment, which can be achieved by everyone regardless of gender, religion, background, environment and social status. It is highly encouraged in Islam through various Qur'anic verses and Prophetic traditions. Similarly, Muslims are seriously cautions against idle-living that usually affect socio-economic growth and development of the people. This study recognized that most of the contemporary Muslim women of Gombe state continue to remain idle and could contribute less to the development of their society economically and socially. This triggers the research towards calling their attention to duplicate and put into practice the life of Khadijah Bnt Khuwaylid (R.A) the wife of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), the wealthiest merchant and most exalted business woman of Arabian Peninsula in the 1st Century of Islam. This study was conducted using descriptive method to analyze the strategies adopted by this great woman to earn income, reduced unemployment in her community, supported the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and Islam economically. The research uncovers that the effect of idle living among Muslim Women in Gombe State usually cause crises in matrimonial setups, social vices and child upbringing. It further recommends that women should become economically self-reliant, also government, individuals and non-governmental organizations should establish entrepreneurship Centers as well as acquisition centers at all levels to train women on entrepreneurship and government should support them with business take-up packages, Husbands and parents should be supportive to their wives and children that decide to start-up business as the benefit will extend to the family members, community and country at large.

Այս ուսումնասիրութիւնը կը ներկայացնէ Քրիստոնեայ ներկայութիւնը Արաբական Ծոցի տարածաշրջանի մէջ վաղ ժամանակներէն սկսած եւ մինչեւ այսօր։ Կայ հանգրուանային զարգացումները մինչեւ իսլամական ներխուժումը տարածաշրջանին մէջ Քե 629՝ ապա իններորդ դարէն սկսեալ անոր անհետացումը եւ դարձեալ Քրիստոնեայ եկեղեցիի վերակազմակերպումը փորթուգալական եւ անգլիական գաղութատիրութիւններու ընթացքին եւ Ամերիկեան միսոնարական կազմակերպութեան ծառայութիւնները 1894 տարուընէ սկսեալ։ Ուսումնասիրութիւնը կընդգրկէ ներկայ օրերու իրավիճակը եւ քրիստոնէական ներկայութեան խմբաւորումները՝ բաղկացած տարբեր մշակոյթներէ եւ ազգութիւններէ եւ անոնց դերը եւ մասնակցութիւնը միջկրօնական եւ միջհամայնքային գոյակեցութեան եւ համերաշխութիւն եւ հանդուրժողականութիւն ստեղծելու տրամադրութեամբ եւ տեսլականով։ Ուսումնասիրութիւնը նաեւ կ՚ակնարկէ հայկական իրականոթեանը մասին այս երկիրներու մէջ։ Христианское присутствие в странах Аравийского/Персидского залива восходит к IV веку нашей эры и имеет место и в наши дни. Оно было активным на протяжении многих лет, до тех пор, пока ислам как религия не проник в регион в 629 году н.э. Однако, сохранив активность в исламскую эпоху – до IX века, оно полностью угасло. Следует отметить, что христианская церковь возрoдилась в регионе в период португальской и британской колонизации, а также благодаря усилиям Американской миссии начиная с 1894 года и далее. На сегодняшний день в регионе имеется множество этнических и церковных деноминаций, в том числе армянских. Межкультурные и межконфессиональные отношения помогают создать платформу для сотрудничества и взаимопонимания между различными общинами. This academic paper highlights the Christian presence in the Arabian/Persian Gulf starting with AD 4th century and until today. The Christian presence remained active over the years until Islam invaded the region in AD 629 and the whole peninsula embraced the new religion. The Christian presence remained active during the Islamic era and until the 9th century, when it disappeared completely. The study will show how the Christian pres-ence was reorganized in the region during the Portuguese and the British colonial times and the important work that the Mission of Arabia provided as early as the year 1894 and onwards. The study also reflects on the Christian presence today and the many ethnic and church denominations that are living and ministering in the region. The paper highlights the importance of inter-cultural and the inter-faith relations and dialogue that is going on and how the latter is helping to create a platform of cooperation and understanding among different communities. The paper also reflects on the Armenian presence in the region.

Arabia is the cradle of Islam and the homeland of the Arabs, who spread that faith in a wide belt around the globe that extends from Central Asia to Western Europe. Because Islam's roots are in Arabia, that peninsula has claims on the attention of the historian of Islam both as a religion and as a world civilization—that of Medieval Islam. Although the history of Arabia before Islam is important, there is no doubt that the rise of Islam within the peninsula's confines imparted new significance to the history of the region. Because of its history in preIslamic times, the significance of the peninsula remains, relatively speaking, marginal, but has been relieved of that marginality by the fact that it became the birthplace of Islam.

I often tell graduate students that there are three constituent parts to cuttingedgescholarship: (1) the requisite linguistic and historical training, (2) creativityand imagination, and (3) a bold vision that desires to take inheritedideas and subject them to new and rigorous analyses. Very few can do this,but those who can end up radically transforming our understanding of a topic.I am happy to say that Peter Webb has met all three of these criteria in hiswonderful and thought-provoking Imagining the Arabs. He has presented uswith a paradigm-shifting study, and all subsequent work on the topic will haveto wrestle with his monograph.Webb’s goal is sufficiently bold: to rethink the Arabs – who they were,what they believed, where they came from, and how they were imagined byvarious elites in the early Islamic period. Received opinion has, like so muchin early Islamic history, simply repeated what the earliest sources (paradoxicallyfrom later periods) tell us. The assumption is that such sources must betrue because there is no reason why they should not be. Why, for example,should they cultivate untruths or spread ideological rumors? Instead of adopting,as so many do, a posture of gullibility, Webb prefers to see such texts asengaged in the dual processes of ethnogenesis and mythopoesis.Tradition assumes that the Arabs were a homogenous group of of Bedouinsthat have inhabited the Arabian Peninsula since Antiquity. This would be akin,as Webb informs us, of assuming that all of the first nations in North Americawere essentially the same with respect to religion, culture, and ethnicity, andsomething that ignores that the aforementioned terms have distinct lineages inmodern political and nationalist thought. Then in the seventh century CE, sothe story continues, these Arabs adopted a new faith, to wit, Islam, and rapidlyconquered the Middle East and beyond. Study after study has simply assumedthat these “Arabs,” while sensitive to poetry, represented a form of militarized ...

Abstract Over the last years, in average, 2,1 million people per year performed the hajj. These millions stand in contrast to the numbers visiting Mecca half a century ago. On average, until 1946 a rough 60,000 pilgrims visited Mecca annually, with at least half of these coming from the Arabian Peninsula. Today Saudi nationals make up about a quarter of all pilgrims. The explanations for the staggering thirtyfold increase in total pilgrims, and the even more spectacular growth of the number of foreign pilgrims in slightly more than half a century are quite simple. First of all, the increasing world population in general led to larger numbers of pilgrims. Second, the journey became safer and better organised during the 20th century. In those parts of the Muslim world where it was not already (the Ottoman Empire), the organisation of the hajj became a state affair, organised first by the colonial authorities, and by the postcolonial states afterwards. Third, despite growing disparities in the distribution of global economic wealth an increasing number of Muslims could afford to pay for the journey. And finally the availability of cheap mechanical mass transport increased over this time period. This paper will look at these interconnected reasons for the spectacular growth of the hajj in the past half century from a world historical perspective, focussing on the West African Sahel in the 19th and 20th centuries. In this paper I hope to sketch how state rule, changing economies, motorised mass transport, and religion are interconnected phenomena, which are all shaped by and giving shape to world historical events in the Muslim world. The focus will be largely on the changing demography and social geography of the pilgrimage journey to Mecca as performed by pilgrims from the Sahel, and the changing significance of this journey in their lives.

Islam is a divine religion with comprehensive teachings and guidance revealed to Muhammad, may peace and blessing of Allah be upon him, to guide mankind in matters of faith, rituals and inter human relations. Therefore Muslims believe that they are the custodians of the truth and all other persons professing faiths other than Islam are doomed unless they embrace Islam before their death. It is also a fact that the adherents of other religions also believe that their faiths are exclusively the truth and other persons are doomed unless they profess that faith and denounce theirs and this applies to Muslims too. In such circumstances a Muslim may be tempted to impose his faith on non-Muslims, after all, he shall be imposing the truth on them which is in their best interest. The Prophet, may peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, was keen to convert non- Muslims to Islam even at his own detriment. Allah in several verses continuously reminded His Messenger that his duty is just to convey the message and that he has no authority over people to force them to embrace Islam; and also declared that there is no compulsion in the religion, therefore people should embrace the faith of their choice. Moreover, Allah enjoins Muslims to co-operate and interact with people of other faiths in good things and in fear of Allah, meaning in obedience of Allah. Despite of the misunderstanding between Muslims and non-Muslims and the bad things done to Muslims by nonMuslims previously; Muslims should not oppress non-Muslims and infringe on their rights, to the contrary, they should treat them with justice and avail to them their rights and opportunities. At the same time, Allah declared that he does not prohibit Muslims from doing good to non-Muslims who are not fighting or oppressing Muslims because Islam is treating people with justice and being kind and humble. On the other side Muslims were at war with non-Muslim powers since the inception of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. Many verses in the Holy Quran were revealed to address the state of war requiring Muslims to delink themselves from their enemies and fight fearlessly employing all means and resources in their war. Similarly, several traditions of the Prophet, may peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, referred to this situation of war and asked Muslims to fight and combat these non-Muslims enemies with all efforts. If these verses and traditions are interpreted out of their context, they shall portray Islam as a religion of intolerance and as a system that does not recognize diversity and plurality of human being yet, plurality is the beauty of the World. In this paper, we shall explore the verses and traditions on this subject and strive to interpret them against the background of their revelation and context in order to determine the parameters of Plurality in Islam. In this paper; Ridda refers to denouncing Muslim faith, Surah means a chapter in the Holy Quran and Hadith, Tradition or Sunnah refers to the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessing of Allah be upon him.

Ever since the emergence of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the question of the relationship between religion and government, or more specifically, the issue of the relationship between representatives of religious thought and life with authorities has always been highly topical. The Prophet of Islam already formed the first Islamic rule in Medina, as a model of concretization of a new form of social life. His successors tried to preserve this model even after his death, even though they were not most successful in that. The institution of the caliphate was formed very quickly, which was not a bad idea, but in practice it proved to be a far cry from the initial ideals of Islam and the Prophet. First the Umayyad and then the Abbasid caliphates, and after them many other dynasties in various ruling forms such as sultanates and ilkhanates, ruled according to the traditional models of their ancestors, trying, at least formally, to approach some Islamic principles. In such circumstances, the special duty of representatives of Muslim thought, philosophers, lawyers, theologians and all others, was to clarify various practical models according to which Islamic dogma will appear in the clearest and most concrete form in the ruling structure and its ideological background. Thus, different models of relationships between representatives of religious thought and rulers appeared, and consequently, between religion and government itself. One of the most famous theories that explains this relationship was the theory of wilayat al-faqih, which advocates the idea that in the period after the Prophet and his true successors, it is necessary that Muslim jurists and thinkers, i.e. ulama, be included in power. The level of their participation in government can be maximum or minimum, and will vary depending on the political will of the governing structure dominant in society at a given moment. This theory became especially prominent in recent times when it was very extensively analysed and expressed by Ayatollah Ruhulah Khomeini, who even founded the structure of the newly formed Islamic Republic of Iran on its foundations. The truth is, however, that this theory has a very long history, more than a few hundred years old. In this paper, we will try to present some of the main models that this political and social idea has given rise to throughout history, and especially since the formation of the Safavid dynasty (16th century).

The Arabian Peninsula is characterized by an unequivocal diversity of backgrounds, experiences, and religious traditions. This characteristic has been an inherent part of the Arabian Peninsula; however, it was silenced at certain historical junctures when promoting a homogeneous alternative. I argue that the attitude towards religions in the Arabian Peninsula moved through three historical stages: a past nonchalant attitude, whereby religions did not figure prominently in the public sphere; a modern linkage of emerging nation-states with an exclusive rendition of Islam; and a contemporary vacillating attitude that mixes traces of the more open past with remnants of the modern era’s guarded outlook. The select, ongoing attempts at reconstituting the region as religiously pluralistic today is welcome but of little value absent as a systematic cultivation of religious pluralism in critical fields like education, media, law, and civil society. Informed by Subaltern Studies and Marxist thought, pursuing erasure and trivialization methods helps decode Arabian Peninsula silences. By surveying different case studies, this paper reassesses religious diversity management and its history in the Arabian Peninsula.

"The Man in the Panther's Skin" is the masterpiece of Shota Rustaveli (c. 1160—after c. 1220), the greatest Georgian Christian poet, who has been translated into nearly 45 languages in the world so far. In this article we are going to study the Motifs of ʿUd̲h̲rī Love (AR: al-ḥubb al-ʿud̲h̲rī) in Rustaveli's book. The Ghazal (ode) of Ud̲h̲rī is a literary product of the Islamic-Arab community in which love derives its principles from religion of Islam and the like. In fact, during the era of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 BCE) was born ʿUd̲h̲rī as a new kind of ode in the Arabic poetry in the Arabian Peninsula and has made its way into other lands, including Iran, and this kind of love poem penetrated through Iran into Rustavli's poetry.ʿUd̲h̲rī poem was narration of true, intense and chaste love between lover and a beloved far from sensuality, debauchery and lechery. Therefore, their lifestyles were very similar to mystic. The main purpose of this study is to find out the extent to which Rustaveli was influenced by ʿUd̲h̲rī poem. The research method in this article is to compare the specific and objective features which inferred from the Arabic-PersianʿUd̲h̲rī literature with the narrative in the Rustaveli's work. This does not mean, of course, that we will examine all the ʿUd̲h̲rī poetry works written before Rustaveli's book in the world; rather, we mean matching the specific Motifs of Arabic-Farsi works with the Rustaveli's poem. The results of this study show that there is a complete similarity between the motifs in the poems of Rustaveli's work and the motifs of the ʿUd̲h̲rī poets in all its components. This study also confirms that if we omit some details of the story in Rustaveli's book, we will find that Rustaveli was thoroughly familiar with Islamic ʿUd̲h̲rī literature and implemented it in his book "The Man in the Panther's Skin".

Islamic tradition records many precedents for expulsion of Jews and other non-Muslims. The authors of the two most important collections of ḥadīths, al-Bukhārī and Muslim, have chapters entitled ‘On exiling the Jews from Arabia’ or ‘On exiling the Jews from the Ḥijāz’. Similar chapters exist in other collections of traditions. These statements testify to Muḥammad's expulsion of ‘the Jews of Medina—all of them’, or report his will to expel the Jews—or in variants, the Jews and Christians or the Polytheists—from the Arabian Peninsula. Clearly, the traditions are interpreted with the widest possible reference regarding who is to be exiled: no non-Muslim is allowed to remain. But the geographical extent of the area from which non-Muslims are to be exiled is interpreted in narrow fashion: ‘What is meant by ‘the Arabian Peninsula” in this tradition is the Ḥijāz, not the entire Arabian Peninsula.’ This is so despite ample potential for broad interpretation in the language of the texts. In a tradition which supports a projected exile of the Jews of Medina, Muhammad tells the Jews, ‘Know that the land is the Lord's and his Apostle's.’ The word arḍ ‘land’ in the ḥadīth is understood to refer specifically to the plots of land the Jews had owned, now considered lo be held by them in tenancy. This could easily have been taken out of context by some interpreters and applied to all lands. A tradition used to support the prohibition of dhimmī residence in Ḥijāz reads, in some versions, ‘two religions (sometimes using the term qiblas—directions faced in prayer) may not exist in one land,’ in others, ‘two qiblas may not exist in Arabia’. In practice, this tradition was applied only to Ḥijāz and was not extended to all of Arabia or any other ‘land’. Chapter headings are often our only indication of how traditions were understood by those who collected them; Mālik's chapter heading has this tradition refer only to the expulsion of Jews from Medina.

Purpose: The formal objective of this study is to explore the beauty and ugliness contained within the poetry collection Maulīd Al-Diba'i, an Arabic-language text that conveys messages of beauty and ugliness in its verses. The material of this study is the poetry collection Maulīd Al-Diba'i, which was written by Imam Wajihuddin 'Abdur Rahman bin Muhammad bin 'Umar bin 'Ali bin Yusuf bin Ahmad bin 'Umar ad-Diba'ieasy-Syaibani al-Yamani az-Zabidiasy-Syafi'i (henceforth Abdur Rahman Al-Diba'i). Methodology: The current research is descriptive that explains the crux of poetry. For this purpose the poetry collection Maulīd Al-Diba' I was used and analysed. To achieve the objective analytical method was used. .Main Findings: Based on the analysis, it may be concluded that the poetry collection Maulīd Al-Diba'i is a work of Arabic-language Islamic literature that was influenced by the verses of the Qur'an and their beauty. The verses of Maulīd Al-Diba'i are conveyed through the language of prayers, hopes, and blessings. These prayers, hopes, and blessings contain within them their beauty, both at the surface and below it. The poet, Abdurrahman Al-Diba'i, readily conveys his prayers, hopes, and blessings by briefly retelling the story of the Prophet Muhammad's travels to spread Islam throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Implications/Applications: This article applies the theory of aesthetic realism, which contains within it two key concepts: physical beauty and divine beauty. Physical beauty is related to the perceptions of the senses, and is cognitive, cultural, and natural, whereas divine beauty is perceived through the mind and promotes awareness and mental experience. Novelty/Originality of this study: This research will uncover the facts that on what basis, in the poetry collection Maulīd Al-Diba'i, is there a dominant message of beauty that is expressed explicitly and opposed with a message of ugliness that is expressed implicitly. It will also add to literature explaining that the text Maulīd Al-Diba'i may be understood as a tool for satisfying the spiritual demands of readers and enabling them to contemplate their religion.

Montgomery Watt and Patricia Crone are two figures who are concerned to examine the emergence of Islam in Mecca, whether the trigger is socio-economic, trade, or socio-political, power. Watt states that Mecca from the beginning, which was already a center of pilgrimage, in the next process became an important trading center, giving birth to master traders. In the process, these conditions gave rise to Islam there. Crone, on the other hand, says it was Arab nationalism that determined the development of Islam in Mecca and the Arabian peninsula.This research will re-examine the two theses by trying to reveal through the approach of the Qur'anic texts, because according to the author, the revelation of the Qur'anic text cannot be separated from the situation that occurred at that time. This means that the Qur'an is a response to the situation and conditions according to what happened in Mecca.In searching for existing texts, the author found evidence that Mecca, which developed international trade, had changed the attitudes and behavior of its citizens. In Mecca, the attitude of capitalistic materialism was widespread, so the verse that was revealed gave another warning to the citizens of Mecca to return to the true religion, by conducting relationships with God and building harmony with others in accordance with ethical morality. So Watt's thesis is closer to the truth that it was the trade factor that triggered the emergence of Islam. Unlike Watt, Crone's opinion, according to the author, is not in accordance with the text of the Qur'an. In Mecca there is no text that talks about political power, because Islam is still weak with few followers. Texts related to power only appeared after the hijrah, where it was needed to protect and defend the state of Medina from outside attacks, or even to expand power because of welfare needs, where financial resources were not found in Medina. However, the two opinions can be synergized and one synthesis, that the Mecca factor is indeed very strong as a trigger for the emergence of Islam, of course through trade and through the hands of Mecca residents who were honorable from the beginning and had relations with nations outside the peninsula

The historical Islamic state establishes a relationship between it and its citizens and religious subjects from religious minorities on tolerance, righteousness, mercy, justice, equality and other moral principles, provisions and teachings that safeguard human communication in spite of the difference of Religions and Sects. The article spoke through the introduction that the presence of Christians in the Arabian Peninsula was a normal, not an incident, which required special treatment for this social and religious group, which lives and shares many security, financial and social matters with Muslims. The article shed light on the Dhimmis, in particular, those who were satisfied with living and settling in the Islamic state, and who accepted that Islam and its Shari’ah law would rule over them and their masters, and they condemned its rulings with both humility and obediance and this will not be achieved for them unless they accept taxation and the supremacy of the Islamic state, so they can aquire citizenship, and the Sharia law showed through the texts of the Holy Coran and the Sunnah. the rules of the relationship between them and the Muslims .they shall not be harmed or wage upon any kind of war and sedition, To those who failed to comply, they would have no righteousness and all connection shall be severed and rights will be suspended. Through the article, we explained what the dhimmis must abide by, including submitting to the jurisdiction of the Islamic judiciary and be judge by it, and avoiding defamation or redicule to Muslims regarding their religion, their messenger, and the holy Qur'an , or their rulings with criticism , as well as withdraw all kinds of offenses and abominations in the Islamic state such as nudity, or drinking alcohol,eating pork ,erecting without permission worship temples and churches, etc. and other provisions Through the article, I referred to a number of the rights of the dhimmis, including their call to God and to convert to Islam, and their permanent residence in the Islamic state in exchange for their protection and insurance, and they pay taxes in exchange for the safety contract. I also referred to the principle of equality with Muslims in many rights, and allowing them to assume public functions other than those required by Islam, to the legislation that guarantees them freedom of opinion, belief and the performance of rituals, and prevents and forbids hurting them and undermining their dignity. And avoid their injustice, whether in their souls, money or symptoms, as well as charity and other forms of social activties such as sales,deals, purchase, leasing and other provisions and issues that the legal texts talked about were dealt with juristic opinions.

Problem setting. Islam is the youngest Abrahamic religion in the world. Its beginning was laid in the first half of the VII century AD on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. The Islamic world is a unique regional phenomenon that causes many people to have different and in some cases even opposing views. The issue of human rights in the Islamic world is also much debated. Every day we receive information about the systematic violation of the honor and dignity of a certain category of the population (women, children) in the region. Analysis of recent researches and publications. The article uses the works of well-known experts in the field of Sharia and legal systems of Muslim countries such as: Syukiyaynen L. R., Abdullah ibn Abd al-Mukhsin at-Turki, Zhdanov N. V., Abashidze A. Kh., Abdul Aziiz Olaemi and others. Special attention is paid to the concepts of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. Target of research. The objective of this work is a general overview of the concept of human rights in the Islamic world. Article`s main body. Analyzed the issues of human rights in different countries where Sharia has a significant impact on their systems of law, namely: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Iran. The article notes that despite the significant impact of Sharia law on the legal systems of the above countries, certain human rights standards differ between them. Also, the article reveals the first practice of codifying human rights in muslim insight - the General Islamic Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the non-governmental organization Islamic Council in Europe. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (until 2012 - the Organization of the Islamic Conference) (hereinafter - OIC) - is an international intergovernmental organization whose members are representatives of the Muslim world. Thus, the explored activity of the international intergovernmental organization in the field of human rights, namely the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, which unites all Muslim countries of the world and in its activities is guided by the principles of Sharia. The study of the activities of this organization in the field of human rights contains an analysis of sectoral acts (for example, the Dhaka and Cairo Declarations), a study of the activities of bodies of special (Independent Permanent Commission on Human Rights) and general (Islamic Summit) competencies and other issues that relate to the mechanism of promoting and protecting human rights. Conclusions and prospects for the development. The authors came to the conclusion that the concept of human rights in the Islamic world is quite heterogeneous, even in comparison between countries where Sharia is dominant. The authors note the special role of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation as a leading basis in the Islamic doctrine of human rights, as this organization unites all Muslim countries into one monolithic bloc, which leads to the formation of a single Muslim autonomous will, which includes all national doctrines and approaches.

<p><strong>Abstract</strong>:<em> Transformation of women, as a discourse and the idea of the movement, increasingly writhed after the International Women's Conference in Beijing in 1995. The big question is how to construct the transformation of women in the crush of fear of success through the frame of diverse perspectives. Through religion and psychology approach, this paper attempted to describe the transformation of women's movement which has been increasingly writhing in the era of globalization. The data of the religious texts including Islamic religious texts showed that there was an equality between men and women, and husband and wife which were not only related to their rights they possessed , but also related to the obligations that must be carried out. The transformation of women's movement, especially in the perspective of religion, found the historical momentum since the presence of Islam brought by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula. At this global era, the demands on a role in the public sphere increasingly crystallized so that women were also required to actualize themselves in various social entities. Self-actualization in a variety of careers turned out to be in the form of a direct proportional relationship with the emergence of anxiety that led to conflict between selfhood on one side with public opinion which regarded it as a masculine figure on the other. This anxiety appeared when they, the women, were trapped between trying to reach a great achievement and their own shadows.</em></p><p dir="RTL"><strong>الملخص</strong> :تحوّل المرأة كموضوع حديث وفكرة الحركة أصبح ممتدّا بعد اللقاء العالمي للمرأة في بيجنج سنة 1995. والسؤال المطروح هو كيف تشكيل هذا التحوّل في محور <em>fear of success</em> في ضوء كثير من وجهات النظر. حاولت هذه الدراسة – بالمدخل الديني النفسي – تصوير حركة تحوّل المرأة المتطوّرة في عصر العولمة. دلّت البيانات من النصوص الدينية أن هناك مساواة وتواز بين الرجل والمرأة وفي الأسرة بين الزوج والزوجة، كل منهما له حقوق وواجبات. هذه الحركة النسائية – خاصة في منظار ديني - تجد فرصتها التاريخية المناسبة منذ ظهور الإسلام في الجزيرة العربية. وفي هذا العصر هناك متطلبات لظهور ودور المرأة في المجتمع. والواقع أن اتخاذ المرأة هذا الدور – في كثير من المناصب – أدي إلى نشوء الشعور بالهموم على الوعي بالنفس في جانب وبرأي المجتمع عنها في جانب آخر لأنهم اعتبرها امرأة. إذن وقعت المرأة في همّ بين المحاولة للحصول على الانجازات وظلّ نفسها.</p><p><strong>Abstrak: </strong><em>Transformasi perempuan, sebagai sebuah wacana dan ide gerakan, semakin menggeliat pasca Konferensi Perempuan Internasional di Beijing pada tahun 1995. Pertanyaan besarnya adalah bagaimana mengkonstruk transformasi perempuan dalam himpitan fear of success melalui bingkai beragam perspektif. Melalui pendekatan agama dan psikologi, tulisan ini mencoba untuk mendiskripsikan gerakan transformasi perempuan yang kian menggeliat di era globalisasi. Data-data teks keagamaan termasuk Islam menunjukkan bahwa terdapat kesetaraan antara laki-laki dan perempuan, terdapat equalitas antara suami dan istri tidak saja terkait dengan hak yang mereka miliki tetapi juga terkait dengan kewajiban yang harus diemban. Gerakan transformasi perempuan ini, khususnya dalam perspektif agama, menemukan momentum historisnya sejak kehadiran Islam yang dibawa oleh Muhammad saw di Jazirah Arab. Pada era global ini tuntutan peran dalam ranah publik semakin mengkristal sehingga perempuan juga dituntut untuk mengaktualisasikan diri dalam beragam entitas sosial. Aktualisasi diri dalam beragam karir ternyata berbanding lurus dengan munculnya kecemasan yang melahirkan konflik antara kedirian di satu sisi dengan opini publik yang menganggapnya sebagai sosok yang maskulin. Muncul kecemasan bahwa mereka, para perempuan, terjebak antara usaha meraih prestasi dengan bayangan diri. </em></p><p><strong>Keywords:</strong> transformasi, perempuan, Islam, psikologi, aktualisasi, fear of success.<strong><em></em></strong></p>

The article provides a philosophical analysis of the issue of treatment of women in Islamic sources. In particular, the spread of Islam around the world as early as the seventh century, in which women were respected. Promotion is based on sources. Islam, which existed during the pre-Islamic period, put an end to the burial of a girl alive. Indeed, all religions were practiced in the Arabian Peninsula at that time. In addition, women's rights and property relations are covered in depth. It has been scientifically studied that this spiritual heritage is of great importance in the development of the world in the XXI century.

In the Garden of EdenThe covers of the first three volumes of Kuml show photographs of fine Danish antiquities. Inside the volumes have articles on the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in Jutland, which is to be expected as Kuml is published by the Jutland Archaeological Society. However, in 1954 the scene is moved to more southern skies. This year, the cover is dominated by a date palm with two huge burial mounds in the background. In side the book one reads no less than six articles on the results from the First Danish Archaeological Bahrain Expedition. P.V. Glob begins with: Bahrain – Island of the Hundred Thousand Burial Mounds, The Flint Sites of the Bahrain Desert, Temples at Barbar and The Ancient Capital of Bahrain, followed by Bibby’s Five among Bahrain’s Hundred Thousand Burial Mounds and The Well of the Bulls. The following years, reports on excavations on Bahrain and later in the sheikhdoms of Qatar, Kuwait and Abu Dhabi are on Kuml’s repertoire.However, it all ends wit h the festschrift to mark Glob’s 60th anniversary, Kuml 1970, which has three articles on Arab archaeology and a single article in 1972. For the past thirty years almost, the journal has not had a single article on Arabia. Why is that? Primarily because the character of the museum’s work in the Arabian Gulf changed completely. The pioneers’ years of large-scale reconnaissance and excavations were succeeded by labourous studies of the excavated material – the necessary work preceding the final publications. Only in Abu Dhabi and Oman, Karen Frifelt carried on the pioneer spirit through the 1970s and 1980s, but she mainly published her results in in ternational, Englishlanguage journals.Consequently, the immediate field reports ended, but the subsequent research into Arab archaeology – carried out at the writing desk and with the collections of finds– still crept into Kuml. From 1973 , the journal contained a list of the publications made by the Jutland Archaeological Society (abbreviated JASP), and here, the Arab monographs begin to make their entry. The first ones are Holger Kapel’s Atlas of the Stone Age Cultures of Qatar from 1967 and Geoffrey Bibby’s survey in eastern Saudi Arabia from 1973. Then comes the Hellenistic excavations on the Failaka island in Kuwait with Hans Erik Mathiesen’s treatise on the terracotta figurines (1982), Lise Hannestad’s work on the ceramics (1983) and Kristian Jeppesen’s presentation of the temple and the fortifications (1989). A similar series on the Bronze Age excavations on Failaka has started with Poul Kjærum’s first volume on the stamp and cylinder seals (1983) and Flemming Højlund’s presentation of the ceramics (1987). The excavations on the island of Umm an-Nar in Abu Dhabi was published by Karen Frifelt in two volumes on the settlement (1991) and the graves (1995), and the ancient capital of Bahrain was analysed by H. Hellmuth Andersen and Flemming Højlund in two volumes on the northern city wall and the Islamic fort (1994) and the central, monumental buildings (1997) respectively.More is on its way! A volume on Islamic finds made on Bahrain has just been made ready for printing, and the Bronze Age temples at the village of Barbar is being worked up. Danish and foreign scholars are preparing other volumes, but the most important results of the expeditions to the Arabian Gulf have by now been published in voluminous series.With this, an era has ended, and Moesgård Museum’s 50th anniversary in 1999 was a welcome opportunity of looking back at the Arabian Gulf effort through the exhibition Glob and the Garden ef Eden. The Danish Bahrain expeditions and to consider what will happen in the future.How then is the relation ship between Moesgård Museum and Bahrain today, twenty-three years after the last expedition – now that most of the old excavations have been published and the two originators of the expeditions, P.V. Glob and Geoffrey Bibby have both died?In Denmark we usually consider Bahrain an exotic country with an exciting past. However, in Bahrain there is a similar fascination of Denmark and of Moesgård Museum. The Bahrain people are wondering why Danish scholars have been interested in their small island for so many years. It was probably not a coincidence when in the 1980s archaeologist and ethnographers from Moesgård Museum were invited to take part in the furnishing of the exhibitions in the new national museum of Bahrain. Today, museum staff from Arab countries consider a trip to Moesgård a near-pilgrimage: our collection of Near East artefacts from all the Gulf countries is unique, and the ethnographic collections are unusual in that they were collected with thorough information on the use, the users and the origin of each item.The Bahrain fascination of Moesgård Museum. was also evident, when the Bahrain minister of education, Abdulaziz Al-Fadl, visited the museum in connection with the opening of the Bahrain exhibition in 1999.Al-Fadl visited the museum’s oriental department, and in the photo and film archive a book with photos taken by Danish members of the expeditions to the Arabian Gulf was handed over to him. Al-Fadl was absorbed by the photos of the Bahrain of his childhood – the 1950s and 1960s – an un spoilt society very different from the modern Bahrain. His enthusiasm was not lessened when he saw a photo of his father standing next to P.V. Glob and Sheikh Salman Al Khalifa taken at the opening of Glob’s first archaeological exhibition in Manama, the capital. At a banquet given by Elisabeth Gerner Nielsen, the Danish minister of culture, on the evening following the opening of the Glob exhibition at Moesgård, Al-Fadl revealed that as a child, he had been on a school trip to the Danish excavations where – on the edge of the excavation – he had his first lesson in Bahrain’s prehistory from a Danish archaeologist (fig. 1).Another example: When attending the opening of an art exhibition at Bahrain’s Art Centre in February 1999, I met an old Bahrain painter, Abdelkarim Al-Orrayed, who turned out to be a good friend of the Danish painter Karl Bovin, who took part in Glob’s expeditions. He told me, how in 1956, Bovin had exhibited his paintings in a school in Manama. He recalled Bovin sitting in his Arabian tunic in a corner of the room, playing a flute, which he had carved in Sheikh Ibrahim’s garden.In a letter, Al-Orrayed states: ”I remember very well the day in 1956, when I met Karl Bovin for the first time. He was drawin g some narrow roads in the residential area where I lived. I followed him closely with my friend Hussain As-Suni – we were twentythree and twenty-one years old respectively. When he had finished, I invited him to my house where I showed him my drawings. He looked at them closely and gave me good advice to follow if I wanted to become a skilful artist – such as focusing on lines, form, light, distance, and shadow. He encouraged me to practice outdoors and to use different models. It was a turning point in our young artists’ lives when Hussein and I decided to follow Bovin’s instructions. We went everywhere – to the teahouses, the markets, the streets, and the countryside – and practised there, but the sea was the most fascinating phenomenon to us. In my book, An Introduction to Modern Art in Bahrain, I wrote about Bovin’s exhibitions in the 1950s and his great influence on me as an artist. Bovin’s talent inspired us greatly in rediscovering the nature and landscape on Bahrain and gave us the feeling that we had much strength to invest in art. Bovin contributed to a new start to us young painters, who had chosen the nature as our main motif.”Abdelkarim Al-Orrayed was the first Bahrain painter to live of his art, and around 1960 he opened a studio from which he sold his paintings. Two of his landscape watercolours are now at Moesgård.These two stories may have revealed that Bahrain and Moesgard Museum have a common history, which both parts value and wish to continue. The mutual fascination is a good foundation to build on and the close bonds and personal acquaintance between by now more generations is a valuable counterbalance to those tendencies that estrange people, cultures, and countries from one another.Already, more joint projects have been initiated: Danish archaeology students are taking part in excavations on Bahrain and elsewhere in the Arabic Gulf; an ethnography student is planning a long stay in a village on Bahrain for the study of parents’ expectations to their children on Bahrain as compared with the conditions in Denmark; P.V. Glob’s book, Al-Bahrain, has been translated into Arabic; Moesgård’s photos and films from the Gulf are to become universally accessible via the Internet; an exhibition on the Danish expeditions is being prepared at the National Museum of Bahrain, and so forth.Two projects are to be described in more detail here: New excavations on Bahrain that are to investigate how fresh water was exploited in the past, and the publication of a book and three CDs, Music in Bahrain, which will make Bahrain’s traditional music accessible not just to the population of Bahrain, but to the whole world.New excavations on BahrainFor millennia, Bahrain was famous for its abundance of fresh water springs, which made a belt of oases across the northern half of the island possible. Natural fertility combined with the favourable situation in the middle of the Arab Gulf made Bahrain a cultural and commercial centre that traded with the cities of Mesopotamia and the IndusValley already in the third millennium BC.Fresh water also played an important part in Bahrain’s ancient religion, as seen from ar chaeological excavations and Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets: A magnificent temple of light limestone was built over a spring, and according to old texts, water was the gods’ gift to Bahrain (Dilmun).Although fresh water had an overwhelming importance to a parched desert island, no studies have been directed towards the original ”taming” of the water on Bahrain. Therefore, Moesgård Museum is now beginning to look into the earliest irrigation techniques on the island and their significance to Bahrain’s development.Near the Bahrain village of Barbar, P.V. Glob in 1954 discovered a rise in the landscape, which was excavated during the following years. It turned out that the mound covered three different temples, built on top of and around each other. The Barbar temple was built of whitish ashlars and must have been an impressive structure. It has also gained a special importance in Near East research, as this is the first and only time that the holy spring chamber, the abzu, where the god Enki lived, has been un earthed (fig. 2).On the western side of the Barbar temple a monumental flight of steps, flank ed on both sides by cult figures, was leading through a portal to an underground chamber with a fresh water spring. In the beautiful ashlar walls of this chamber were three openings, through which water flowed. Only the eastern out flow was investigated, as the outside of an underground stonebuilt aqueduct was found a few metres from the spring chamber.East of the temple another underground aqueduct was followed along a 16-m distance. It was excavated at two points and turned out almost to have the height of a man. The floor was covered with large stones with a carved canal and the ceiling was built of equally large stones (fig. 3).No doubt the spring chamber was a central part of the temple, charge d with great importance. However, the function of the aqueducts is still unknown. It seems obvious that they were to lead the fresh water away from the source chamber, but was this part of a completely ritual arrangement, or was the purpose to transport the water to the gardens to be used for irrigation?To clarify these questions we will try to trace the continuations of the aqueducts using different tracing techniques such as georadar and magnetometer. As the sur roundings of Barbar temple are covered by several metres of shifting sand, the possibilities of following the aqueducts are fine, if necessary even across a great distance, and if they turn out to lead to old gardens, then these may be exposed under the sand.Underground water canals of a similar construction, drawing water from springs or subsoil water, have been used until modern times on Bahrain, and they are still in use in Iran and on the Arabian Peninsula, especially in Oman, where they supply the gardens with water for irrigation. They are called qanats and are usually considered built by the Persians during periods when the Achaemenid or Sassanid kings controlled Arabia (c. 500 BC-c. 600 AD). However, new excavation results from the Oman peninsula indicate that at least some canal systems date from c. 1000 BC. It is therefore of utmost interest if similar sophisticated transportation systems for water on Bahrain may be proven to date from the time of the erection of the Barbar temple, i.e. c. 2000 BC.The finds suggest that around this time Bahrain underwent dramatic changes. From being a thinly inhabited island during most of the 3rd millennium BC, the northern part of the island suddenly had extensive burial grounds, showing a rapid increase in population. At the same time the major settlement on the northern coast was fortified, temples like the one at Barbar were built, and gigantic ”royal mounds” were built in the middle of the island – all pointing at a hierarchic society coming into existence.This fast social development of Dilmun must have parallelled efficiency in the exploitation of fresh water resources for farm ing to supply a growing population with the basic food, and perhaps this explains the aqueducts by Barbar?The planned excavatio ns will be carried out in close cooperation between the National Museum of Bahrain and Aarhus University, and they are supported financially by the Carlsberg Foundation and Bahrain’s Cabinet and Information Ministry.The music of BahrainThe composer Poul Rovsing Olsen (1922-1982) was inspired by Arab and Indian music, and he spent a large part of his life studying traditional music in the countries along the Arabian Gulf. In 1958 and 1962-63 he took part in P.V. Glob’s expeditions to Arabia as a music ethnologist and in the 1970s he organised stays of long duration here (fig. 4).The background for his musical fieldwork was the rapid development, which the oil finds in the Gulf countries had started. The local folk music would clearly disappear with the trades and traditions with which they were connected.” If no one goes pearl fishing anymore, then no one will need the work songs connected to this work. And if no one marries according to tradition with festivity lasting three or sometimes five days, then no one will need the old wedding songs anymore’’.It was thus in the last moment that Rovsing Olsen recorded the pearl fishers’ concerts, the seamen’s shanties, the bedouin war songs, the wedding music, the festival music etc. on his tape recorder. By doing this he saved a unique collection of song and music, which is now stored in the Dansk Folkemindesamling in Copenhagen. It comprises around 150 tapes and more than 700 pieces of music. The instruments are to be found at the Musikhistorisk Museum and Moesgård Museum (fig. 5).During the 1960s and 1970s Rovsing Olsen published a number of smaller studies on music from the Arabian Gulf, which established his name as the greatest connoisseur of music from this area – a reputation, which the twenty years that have passed since his death have not shaken. Rovsing Olsen also published an LP record with pearl fisher music, and with the music ethnologist Jean Jenkins from the Horniman Museum in London he published six LP records, Music in the World of Islam with seven numbers from the Arabian Gulf, and the book Music and Musical Instruments in the World of Islam (London 1976).Shortly before his death, Rovsing Olsen finished a comprehensive manuscript in English, Music in Bahrain, where he summed up nearly twenty-five years of studies into folk music along the Arabian Gulf, with the main emphasis on Bahrain. The manuscript has eleven chapters, and after a short introduction Rovsing Olsen deals with musical instruments, lute music, war and honour songs of the bedouins, festivity dance, working songs and concerts of the pearl fishers, music influenced front Africa, double clarinet and bag pipe music, religious songs and women’s songs. Of these, eighty-four selected pieces of music are reproduced with notes and commented in the text. A large selection of this music will be published on three CDs to go with the book.This work has been anticipated with great expectation by music ethnologists and connoisseurs of Arabic folk music, and in agreement with Rovsing Olsen’s widow, Louise Lerche-Lerchenborg and Dansk Folkemindesamling, Moesgård Museum is presently working on publishing the work.The publication is managed by the Jutland Archaeological Society and Aarhus University Press will manage the distribution. The Carlsberg Foundation and Bahrain’s Cabinet and Information Ministry will cover the editing and printing expenses.The publication of the book and the CDs on the music of Bahrain will be celebrated at a festivity on Bahrain, at the next annual cultural festival, the theme of which will be ”mutual inspiration across cultural borders” with a focus on Rovsing Olsen. In this context, Den Danske Trio Anette Slaato will perform A Dream in Violet, a music piece influenced by Arabic music. On the same occasion singers and musicians will present the traditional pearl fishers’ music from Bahrain. In connection with the concert on Bahrain, a major tour has been planned in cooperation with The Danish Institute in Damascus, where the Danish musicians will also perform in Damascus and Beirut and give ”masterclasses” in chamber music on the local music academies. The concert tour is being organised by Louise Lerche-Lerchenborg, who initiated one of the most important Danish musical events, the Lerchenborg Musical Days,in 1963 and organised them for thirty years.ConclusionPride of concerted effort is not a special Danish national sport. However,the achievements in the Arabian Gulf made by the Danish expeditions from the Århus museum are recognised everywhere. It is only fair to use this jubilee volume for drawing attention to the fact that the journal Kuml and the publications of the Jutland Archaeological Society were the instruments through which the epoch-making investigations in the Gulf were nude public nationally and internationally.Finally, the cooperationon interesting tasks between Moesgård Museum and the countries along the Arabian Gulf will continue. In the future, Kuml will again be reporting on new excavations in the palm shadows and eventually, larger investigation s will no doubt find their way to the society’s comprehensive volumes.Flemming HøjlundMoesgård MuseumTranslated by Annette Lerche Trolle

ABSTRACT: This article uses mixed digital methods to analyze a 1909/1910 Ottoman map of "tribal" territories in Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula that builds on existing Ottoman modes of depicting land and people to create a novel assertion of territoriality across the region. We analyze a digital artifact, created by joining the map to its companion informational table, to identify gaps and moments of uncertainty in the imperial knowledge-production process. We then read the map alongside a variety of nineteenth and early twentieth-century Ottoman and British sources of different genres which also address the production of imperial territoriality in the region. While the differences in how these sources collect and present information prevent us from drawing direct data comparisons, visualizations of data derived from these sources enable us to explore the contours of an expansive project of Ottoman sovereignty across Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, and to situate that project in a broader framework of inter-imperial competition. We argue that this kind of exploratory digital combination reveals the expansive nature of the late Ottoman imperial project, and its completist aims, in contrast to common depictions of the late Ottoman state as contracting and its governing practices as "flexible" or "fuzzy."

AbstractThe gradual decline of Zaydī-Shī'ī Islam in Yemen occurred within contexts of state transformation over the past three centuries, culminating in the revolution of 1962 that abolished the imāmate. It has since lost its institutional framework and struggled to define its location in the newly established republic. The republic's commitment to an Islam which transcends the schools of law (madhāhib) has become part of Yemen's nationalist project and of the state's political agenda. At the intersection of nation-building and Saudi Arabia's assertion of its hegemony over the Arabian Peninsula, the Salafī da'wa—consonant with the teachings of the 18th/19th century scholar Muhammad al-Shawkānī—has twinned with Hanbalī-'Wahhābī' doctrine. The establishment of educational institutions and mosques propagating anti-Shī'ī schools of thought have provoked a Zaydī revival movement that gained momentum after Yemen's 'unification' in 1990. The movement has led to increased polarisation between the Zaydīs and the Salafīs, and demonstrated profound tensions among Zaydīs who subscribe to diverse political moralities. The article explores how categories of legitimisation have been modulated, and what recent Zaydī political activism reveals about the conflicting meanings people attach to 'being Zaydī'.

AbstractMany classical Islamic sources argue that it is not permissible for non-Muslims to reside in the Ḥijāz, especially Mecca and Medina. Such arguments are usually based on a famous Prophetic saying, “Two religions should not join/remain in the peninsula/land of the Arabs”, and on the reported action taken by the second caliph ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb to remove non-Muslims from settlements in western Arabia. In this article, it is argued that the contradictory nature of the evidence for this expulsion casts serious doubt on whether such a widespread action actually took place, certainly not in the decades immediately following Muḥammad's death. It concludes that the widely attested classical prohibition on non-Muslims residing in the Ḥijāz rather had much more to do with the gradually evolving need to draw up firmer communal boundaries, which could help distinguish Muslims from others, and the role played by sacred spaces in doing so.

Abstract This article addresses the heterarchical dynamism generated by the reorganization of sacred geographies in India and the Arabian Peninsula through contemporary iconographies and religious practices. The cities at the top of the orthodox Islamic/Arab sacred, authoritative hierarchy have lost their status in the current Indian context both concretely and symbolically, and have become equated, embedded, or subordinated to the Indian space. This dynamism is unfolding primarily in Indian vernacular spaces: in the material culture and audiovisual media produced and sold in Islamic bazaars in proximity to Sufi shrines; and in public religious practices that are reshuffling the sacred spaces of both India and the Hijaz, manifesting a polyphonic, at times rhizomatic fabric corresponding to social theorist Kyriakos Kontopoulos’s definition of a heterarchy.

AbstractIn the biblical conquest accounts,hērem signifies ritual destruction and consecration to the deity of entire enemy populations and towns. The root hrm also appears in two extrabiblical conquest accounts: the Mesha Inscription and the Sabaean text, RES 3945. This article revisits the interpretation of the Sabaean text in light of recent scholarship in South Arabian Studies, and argues that RES 3945 should be placed on equal footing with the Mesha Inscription for its relevance for understanding the biblical hērem. Taken together, these sources situate the war-hērem in the context of early state formation, and suggest that the tripartite relationship between people, land and god, expressed in terms of b&ebrever&icaront, or &#147covenant,&#148 in ancient Israel, may in fact have found expression more widely, in a tribal, inland Palestinian setting with cultural connections extending into the South Arabian Peninsula.

The meaning and elaboration of Jihad (just-sacred war) hold an important place in Islamic history and thought. On the far side of its spiritual meanings, the term has been historically and previously associated with the Arab Believers’ conquest of the 7th–8th centuries CE. However, the main idea of this contribution is to develop the “sacralization of war” as a relevant facet that was previously elaborated by the Arab Christian (pro-Byzantine) clans of the north of the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant and secondarily by the Arab confederation of Muhammad’s believers. From the beginning of Muhammad’s hijra (622), the interconnection between the Medinan clans that supported the Prophet with those settled in the northwest of the Hijaz is particularly interesting in relation to a couple of aspects: their trade collaboration and the impact of the belligerent attitude of the pro-Byzantine Arab Christian forces in the framing of the early concept of a Jihad. This analysis aimed to clarify the possibility that the early “sacralization of war” in proto-Islamic narrative had a Christian Arab origin related to a previous refinement in the Christian milieu.

Many important western works on the Qurʾān are focused on the question of religious influences. The prototypical work of this genre is concerned with Judaism and the Qurʾān: Abraham’s Geiger’s 1833 Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen, or “What Did Muhammad Acquire from Judaism?” In Geiger’s work – and the works of many who followed him – material in the Qurʾān is compared to similar material in Jewish or Christian literature in the hope of arriving at a better understanding of the Qurʾān’s origins. In the present article I argue that these sorts of studies often include a simplistic perspective on Qur’anic rhetoric. In order to pursue this argument I focus on a common feature of these works, namely a comparison between material in the Qurʾān on Christ and Christianity with reports on the teachings of Christian heretical groups. Behind this feature is a conviction that heretical Christian groups existed in the Arabian peninsula at the time of Islam’s origins and that these groups influenced the Prophet. I will argue that once the Qurʾān’s creative use of rhetorical strategies such as hyperbole is appreciated, the need to search for Christian heretics disappears entirely.

In the last weeks of 1523, a colorful traveler arrived in Venice from Alexandria: “Dark in aspect, short in stature, gaunt, his language Hagarish [Arabic] and a little Jewish. … He wore striped silk according to the custom of the Ishmaelites, and on his head a white scarf, with which he covered his head and most of himself.” The traveler presented himself to local Jews and community leaders as “David,” the ambassador of an independent Jewish state on the Arabian peninsula, where he claimed that his brother, King Joseph, ruled over the tribes of Reuven, Gad, and half the tribe of Menashe. The “Jewish ambassador” announced that he was on his way to Rome to hold a state meeting with the Pope, as an emissary of the Seventy Elders, the advisers of his brother the king. He added, of course, that he needed money.

The point of departure of the article are the Catholic theological foundations for interreligious dialogue written at the Second Vatican Council. The documents of the last church Council encourage Pope Francis to imitate the Poor from Assisi, whose name he chose when he was elected Pope. On the occasion of his visit to Abu Dhabi, for the first time after the conquests of Islam, he celebrated Holy Mass on the Arabian Peninsula and assured Muslim leaders that he was coming to visit them as a brother. He signed a document on world fraternity with the great Iman of the Egyptian Islamic University, in which they wrote that everyone, Christians and Muslims, is created as a child of God. They invite people to respect each other and work for peace despite their differences. The initiator of the dialogue between Friars Minor and the Muslims is Francis of Assisi, who 800 years ago held a peaceful meeting with Sultan Al-Kamil in Damietta, Egypt, in an atmosphere of respect and mutual acceptance. The purpose of our work is however to introduce the actual efforts of the Slovenian Franciscans for Dialogue with Muslims.

Arnold’s book offers a balanced analysis and an alternative perspective for those who seek to find the truth about Islam. It has 13 chapters (including introduction and conclusion) and each chapter covers almost all regions that had interacted with Islam. The story line of the book begins with how Islam first established in Mecca and Medina, and later it spreads to all Arabian Peninsula and other corners of the earth encompassing western Asia, Africa, Spain Andalusia, central Asia, China, India, and Malay Archipelago. In the time of writing in 1896, Prof Arnold estimated that there were about 200 million of the followers of Islam. The references used in this book range from Arabic, Dutch, English, French and other sources.The main strength of this book is it reveals with an avalanche data of how Islam peacefully spread to many places in the world. Professor Arnold has laid down the very fundamental vigour of Islam which is not entirely depending on the Muslim physical empires and dynasties but it solidly rests on its ‘spiritual conquests’, that is, da’wah conveying the message of Islam that went on uninterruptedly by the Muslim missionaries.