Relevant bibliographies by topics / Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on

Academic literature on the topic 'Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on'

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Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 29 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on"

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Chau, Y. K., R. J. Maguire, M. Brown, F. Yang, and S. P. Batchelor. "Occurrence of Organotin Compounds in the Canadian Aquatic Environment Five Years after the Regulation of Antifouling Uses of Tributyltin." Water Quality Research Journal 32, no. 3 (August 1, 1997): 453–522. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.1997.029.

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Abstract A survey was conducted of water and sediment from across Canada in 1993-94 to assess the effectiveness of the 1989 regulation of antifouling uses of tributyltin (TBT) under the Canadian Pest Control Products Act. The survey was also designed to assess concentrations of 13 other organotin species in water and sediment, and in sewage treatment plant influents, effluents and sludges. The main conclusion is that the 1989 regulation has only been partially effective. It has had some effect in the reduction of TBT concentrations in fresh water, but not in sea water. It has had less effect in the reduction of TBT concentrations in sediment, probably because of the longer persistence of TBT in sediment than in water. In many locations the TBT concentration was high enough to cause acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic and benthic organisms. In some areas there may be potential for recycling TBT from contaminated sediments back into the water column. In addition, it appears that large harbours that handle ships legally painted with TBT-containing antifouling paints continued to experience ecotoxicologically significant TBT contamination. Other organotin species found appear to pose no acute or chronic hazards to fresh water or marine organisms, but nothing is known of their hazards to benthic organisms. The presence of monooctyltin and dioctyltin in sediments and sewage treatment plant influents, effluents and sludges is reported for the first time, and tripropyltin is quantified in sediments for the first time.
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Sahli, Leila, Fatima-Zohra Afri-Mehennaoui, Mohamed El Hadef El Okki, Christian Blaise, and Smail Mehennaoui. "Spatial and seasonal variations and ecotoxicological significance of sediment trace metal concentrations in Kebir-Rhumel basin (Northeast of Algeria)." Water Science and Technology 64, no. 8 (October 1, 2011): 1759–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.693.

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This study sought to assess sediment contamination by trace metals (cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc), to localize contaminated sites and to identify environmental risk for aquatic organisms in Wadis of Kebir Rhumel basin in the Northeast of Algeria. Water and surficial sediments (0–5 cm) were sampled in winter, spring, summer and autumn from 37 sites along permanent Wadis of the Kebir Rhumel basin. Sediment trace metal contents were measured by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Trace metals median concentrations in sediments followed a decreasing order: Mn > Zn > Pb > Cr > Cu > Ni > Co > Cd. Extreme values (dry weights) of the trace metals are as follows: 0.6–3.4 μg/g for Cd, 10–216 μg/g for Cr, 9–446 μg/g for Cu, 3–20 μg/g for Co, 105–576 μg/g for Mn, 10–46 μg/g for Ni, 11–167 μg/g for Pb, and 38–641 μg/g for Zn. According to world natural concentrations, all sediments collected were considered as contaminated by one or more elements. Comparing measured concentrations with American guidelines (Threshold Effect Level: TEL and Probable Effect Level: PEL) showed that biological effects could be occasionally observed for cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel levels but frequently observed for copper and zinc levels. Sediment quality was shown to be excellent for cobalt and manganese but medium to bad for cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc regardless of sites.
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Yang, Fan, R. James Maguire, and Yiu K. Chau. "Occurrence of Butyltin Compounds in Freshwater Mussels (Elliptio complanata) from Contaminated Aquatic Areas in Ontario, Canada." Water Quality Research Journal 36, no. 4 (November 1, 2001): 805–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.2001.043.

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Abstract The antifouling agent tributyltin (TBT) is extremely toxic to some aquatic organisms. The accumulation of butyltin compounds in the tissues of freshwater mussels from contaminated areas in Ontario was studied in the field with caged mussels (Elliptio complanata). Mussels were placed in four sites for 11 months, and one site for 6 months, in locations of previous contamination of water and sediments. Additional cages were exposed for 5 months at two of the sites to study the effect of mussel size on accumulation. The mussels were collected at regular intervals for butyltin analysis. After almost one year of exposure at four locations, the TBT contents in tissue of mussels were 9 to 148 ng as Sn/g (wet weight). The results showed that concentrations of TBT in mussels were related to the mussel size and the concentrations of TBT in contaminated aquatic areas, and that concentrations in mussel tissue increased dramatically over winter. The results of the experiment demonstrated that caged mussels are useful for indicating the presence of TBT in aquatic systems.
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Tomilina, I. I., L. P. Grebenyuk, N. V. Lobus, and V. T. Komov. "Biological effects of contaminated bottom sediments of water bodies in Central and South Vietnam on aquatic organisms." Inland Water Biology 9, no. 4 (October 2016): 413–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1995082916030196.

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Pociecha, Agnieszka, Agata Z. Wojtal, Ewa Szarek-Gwiazda, Anna Cieplok, Dariusz Ciszewski, and Sylwia Cichoń. "Neo- and Paleo-Limnological Studies on Diatom and Cladoceran Communities of Subsidence Ponds Affected by Mine Waters (S. Poland)." Water 12, no. 6 (June 2, 2020): 1581. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12061581.

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Plankton assemblages can be altered to different degrees by mining. Here, we test how diatoms and cladocerans in ponds along a river in southern Poland respond to the cessation of the long-term Pb-Zn mining. There are two groups of subsidence ponds in the river valley. One of them (DOWN) was contaminated over a period of mining, which ceased in 2009, whereas the other (UP) appeared after the mining had stopped. We used diatoms and cladocerans (complete organisms in plankton and their remains in sediments) to reveal the influence of environmental change on the structure and density of organisms. The water of UP pond was more contaminated by major ions (SO42−, Cl−) and nutrients (NO3−, PO43−) than the DOWN ponds. Inversely, concentrations of Zn, Cd, Cu and Pb were significantly higher in sediment cores of DOWN ponds in comparison to those in the UP pond. Ponds during mining had higher diversity of diatoms and cladocerans than the pond formed after the mining had stopped. CCA showed that diatom and cladoceran communities related most significantly to concentrations of Pb in sediment cores. Comparison of diatom and cladoceran communities in plankton and sediment suggests significant recovery of assemblages in recent years and reduction of the harmful effect of mine-originating heavy metals. Some features of ponds such as the rate of water exchange by river flow and the presence of water plants influenced plankton communities more than the content of dissolved heavy metals.
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Bremle, G., and G. Ewald. "Bioconcentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in chironomid larvae, oligochaete worms and fish from contaminated lake sediment." Marine and Freshwater Research 46, no. 1 (1995): 267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf9950267.

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Values were determined for PCB bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for fish and BSF (ratio of organism-to-sediment PCB concentration) for fish, oligochaete worms and chironomid larvae, collected in a PCB-contaminated lake in the south of Sweden. Generally, the BCF and BSF increased slightly with increasing PCB lipophilicity. This was not the case for PCBs with a log octanol/water partitioning coefficient of >7, for which the BCF and BSF values levelled off or decreased. The BSF curves for PCBs were similar for the two benthic organisms but different for fish. There was a variation in PCB domain patterns for the benthic organisms between sampling points. This could be an effect of varying bioavailability of the PCBs in the different sediment types. Despite the similarity in BSF patterns for the benthic organisms, the PCB concentration in chironomids was about twice that in oligochaete worms. The chironomid lipids contained more than twice the amount of non-polar lipid components than did the lipids in oligochaete worms, which probably influenced the lipid/sediment equilibrium of PCB.
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Cera, Alessandra, Giulia Cesarini, and Massimiliano Scalici. "Microplastics in Freshwater: What Is the News from the World?" Diversity 12, no. 7 (July 9, 2020): 276. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d12070276.

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Plastic has become a “hot topic” for aquatic ecosystems’ conservation together with other issues such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Indeed, plastics may detrimentally affect habitats and biota. Small plastics, called microplastics, are more easily taken up by freshwater organisms, causing negative effects on growth, reproduction, predatory performance, etc. Since available information on microplastics in freshwater are fragmentary, the aim of this review is twofold: (i) to show, analyse, and discuss data on the microplastics concentration in freshwater and (ii) to provide the main polymers contaminating freshwater for management planning. A bibliographic search collected 158 studies since 2012, providing the scientific community with one of the largest data sets on microplastics in freshwater. Contamination is reported in all continents except Antarctica, but a lack of information is still present. Lentic waters are generally more contaminated than lotic waters, and waters are less contaminated than sediments, suggested to be sinks. The main contaminating polymers are polypropylene and polyethylene for sediment and water, while polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate are mainly found in biota. Future research is encouraged (1) to achieve a standardised protocol for monitoring, (2) to identify sources and transport routes (including primary or secondary origin), and (3) to investigate trophic transfer, especially from benthic invertebrates.
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Schipper, Cor A., Joost Lahr, Paul J. van den Brink, Steve G. George, Peter-Diedrich Hansen, Helena C. da Silva de Assis, Ron van der Oost, et al. "A retrospective analysis to explore the applicability of fish biomarkers and sediment bioassays along contaminated salinity transects." ICES Journal of Marine Science 66, no. 10 (August 14, 2009): 2089–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsp194.

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Abstract Schipper, C. A., Lahr, J., van den Brink, P. J., George, S. G., Hansen, P-D., da Silva de Assis, H. C., van der Oost, R., Thain, J. E., Livingstone, D., Mitchelmore, C., van Schooten, F-J., Ariese, F., Murk, A. J., Grinwis, G. C. M., Klamer, H., Kater, B. J., Postma, J. F., van der Werf, B., and Vethaak, A. D. 2009. A retrospective analysis to explore the applicability of fish biomarkers and sediment bioassays along contaminated salinity transects. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 2089–2105. Biological-effects monitoring in estuarine environments is complex as a result of strong gradients and fluctuations in salinity and other environmental conditions, which may influence contaminant bioavailability and the physiology and metabolism of the organisms. To select the most robust and reliable biological-effect methods for monitoring and assessment programmes, a large-scale field study was conducted in two estuarine transects in the Netherlands. The locations ranged from heavily polluted harbour areas (the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam) to cleaner coastal and freshwater sites. Assessment methods used included a variety of biomarkers in flounder (Platichthys flesus) and a range of in vitro (sediment extracts) and in vivo bioassays. Multivariate statistical analysis was applied to investigate correlations and relationships between various biological effects and contaminant levels in flounder liver or sediments. Several biological methods seemed to be too much affected by salinity differences for routine use in estuaries. The most discriminative biomarkers in the study were hepatic metallothionein content and biliary 1-OH pyrene in fish. Mechanism-based in vitro assays DR-CALUX and ER-CALUX applied to sediment extracts for screening of potential toxicity were much more responsive than in vivo bioassays with macro-invertebrates using survival as an endpoint.
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Yunus, Kamaruzzaman, M. A. Zuraidah, and Akbar John. "A review on the accumulation of heavy metals in coastal sediment of Peninsular Malaysia." Ecofeminism and Climate Change 1, no. 1 (June 3, 2020): 21–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/efcc-03-2020-0003.

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Purpose This study aims to examine the metal pollution in coastal sediment in the Peninsular Malaysia. Design/methodology/approach Approximately 141 published studies were screened from 1,285 documents and reviewed to determine the existing pollution status in the coastal areas of Peninsular Malaysia and the metals under review were Pb, Hg, Cd, Ar, Cu, Zn, Cr and Ni. Sources of pollutants and their effect on biological systems, marine organisms and human health were addressed in this review as well as recommendation of heavy metal removal or remedies in short. Emphasis is placed on marine pollution, particularly on the toxic metal accumulation in biota. Findings This study has revealed the different concentrations of pollutants, low, moderately, and chronically contaminated areas from heavy metals and the consequences to aquatic ecosystem and indirectly to human health, since an increasing in the coastal developments in Peninsular Malaysia. Originality/value This study has revealed the different concentrations of pollutants, low, moderately, and chronically contaminated areas from heavy metals and the consequences to aquatic ecosystem and indirectly to human health, since an increasing in the coastal developments in Peninsular Malaysia.
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Sanada, Yukihisa, Kenji Miyamoto, Hiroyasu Momma, Nobuyuki Miyazaki, Takamasa Nakasone, Junichiro Tahara, Shoichiro Baba, and Hiroki Furuyama. "Development of a Radiation Survey Device for a Multipurpose Unmanned Surface Vehicle." Marine Technology Society Journal 55, no. 5 (September 1, 2021): 222–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.55.5.19.

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Abstract Large quantities of volatile radionuclides were released into the atmosphere after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station (FDNPS) accident in March 2011. An inventory of these radionuclides in seafloor sediments is important for evaluating their environmental behavior and effects on aquatic organisms. We developed a dedicated radiation survey device that can be installed on a multipurpose unmanned surface vehicle called the Intelligent Boat for Oceanological Survey from Hama-dori (i-BoSH). Both the i-BoSH and dedicated radiation survey device were developed by a local consortium to survey places of heavy damage from the accident. The radiation survey device can measure radioactivity in-situ and collect eight sediment samples. The device also contains sensors to measure the relative distance between the i-BoSH and the seafloor as well as other fundamental seawater information such as temperature. A comprehensive test that included in-situ radiation measurements in sediment and collection of sediment core samples was conducted offshore from a radiocesium-contaminated fishing port in Fukushima. Consequently, the effectiveness of this device was confirmed via a successful operation at 12 sampling points with two cruises from the fishing port. Good correlations were observed between the laboratory and field measurement results of the sampled sediment cores and the in-situ radiation survey, respectively. Successful application of this device is expected to go beyond environmental surveys around the FDNPS to more general radiation monitoring around nuclear facilities and longer post-accident periods.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on"

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Masikane, Ntuthuko Fortune. "Development of a sediment toxicity test for the South African coastal environment using the endemic amphipod, Grandidierella lignorum Barnard 1935 (Amphipoda: Aoridae)." Thesis, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10413/11225.

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Contaminants introduced in solution to coastal waters eventually accumulate in sediment. Pollution by these contaminants is only evident when biological effects occur. Geochemical procedures lack the ability to identify biological effects of pollution. Biological methods (i.e. community structure analyses and/or bioassays) are currently the best available techniques for pollution assessment. Standardised and locally relevant protocols for pollution assessment are lacking in many developing countries, including South Africa. This study aims to develop a sediment toxicity testing protocol using an amphipod species endemic to South Africa, Grandidierella lignorum. Initial research focussed on establishing ranges of physico-chemical parameters (i.e. salinity, temperature, sediment grain size and organic matter content) within which sediment toxicity tests should be performed. The sensitivity of the amphipod was then determined by exposing the amphipod to cadmium, copper and zinc at various salinities. Lastly, the amphipod was exposed to effluents (to test the amphipod’s sensitivity in water only tests) and whole sediment (to tests the amphipod’s sensitivity to solid phase material). G. lignorum tolerates salinities between 0 and 56, but prefers salinities between 7 and 42. Preferred salinity range is modified by temperature, with salinity of 42 becoming less tolerable. Salinities between 7 and 35 are most preferred at 10-25°C. G. lignorum prefers fine- (27.48±12.13%), medium- (25.11±12.99%) and coarse-grained sand (21.45±8.02%). Sediment with low (≤2%) organic matter content is most preferable, regardless of sediment grain size or type of organic matter (protein-rich vs. carbohydrate-rich). Cadmium toxicity decreased with increasing salinity (LC₅₀: 0.34 ± 0.17 mg l⁻¹ (salinity of 7), 0.73 ± 0.05 mg l⁻¹ (salinity of 21) and 1.08 ± 0.49 mg l⁻¹ (salinity of 35)). Zinc toxicity increased with decreasing salinity (1.56 ± 0.33 mg l⁻¹ at a salinity of 21 to 0.99 ± 0.13 mg l⁻¹ at a salinity of 7) and with increasing salinity (from salinity of 21 to 0.82 ± 0.19 mg l⁻¹ at a salinity of 35). Copper toxicity did not differ significantly with salinity and ranged between 0.72 ± 0.18 mg l⁻¹ (salinity of 35) and 0.89 ± 0.24 mg l⁻¹ (salinity of 21). Toxicity testing using Grandidierella lignorum should be performed in coarse- to fine-grained sediment at salinities of 7 - 35, at 10 – 25°C. Amphipods do not need to be fed during toxicity testing. A control chart using cadmium as a reference toxicant was established to determine the acceptability of toxicity results. Toxicity test results should be accepted when cadmium toxicity falls between 0.49 and 4.02 mg l⁻¹. The amphipod responded consistently to effluents and was able to discriminate polluted and unpolluted sediment in Durban Bay. Recommendations for refining the effluent and sediment toxicity test are suggested.
Ph.D. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2013.
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Hillwalker, Wendy E. "Selenium and trace metal accumulation in detrital-benthic food webs of lotic and lentic wetlands, Utah, USA." Thesis, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/29920.

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Concentrations of selenium (Se), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and arsenic (As) were measured in the water column, sediment and biota, in conjunction with selected physicochemical data, from representative wetland types at a mining site within Salt Lake County, Utah, USA. The selected field sites included Oolitic Pond (lentic) and Lee Creek (lotic), which are moderately contaminated brackish, alkaline aquatic wetlands managed by a copper mining industry. These fishless wetlands are located in a geographic region that poses risk to migratory shorebird populations from dietary Se. A spatial sampling study demonstrated the extent of variation in total Se concentration within the wetlands. With the exception of the sediment compartment, Se concentration did not differ significantly along the 2-mile length of Lee Creek or within the Pond. The differences in sediment total Se concentrations between the Creek East and West segments characterize lower Lee Creek as having two segments distinguished by unique processes that influence the sediment Se accumulation profiles. Se accumulation trends were observed temporally over 3-years (2000 to 2002) and over two seasons (spring and autumn). Total Se body burden in benthic invertebrates was more clearly associated with sediment/detritus Se concentrations than with surface water concentrations. Three invertebrate groups dominated the aquatic invertebrates assemblage in the lotic and lentic benthos; primary consumers (Chironomidae, Diptera), generalist feeders (Hemiptera) and predators (Odonata). The chironomid larvae accumulated 1.3 to 39 times the trace metal concentrations of the Hemiptera or odonate taxa, independent of trace metal type (essential or non-essential) or wetland occupation. Organism-specific factors, such as habitat selection and preferential feeding habits, were proposed to influence benthic invertebrate accumulation profiles by modifying trace metal exposure. Mixed diets, trophic omnivory and the complexity of wetland biogeochemistry limit the power of stable nitrogen fractionation signatures to define benthic food web relationships. Wetland site-specific processes impacted Se accumulating efficiency, with trace metal concentrations from 4 to 7 times greater within the lentic benthic system than the lotic. The fractionation of the natural abundant stable carbon isotopes revealed the importance of sedimentary and detrital organic carbon as dietary sources for the benthic food web. Sediment organic content was not significantly associated with sediment, or invertebrate, Se accumulation profiles. Ecological risk assessments based on sound understanding of metal chemistry and the interactions between the sediment matrix and benthic organisms are necessary to provide tools for environmental management.
Graduation date: 2005
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Books on the topic "Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on"

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Clarke, Joan U. Assessing bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms exposed to contaminated sediments. Vicksburg, Miss: US Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Laboratory, 1991.

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Bedard, D. Laboratory sediment bioassay report on St. Lawrence River sediments near Cornwall, Ontario 1997. [Toronto]: Ontario Ministry of the Environment, 1999.

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Schipper, Cor. Assessment of effects of chemical contaminants in dredged material on marine ecosystems and human health. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Deltares, IOS Press, 2009.

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Hartwell, S. Ian. Magnitude and extent of contaminated sediment and toxicity in Chesapeake Bay. Silver Spring, Md: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, 2007.

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Wright, David A. Trace metal and toxic organic concentrations in striped bass and white perch larvae, freshwater clams, and surficial sediments from northern Chesapeake Bay tributaries: A report to Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Tidewater Administration. Solomons, MD: University of Maryland, Center for Environmental & Estuarine Studies, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, 1987.

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D, Capel Paul, and Dileanis Peter D, eds. Pesticides in stream sediment and aquatic biota: Distribution, trends, and governing factors. Boca Raton, Fla: Lewis Publishers, 1999.

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Jaagumagi, R. Sediment and biological assessment of the Northern Wood Preservers Inc. site Thunder Bay: July 1995 and September 1995, final report. [Toronto]: Ontario Ministry of the Environment, 1998.

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Breault, Robert F. Estimated sediment thickness, quality, and toxicity to benthic organisms in selected impoundments in Massachusetts. Reston, Va: U.S. Geological Survey, 2013.

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Day, Kristin E. Ecotoxicology of depositional sediments, Athabasca River, May and September, 1993. Edmonton: Northern River Basins Study, 1995.

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Cushing, C. E. Radionuclide accumulation by aquatic biota exposed to contaminated water in artificial ecosystems before and after its passage through the ground. Washington, DC: Division of Engineering, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1988.

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Book chapters on the topic "Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on"

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Swartz, Richard C. "Toxicological Methods for Determining the Effects of Contaminated Sediment on Marine Organisms." In Fate and Effects of Sediment-Bound Chemicals in Aquatic Systems, 183–98. Elsevier, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-034866-7.50021-7.

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Conference papers on the topic "Aquatic organisms Effect of contaminated sediments on"

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Nanayakkara, CJ, N. Partheepan, MY Kumarapperuma, and NP Ratnayake. "Spatial Distribution of Heavy Metals in Sediments of the Negombo Lagoon, Sri Lanka." In International Symposium on Earth Resources Management & Environment. Department of Earth Resources Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31705/iserme.2022.10.

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Heavy metals accumulate in the sediments of aquatic environments due to poor water solubility. Their toxic effect poses a significant threat to living organisms. Negombo Lagoon, a vital aquatic ecosystem in Sri Lanka, has become vulnerable to heavy metals mainly from urbanization-related anthropogenic activities. Previous research in this respect has sampling points restricted to the boundary area. Since the heavy metal concentration is a static parameter, continuous research needs to keep the data updated. This study aims to investigate the spatial distribution of several heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Co, Cu, As, Cd, and Pb) in the surficial sediment of the Negombo Lagoon. Fifteen grab sediment samples were collected from the lagoon and analyzed for heavy metal concentration and grain size. The range of concentrations of each metal in test samples were between (78.07 - 222.68 mg/kg) Cr, (376.7-1298.05 mg/kg) Ni, (15.875-43.74 mg/kg) Co, (32.45-112.79 mg/kg) Cu, (20.17-55.81 mg/kg) As, (0.30-1.4 mg/kg) Cd, and (16.57-70.97 mg/kg) Pb. Heavy metal concentrations and sediment grain sizes show significant spatial variation over the Negombo lagoon area. Heavy metals were highly concentrated in locations, where finer sediments are accumulated (i.e., towards the eastern and southern part of the lagoon). Heavy metal concentrations were found to be increased with the decreasing grain size. High heavy metal concentrations are also found at places where there is a river discharge. Among the sources which feed heavy metals into Negombo Lagoon anthropogenic activities such as municipal and industrial waste disposal, rapid urbanization, shipping, and naval activities etc. have a significant impact.
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