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Journal articles on the topic 'Anxiety disorder'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 10 March 2023

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1

Flannery-Schroeder, Ellen, Cynthia Suveg, Scott Safford, Philip C. Kendall, and Alicia Webb. "Comorbid Externalising Disorders and Child Anxiety Treatment Outcomes." Behaviour Change 21, no. 1 (March 1, 2004): 14–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/bech.21.1.14.35972.

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AbstractExamined the effects of comorbid externalising disorders (i.e., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], oppositional defiant disorder [ODD], conduct disorder [CD]) on the long-term outcome (7.4 years) of individuals treated for anxiety disorders as youth. Ninety-four anxiety-disordered children (aged 8-13) were provided with a 16-session manual-based cognitive behavioural treatment (CBT). Assessments were completed at pretreatment, posttreatment, 1-year posttreatment (see Kendall, et al., 1997) and for 88 of the original 94 subjects at 7.4-years posttreatment (see Kendall, Safford, Flannery-Schroeder, & Webb, in press). At pretreatment, all participants received principal anxiety diagnoses (generalised anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, social phobia). Nineteen had comorbid externalising disorders (11 ADHD, 7 ODD and 1 CD). These 19 subjects were matched on age (within an average of 3 months), gender and race with 19 previously treated youths who were not comorbid with an externalising disorder. Examining parent- and child-reports, respectively, comparable rates of comorbid versus non-comorbid cases were free of their principal anxiety disorder at the 7.4-year follow-up on all dependent measures. Parents of anxiety-disordered children with a comorbid externalising disorder reported higher levels of child externalising behaviour than did parents of anxiety-disordered children without comorbidity. Comorbid children reported greater self-efficacy in coping with anxiety-provoking situations than did non-comorbid children. Thus, it appears that overall anxiety-disordered children with and without comorbid externalising disorders showed comparable improvements following CBT.
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2

Szuhany, Kristin L., and Naomi M. Simon. "Anxiety Disorders." JAMA 328, no. 24 (December 27, 2022): 2431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.22744.

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ImportanceAnxiety disorders have a lifetime prevalence of approximately 34% in the US, are often chronic, and significantly impair quality of life and functioning.ObservationsAnxiety disorders are characterized by symptoms that include worry, social and performance fears, unexpected and/or triggered panic attacks, anticipatory anxiety, and avoidance behaviors. Generalized anxiety disorder (6.2% lifetime prevalence), social anxiety disorder (13% lifetime prevalence), and panic disorder (5.2% lifetime prevalence) with or without agoraphobia are common anxiety disorders seen in primary care. Anxiety disorders are associated with physical symptoms, such as palpitations, shortness of breath, and dizziness. Brief screening measures applied in primary care, such as the Generalized Anxiety Disorder–7, can aid in diagnosis of anxiety disorders (sensitivity, 57.6% to 93.9%; specificity, 61% to 97%). Providing information about symptoms, diagnosis, and evidence-based treatments is a first step in helping patients with anxiety. First-line treatments include pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs, eg, sertraline) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs, eg, venlafaxine extended release) remain first-line pharmacotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder. Meta-analyses suggest that SSRIs and SNRIs are associated with small to medium effect sizes compared with placebo (eg, generalized anxiety disorder: standardized mean difference [SMD], −0.55 [95% CI, −0.64 to −0.46]; social anxiety disorder: SMD, −0.67 [95% CI, −0.76 to −0.58]; panic disorder: SMD, −0.30 [95% CI, −0.37 to −0.23]). Cognitive behavioral therapy is the psychotherapy with the most evidence of efficacy for anxiety disorders compared with psychological or pill placebo (eg, generalized anxiety disorder: Hedges g = 1.01 [large effect size] [95% CI, 0.44 to 1.57]; social anxiety disorder: Hedges g = 0.41 [small to medium effect] [95% CI, 0.25 to 0.57]; panic disorder: Hedges g = 0.39 [small to medium effect[ [95% CI, 0.12 to 0.65]), including in primary care. When selecting treatment, clinicians should consider patient preference, current and prior treatments, medical and psychiatric comorbid illnesses, age, sex, and reproductive planning, as well as cost and access to care.Conclusions and RelevanceAnxiety disorders affect approximately 34% of adults during their lifetime in the US and are associated with significant distress and impairment. First-line treatments for anxiety disorders include cognitive behavioral therapy, SSRIs such as sertraline, and SNRIs such as venlafaxine extended release.
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Higueras, P. Hervias, S. García Jorge, and J. Correas Lauffer. "Illness anxiety disorder." European Psychiatry 64, S1 (April 2021): S255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.684.

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IntroductionThe diagnosis of hypochondria has disappeared in the new classification of mental illness. About 25% of patients who were diagnosed with hypochondria now fall into the category illness anxiety disorder. This disorder constitutes a new diagnostic category in DSM5 and is included within the somatic symptom and related disorders.ObjectivesWe propose to carry out a bibliographic review off the new diagnostic category of illness anxiety disorder.MethodsWe present the clinical case of a 27-year-old man in the context of the Covid19 pandemic.Results The illness anxiety disorder is characterized by being concerned about having or acquiring a serious illness. Somatic symptoms are not present, but if they are, they are of mild intensity. The level of concern is excessive or disproportionate if there is any disease or if there is a high risk of developing it. There is a high level of health anxiety and the individual is easily alarmed by personal health status. It is a disorder that tends to be chronic and recurrent. The exact comorbidity is still unknown. However, it is important to keep in mind that hypochondria concurs with anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. Treatment is based on the cognitive restructuring of bodily symptoms. In addition, exposure therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy are also effective. Regarding pharmacological treatment, SSRIs are useful in relation with comorbidity.ConclusionsIllness anxiety disorder is characterized by significant attention to somatic concerns in medical places, making it very useful for primary care professionals.
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4

Uebelacker, L. A., R. Weisberg, M. Millman, S. Yen, and M. Keller. "Prospective study of risk factors for suicidal behavior in individuals with anxiety disorders." Psychological Medicine 43, no. 7 (November 9, 2012): 1465–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291712002504.

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BackgroundAnxiety disorders are very common and increase risk for suicide attempts. Little is known about predictors of increased risk specifically among individuals with anxiety disorders. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether specific anxiety disorders and other co-morbid psychiatric disorders, physical health, or work or social functioning increased the future likelihood of a suicide attempts among individuals with anxiety disorders.MethodIn this prospective study, 676 individuals with an anxiety disorder were followed for an average of 12 years.ResultsAs hypothesized, we found that post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD), intermittent depressive disorder (IDD), epilepsy, pain, and poor work and social functioning all predicted a shorter time to a suicide attempt in univariate analyses. In multivariate analyses, baseline MDD and IDD were independent predictors of time to suicide attempt, even when controlling for a past history of suicide attempt. No specific anxiety disorder was an independent predictor of time to attempt in this anxiety-disordered sample. Adding baseline physical health variables and social functioning did not improve the ability of the model to predict time to suicide attempt.ConclusionsMood disorders and past history of suicide attempts are the most powerful predictors of a future suicide attempt in this sample of individuals, all of whom have an anxiety disorder.
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Pavlova, B., R. H. Perlis, O. Mantere, C. M. Sellgren, E. Isometsä, P. B. Mitchell, M. Alda, and R. Uher. "Prevalence of current anxiety disorders in people with bipolar disorder during euthymia: a meta-analysis." Psychological Medicine 47, no. 6 (December 20, 2016): 1107–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291716003135.

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BackgroundAnxiety disorders are highly prevalent in people with bipolar disorder, but it is not clear how many have anxiety disorders even at times when they are free of major mood episodes. We aimed to establish what proportion of euthymic individuals with bipolar disorder meet diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders.MethodWe performed a random-effects meta-analysis of prevalence rates of current DSM-III- and DSM-IV-defined anxiety disorders (panic disorder, agoraphobia, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, obsessive–compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and anxiety disorder not otherwise specified) in euthymic adults with bipolar disorder in studies published by 31 December 2015.ResultsAcross 10 samples with 2120 individuals with bipolar disorder, 34.7% met diagnostic criteria for one or more anxiety disorders during euthymia [95% confidence interval (CI) 23.9–45.5%]. Direct comparison of 189 euthymic individuals with bipolar disorder and 17 109 population controls across three studies showed a 4.6-fold increase (risk ratio 4.60, 95% CI 2.37–8.92, p < 0.001) in prevalence of anxiety disorders in those with bipolar disorder.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that anxiety disorders are common in people with bipolar disorder even when their mood is adequately controlled. Euthymic people with bipolar disorder should be routinely assessed for anxiety disorders and anxiety-focused treatment should be initiated if indicated.
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6

Gelder, M. G. "The Classification of Anxiety Disorders." British Journal of Psychiatry 154, S4 (May 1989): 28–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/s0007125000295731.

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The classification of anxiety disorders is a controversial subject, and this controversy is reflected in the differences between the systems adopted in DSM-III-R and in the draft of ICD-10. The scheme in ICD-10 is the simpler: anxiety disorders are divided into phobic disorders and other anxiety disorders, and each is divided further into three subgroups. The three phobic disorders are: agoraphobia, social phobia, and specific phobia. The three subgroups of ‘other anxiety disorders’ are panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, and mixed anxiety and depressive disorder. The subdivisions of phobic disorder are those now generally adopted in most countries, and are uncontroversial. The subdivisions of generalised anxiety disorder, and mixed anxiety depressive disorder are also widely accepted, the latter group being particularly frequent among patients seen in general practice and not referred on to psychiatrists. Only the category of panic disorder is controversial. In addition to these categories which are specifically allocated to anxiety disorders, two others are relevant: ‘reactions to severe stress and adjustment disorders’, and anxious personality disorder.
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7

Marmorstein, Naomi R. "Anxiety disorders and substance use disorders: Different associations by anxiety disorder." Journal of Anxiety Disorders 26, no. 1 (January 2012): 88–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.09.005.

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8

Liebowitz, Michael R. "Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder." Neuropsychobiology 37, no. 2 (1998): 69–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000026480.

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9

Afshari, Behrooz. "Personality and anxiety disorders: examination of revised reinforcement sensitivity theory in clinical generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder." Current Issues in Personality Psychology 8, no. 1 (2020): 52–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2020.95148.

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10

Karsten, Julie, Catharina A. Hartman, Johannes H. Smit, Frans G. Zitman, Aartjan T. F. Beekman, Pim Cuijpers, A. J. Willem van der Does, Johan Ormel, Willem A. Nolen, and Brenda W. J. H. Penninx. "Psychiatric history and subthreshold symptoms as predictors of the occurrence of depressive or anxiety disorder within 2 years." British Journal of Psychiatry 198, no. 3 (March 2011): 206–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080572.

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BackgroundPast episodes of depressive or anxiety disorders and subthreshold symptoms have both been reported to predict the occurrence of depressive or anxiety disorders. It is unclear to what extent the two factors interact or predict these disorders independently.AimsTo examine the extent to which history, subthreshold symptoms and their combination predict the occurrence of depressive (major depressive disorder, dysthymia) or anxiety disorders (social phobia, panic disorder, agoraphobia, generalised anxiety disorder) over a 2-year period.MethodThis was a prospective cohort study with 1167 participants: the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. Anxiety and depressive disorders were determined with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, subthreshold symptoms were determined with the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology–Self Report and the Beck Anxiety Inventory.ResultsOccurrence of depressive disorder was best predicted by a combination of a history of depression and subthreshold symptoms, followed by either one alone. Occurrence of anxiety disorder was best predicted by both a combination of a history of anxiety disorder and subthreshold symptoms and a combination of a history of depression and subthreshold symptoms, followed by any subthreshold symptoms or a history of any disorder alone.ConclusionsA history and subthreshold symptoms independently predicted the subsequent occurrence of depressive or anxiety disorder. Together these two characteristics provide reasonable discriminative value. Whereas anxiety predicted the occurrence of an anxiety disorder only, depression predicted the occurrence of both depressive and anxiety disorders.
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11

Cosoff, Susan J., and R. Julian Hafner. "The Prevalence of Comorbid Anxiety in Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder and Bipolar Disorder." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 32, no. 1 (February 1998): 67–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048679809062708.

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Objective: The aim of this study to determine the prevalence of anxiety disorders in publically treated psychiatric inpatients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder or bipolar disorder. Method: Using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID), 100 consecutive inpatients with a psychotic disorder were examined for the presence or absence of an anxiety disorder. Questionnaire measures of phobias, obsessive-compulsive and general anxiety symptoms were also applied. Results: The prevalences of social phobia (17%), obsessiv-ompulsive disorder (13%) and generalised anxiety disorder in schizophrenia were relatively high, as were prevalences of obsessive-compulsive (30%) and panic disorder (15%) in bipolar disorder. The proportion of subjects with an anxiety disorder (4345%) was almost identical across the three psychoses, with some evidence of gender differences. Although self-ratings of overall psychiatric symptoms were significantly elevated in those with anxiety disorders, hospital admission rates were not. Conclusions: Almost none of those with anxíeGty disorders were being treated for them, primarily because the severity of the acute psychotic illness required full diagnostic and therapeutic attention. Patients were generally discharged as soon as their psychotic episode was resolved, with little recognition of the presence of an anxiety disorder. Given that anxiety disorders are relatively responsive to treatment, greater awareness of their comorbidity with psychosis should yield worthwhile clinical benefits.
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Bailly-Lambin, I., and D. Bailly. "Addictive-anxiety disorders comorbidity: Role of childhood separation anxiety disorder." European Neuropsychopharmacology 9 (September 1999): 343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-977x(99)80502-1.

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13

Garcia de Miguel, Berta, David J. Nutt, Sean D. Hood, and Simon JC Davies. "Elucidation of neurobiology of anxiety disorders in children through pharmacological challenge tests and cortisol measurements: a systematic review." Journal of Psychopharmacology 26, no. 4 (July 19, 2010): 431–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881110372818.

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Anxiety disorders are common both in adults and children. While there have been major advances in understanding the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in adults, progress has been more limited in the elucidation of the mechanisms underlying these disorders in childhood. There is a need to delineate childhood biological models, since anxiety represents a significant clinical problem in children and is a risk factor for the subsequent development of anxiety and depression in adulthood. We conducted a review of the literature regarding pharmacological challenge tests and direct hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis measurement in children with anxiety disorders, with emphasis on panic disorder and social anxiety disorder. Studies identified were contrasted with those in adult panic disorder and social anxiety disorder. Despite this broad approach few studies emerged in children, with only 22 studies meeting inclusion criteria. When contrasted with adult neurobiological models of panic disorder and social anxiety disorder, children studied showed some abnormalities which mirrored those reported in adults, such as altered baseline respiration, altered responses to CO2 challenge tests and blunted growth hormone response to yohimbine. However, results differed from adults with panic disorder and social anxiety in some aspects of noradrenergic and serotonergic function. For endpoints studied in panic disorder children, unlike adults, displayed a lack of baseline end-tidal CO2 abnormalities and a different hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal pattern response under low-dose CO2. The biology of these anxiety disorders in children may only partially mirror that of adult anxiety disorders. However, caution is required as the evidence is limited, and many studies combined patients with panic disorder and social anxiety disorder with other disorders or non-specific anxiety. Further research is required to fully understand the biology and progression of childhood anxiety disorders.
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Ballard, Clive G., Ramalingam NC Mohan, Abdul Patel, and Candida Graham. "Anxiety disorder in dementia." Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 11, no. 3 (September 1994): 108–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0790966700014750.

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AbstractObjective: To estimate the prevalence of anxiety disorders and to explore several potential aetiological factors. Method: Ninety two consecutive patients assessed at a day hospital for patients with probable dementia were interviewed using the CAMDEX schedule. Fifty eight patients gave a sufficiently reliable interview and had a first degree relative in close contact as an informant and were hence included in the study group. The prevalence of RDC generalised anxiety disorder in this group was determined. Type of dementia, severity of dementia and insight were explored as possible aetiological factors. Results: The prevalence of RDC generalised anxiety disorder was 31%. Fifty percent of these patients suffered from anxiety symptoms in the context of RDC major depression. Anxiety disorders were most common in those with mild dementia and in those who retained insight, both showing a trend towards a significant association with anxiety. Conclusions: Anxiety disorders are very common in dementia sufferers particularly in those with mild dementia. Further research is needed in this area, particularly with respect to treatment.
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Ansell, E. B., A. Pinto, M. O. Edelen, J. C. Markowitz, C. A. Sanislow, S. Yen, M. Zanarini, et al. "The association of personality disorders with the prospective 7-year course of anxiety disorders." Psychological Medicine 41, no. 5 (September 14, 2010): 1019–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291710001777.

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BackgroundThis study prospectively examined the natural clinical course of six anxiety disorders over 7 years of follow-up in individuals with personality disorders (PDs) and/or major depressive disorder. Rates of remission, relapse, new episode onset and chronicity of anxiety disorders were examined for specific associations with PDs.MethodParticipants were 499 patients with anxiety disorders in the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study, who were assessed with structured interviews for psychiatric disorders at yearly intervals throughout 7 years of follow-up. These data were used to determine probabilities of changes in disorder status for social phobia (SP), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder and panic disorder with agoraphobia.ResultsEstimated remission rates for anxiety disorders in this study group ranged from 73% to 94%. For those patients who remitted from an anxiety disorder, relapse rates ranged from 34% to 67%. Rates for new episode onsets of anxiety disorders ranged from 3% to 17%. Specific PDs demonstrated associations with remission, relapse, new episode onsets and chronicity of anxiety disorders. Associations were identified between schizotypal PD with course of SP, PTSD and GAD; avoidant PD with course of SP and OCD; obsessive-compulsive PD with course of GAD, OCD, and agoraphobia; and borderline PD with course of OCD, GAD and panic with agoraphobia.ConclusionsFindings suggest that specific PD diagnoses have negative prognostic significance for the course of anxiety disorders underscoring the importance of assessing and considering PD diagnoses in patients with anxiety disorders.
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Sherbourne, C. D., G. Sullivan, M. G. Craske, P. Roy-Byrne, D. Golinelli, R. D. Rose, D. A. Chavira, A. Bystritsky, and M. B. Stein. "Functioning and disability levels in primary care out-patients with one or more anxiety disorders." Psychological Medicine 40, no. 12 (February 11, 2010): 2059–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291710000176.

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BackgroundAnxiety disorders are the most prevalent mental health disorders and are associated with substantial disability and reduced well-being. It is unknown whether the relative impact of different anxiety disorders is due to the anxiety disorder itself or to the co-occurrence with other anxiety disorders. This study compared the functional impact of combinations of anxiety disorders in primary care out-patients.MethodA total of 1004 patients with panic disorder (PD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) provided data on their mental and physical functioning, and disability. Multivariate regressions compared functional levels for patients with different numbers and combinations of disorders.ResultsOf the patients, 42% had one anxiety disorder only, 38% two, 16% three and 3% all four. There were few relative differences in functioning among patients with only one anxiety disorder, although those with SAD were most restricted in their work, social and home activities and those with GAD were the least impaired. Functioning levels tended to deteriorate as co-morbidity increased.ConclusionsOf the four anxiety disorders examined, GAD appears to be the least disabling, although they all have more in common than in distinction when it comes to functional impairment. A focus on unique effects of specific anxiety disorders is inadequate, as it fails to address the more pervasive impairment associated with multiple anxiety disorders, which is the modal presentation in primary care.
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Isolan, Luciano Rassier, Cristian Patrick Zeni, Kelin Mezzomo, Carolina Blaya, Leticia Kipper, Elizeth Heldt, and Gisele Gus Manfro. "Behaviorial inhibition and history of childhood anxiety disorders in Brazilian adult patients with panic disorder and social anxiety disorder." Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 27, no. 2 (June 2005): 97–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1516-44462005000200005.

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PURPOSE: To evaluate the presence of behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders during childhood in Brazilian adult patients with panic disorder and social anxiety disorder compared to a control group. METHODS: Fifty patients with panic disorder, 50 patients with social anxiety disorder, and 50 control subjects were included in the study. To assess the history of childhood anxiety, the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children, Epidemiologic Version (K-SADS-E), and the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents-Parent Version (DICA-P) were used. The presence of behavioral inhibition in childhood was assessed by the self-reported scale of Behavioral Inhibition Retrospective Version (RSRI-30). RESULTS: Patients showed significantly higher prevalence of anxiety disorders and behavioral inhibition in childhood compared to the control group. Patients with social anxiety disorder also showed significantly higher rates of avoidance disorder (46% vs. 18%, p = 0.005), social anxiety disorder (60% vs. 26%, p = 0.001), presence of at least one anxiety disorder (82% vs. 56%, p = 0.009) and global behavioral inhibition (2.89 ± 0.61 vs. 2.46 ± 0.61, p < 0.05) and school/social behavioral inhibition (3.56 ± 0.91 vs. 2.67 ± 0.82, p < 0.05) in childhood compared to patients with panic disorder. CONCLUSION: Our data are in accordance to the literature and corroborates the theory of an anxiety diathesis, suggesting that a history of anxiety disorders in childhood is associated with an anxiety disorder diagnosis, mainly social anxiety disorder, in adulthood.
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Lochner, Christine, Modise Mogotsi, Pieter L. du Toit, Debra Kaminer, Dana J. Niehaus, and Dan J. Stein. "Quality of Life in Anxiety Disorders: A Comparison of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, and Panic Disorder." Psychopathology 36, no. 5 (2003): 255–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000073451.

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Richards, Alexander, John Horwood, Joseph Boden, Martin Kennedy, Ruth Sellers, Lucy Riglin, Sumit Mistry, et al. "Associations between schizophrenia genetic risk, anxiety disorders and manic/hypomanic episode in a longitudinal population cohort study." British Journal of Psychiatry 214, no. 2 (November 26, 2018): 96–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.227.

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BackgroundStudies involving clinically recruited samples show that genetic liability to schizophrenia overlaps with that for several psychiatric disorders including bipolar disorder, major depression and, in a population study, anxiety disorder and negative symptoms in adolescence.AimsWe examined whether, at a population level, association between schizophrenia liability and anxiety disorders continues into adulthood, for specific anxiety disorders and as a group. We explored in an epidemiologically based cohort the nature of adult psychopathology sharing liability to schizophrenia.MethodSchizophrenia polygenic risk scores (PRSs) were calculated for 590 European-descent individuals from the Christchurch Health and Development Study. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between schizophrenia PRS and four anxiety disorders (social phobia, specific phobia, panic disorder and generalised anxiety disorder), schizophrenia/schizophreniform disorder, manic/hypomanic episode, alcohol dependence, major depression, and – using linear regression – total number of anxiety disorders. A novel population-level association with hypomania was tested in a UK birth cohort (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children).ResultsSchizophrenia PRS was associated with total number of anxiety disorders and with generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder. We show a novel population-level association between schizophrenia PRS and manic/hypomanic episode.ConclusionsThe relationship between schizophrenia liability and anxiety disorders is not restricted to psychopathology in adolescence but is present in adulthood and specifically linked to generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder. We suggest that the association between schizophrenia liability and hypomanic/manic episodes found in clinical samples may not be due to bias.Declarations of interestNone.
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Mogg, K., G. A. Salum, B. P. Bradley, A. Gadelha, P. Pan, P. Alvarenga, L. A. Rohde, D. S. Pine, and G. G. Manfro. "Attention network functioning in children with anxiety disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and non-clinical anxiety." Psychological Medicine 45, no. 12 (April 24, 2015): 2633–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291715000586.

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BackgroundResearch with adults suggests that anxiety is associated with poor control of executive attention. However, in children, it is unclear (a) whether anxiety disorders and non-clinical anxiety are associated with deficits in executive attention, (b) whether such deficits are specific to anxiety versus other psychiatric disorders, and (c) whether there is heterogeneity among anxiety disorders (in particular, specific phobia versus other anxiety disorders).MethodWe examined executive attention in 860 children classified into three groups: anxiety disorders (n = 67), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 67) and no psychiatric disorder (n = 726). Anxiety disorders were subdivided into: anxiety disorders excluding specific phobia (n = 43) and specific phobia (n = 21). The Attention Network Task was used to assess executive attention, alerting and orienting.ResultsFindings indicated heterogeneity among anxiety disorders, as children with anxiety disorders (excluding specific phobia) showed impaired executive attention, compared with disorder-free children, whereas children with specific phobia showed no executive attention deficit. Among disorder-free children, executive attention was less efficient in those with high, relative to low, levels of anxiety. There were no anxiety-related deficits in orienting or alerting. Children with ADHD not only had poorer executive attention than disorder-free children, but also higher orienting scores, less accurate responses and more variable response times.ConclusionsImpaired executive attention in children (reflected by difficulty inhibiting processing of task-irrelevant information) was not fully explained by general psychopathology, but instead showed specific associations with anxiety disorders (other than specific phobia) and ADHD, as well as with high levels of anxiety symptoms in disorder-free children.
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Csémy, L. "Epidemiology of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and other anxiety disorders in the Czech Republic." European Psychiatry 26, S2 (March 2011): 524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(11)72231-3.

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IntroductionThe most frequently psychiatric ailments in Europe are anxiety disordersObjectivesThe goal of our study is to estimate the prevalence of general anxiety. disorder (GAD) and other anxiety disorders.MethodsPersonal interviews were conducted with a sample of 3,244 Czech citizens (between 18–64 years old). The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) had been used to estimate the prevalence of psychiatric conditions in respondents.ResultsIn sum, 8.3% (95% CI: 7.6 - 9.0) of the respondents fulfilled the criteria for current anxiety disorder. Generalized anxiety disorder was the most prevalent of all anxiety disorders; comprising 3.6% (3.0% in males and 4.2% in females). The current prevalence for other anxiety disorders are: panic disorder 1.6%, social anxiety disorder 2.1%, OCD 2.2%, and PTSD 1.4%. Prevalence of anxiety disorders is higher in females compared to males (10.3% to 6.1%). Approximately 44% of respondents with anxiety disorders reported psychiatric treatment during their lifetime (4.9% inpatient treatment) in comparison to 13% without diagnosis of any anxiety disorder.ConclusionsThe results confirmed the extent of anxiety disorders in the adult population of Czech Republic. The fact that a majority of individuals who receive a diagnosis are never treated for mental health disorder denotes that early identification in a primary care level should be improved.
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Esin, R. G., and D. Kh Khaibullina. "Somatic masks of anxiety disorder and therapy opportunities." Meditsinskiy sovet = Medical Council, no. 23 (January 18, 2023): 102–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.21518/2079-701x-2022-16-23-1.

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Anxiety disorders are often found in the practice of doctors of all specialties and cause difficulties in making a diagnosis, which is associated with a variety of clinical manifestations. Traditionally, anxiety disorders are considered within the framework of neuroses and include conditions such as adjustment disorders, generalized anxiety disorder, and a number of somatoform disorders. The article gives a distinction between the concepts of “anxiety” and “anxiety disorders”. It should be noted that anxiety disorders cannot be considered in isolation from the concept of “stress”. Chronic stressful situations exacerbate or contribute to the development of somatic pathology, including neurological. The somatic manifestations of anxiety disorders are diverse and affect all organs and systems: cardialgia, tachycardia, heart rhythm disturbances, hyperventilation syndrome, abdominalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, neurodermatitis, etc. It is important to timely and correctly diagnose generalized anxiety disorder, which occurs both in isolation (borderline psychiatry) and in patients with various somatic pathologies and its main manifestation is generalized, persistent anxiety, not caused and not limited by any external circumstances, accompanied by autonomic, motor manifestations. Diagnostic criteria for generalized anxiety disorder are also presented in the article.To identify and objectify symptoms of anxiety in practice, it is advisable to use special questionnaires: the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Hamilton Anxiety Scale, the Spielberger-Khanin Situational and Personal Anxiety Scale. The article presents a clinical case of a patient with anxiety disorder. The clinical picture and tactics of managing the patient are analyzed. The addition of etifoxine to therapy made it possible to stop the clinical manifestations of anxiety disorder in a short time.
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Gordon, Robert P., Emma K. Brandish, and David S. Baldwin. "Anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder." Medicine 44, no. 11 (November 2016): 664–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mpmed.2016.08.010.

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Impey, Bethan, Robert P. Gordon, and David S. Baldwin. "Anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder." Medicine 48, no. 11 (November 2020): 717–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mpmed.2020.08.005.

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Machaj, Dominik, Alicja Płaczek, Katarzyna Cyboran, Monika Kuc, and Filip Białas. "Generalized Anxiety Disorder, panic disorder - diagnosis and treatment." Journal of Education, Health and Sport 12, no. 7 (July 26, 2022): 780–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/jehs.2022.12.07.077.

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Anxiety is one of the most common psychopathological symptoms. It is based on the feeling of a strong threat without triggering a real stimulus. They are often accompanied by somatic symptoms, making it difficult to function normally and carry out daily activities. The causes of anxiety disorders include genetic and environmental factors. Anxiety can take the form of, but is not limited to, generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder, which are described below. We also distinguish phobia syndrome, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, separation anxiety and selective mutism. Among the methods of treatment, we distinguish psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy.
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Waters, A. M., B. P. Bradley, and K. Mogg. "Biased attention to threat in paediatric anxiety disorders (generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, specific phobia, separation anxiety disorder) as a function of ‘distress’versus‘fear’ diagnostic categorization." Psychological Medicine 44, no. 3 (April 17, 2013): 607–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713000779.

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BackgroundStructural models of emotional disorders propose that anxiety disorders can be classified into fear and distress disorders. Sources of evidence for this distinction come from genetic, self-report and neurophysiological data from adults. The present study examined whether this distinction relates to cognitive processes, indexed by attention bias towards threat, which is thought to cause and maintain anxiety disorders.MethodDiagnostic and attention bias data were analysed from 435 children between 5 and 13 years of age; 158 had principal fear disorder (specific phobia, social phobia or separation anxiety disorder), 75 had principal distress disorder (generalized anxiety disorder, GAD) and 202 had no psychiatric disorder. Anxious children were a clinic-based treatment-seeking sample. Attention bias was assessed on a visual-probe task with angry, neutral and happy faces.ResultsCompared to healthy controls, children with principal distress disorder (GAD) showed a significant bias towards threat relative to neutral faces whereas children with principal fear disorder showed an attention bias away from threat relative to neutral faces. Overall, children displayed an attention bias towards happy faces, irrespective of diagnostic group.ConclusionsOur findings support the distinction between fear and distress disorders, and extend empirically derived structural models of emotional disorders to threat processing in childhood, when many anxiety disorders begin and predict lifetime impairment.
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Glue, Paul, Natalie J. Medlicott, Sarah Harland, Shona Neehoff, Bridie Anderson-Fahey, Martin Le Nedelec, Andrew Gray, and Neil McNaughton. "Ketamine’s dose-related effects on anxiety symptoms in patients with treatment refractory anxiety disorders." Journal of Psychopharmacology 31, no. 10 (April 26, 2017): 1302–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881117705089.

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The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist ketamine has rapid onset activity in treatment-resistant depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder. Due to similarities in brain network activity in depression and anxiety disorders, we hypothesized that ketamine might also be active in other refractory anxiety disorders. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of ketamine in 12 patients with refractory generalized anxiety disorder and/or social anxiety disorder who were not currently depressed, using an ascending single dose study design (0.25, 0.5, 1 mg/kg administered subcutaneously) at weekly intervals. Within 1 h of dosing, patients reported reduced anxiety, which persisted for up to seven days. A dose-response profile was noted for anxiolytic effects, dissociative side effects, and changes in blood pressure and heart rate, with minor changes at 0.25 mg/kg, and progressively greater and more durable changes at the higher doses. Ten of 12 patients were treatment responders at 0.5–1 mg/kg. Ketamine was safe and well tolerated in this population. Ketamine may be a potential therapeutic alternative for patients with refractory generalized anxiety disorder/social anxiety disorder. Along with its demonstrated effectiveness in patients with treatment-resistant depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder, these data raise the intriguing possibility that ketamine may have broad efficacy in disorders characterized by negative emotional states, and that these disorders may share a common precipitating neurobiology.
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Silva Júnior, Estácio Amaro da, and Camila Albuquerque de Brito Gomes. "Psychiatric comorbidities among adolescents with and without anxiety disorders: a community study." Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria 64, no. 3 (September 2015): 181–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0047-2085000000076.

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ABSTRACT Objective To evaluate, in a community sample of adolescents, the presence of comorbidities in different anxiety disorders. Methods This is a cross-sectional study, initially composed of 2,457 adolescents, aged between 10-17 years old, from public schools of the area covered by the Basic Health Unit of a university hospital. We applied the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) to assess for anxiety disorders. Then, 138 positive cases in the screening were assessed for mental disorders through the Schedule for Affective Disorder and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children – Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL). Results Patients with anxiety disorders had more association with other anxiety disorders, as well as depression, and enuresis. The most common comorbidity described in our study was between generalized anxiety disorder and separation anxiety disorder (OR = 4.21, 95% CI 1.88, 9.58). Significant association was observed between other disorders such as enuresis and separation anxiety disorder (OR = 3.81, 95% CI 1.16, 12.49), as well as depression and generalized anxiety disorder (OR = 3.40; 95% CI 1.52, 7.61). Conclusion Our study showed a relevant presence of comorbidities adolescents with anxiety disorders, selected from a community sample, especially regarding other anxiety disorders. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to confirm our findings.
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de Lijster, J., B. Dierckx, E. Utens, F. Verhulst, C. Zieldorff, G. Dieleman, and J. Legerstee. "The age of onset of anxiety disorders in samples from the general population: A meta-analysis." European Psychiatry 33, S1 (March 2016): S56—S57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.01.936.

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WorkshopAge of onset of mental disorders: etiopathogenetic and treatment implications.BackgroundAge of onset (AOO) of anxiety disorders could serve as a vital statistic in the formulation of mental health policy. Previous reviews have reported on the AOO of anxiety disorders in the general population. However, these review studies did not systematically estimate the AOO of different anxiety disorder subtypes, and did not examine factors that might have influenced reported AOO.ObjectiveThe aims of the present study were (1) to estimate the AOO for all anxiety disorders and for specific subtypes, (2) to examine gender differences in AOO of anxiety disorders, and (3) to examine the influence of study characteristics on reported AOO.MethodSeven electronic databases were searched with keywords representing anxiety disorder subtypes, AOO and study design. The inclusion criteria were studies using a general population sample that provided data on AOO for all anxiety disorders, or specific anxiety disorders, according to DSM-III-R, DSM-IV or ICD-10 criteria. Meta-analysis was used to estimate AOO and gender differences, while meta-regression was used to examine the influence of study characteristics.ResultsA total of 1028 titles were examined, which yielded 24 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis found an average AOO of all anxiety disorders of 21.3 years (95% CI: 17.46 to 25.07). Separation anxiety disorder, specific phobia and social phobia had their mean onset before the age of 15 years, whereas AOO of agoraphobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder began on average between 21.1 and 34.9 years. Anxiety disorder is more common in women, but meta-analysis revealed no difference in AOO between genders. Prospective study design and higher developmental level of the study country were associated with earlier AOO.ConclusionResults from this meta-analysis indicate that anxiety disorder subtypes differ in mean AOO, with onsets ranging from early adolescence to young adulthood. These findings suggest that prevention strategies of anxiety disorders should be directed towards the factors associated with the development of subtypes of anxiety disorder in the age groups with the greatest vulnerability for developing those disorders.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.
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van der Veen, D. C., W. H. van Zelst, R. A. Schoevers, H. C. Comijs, and R. C. Oude Voshaar. "Comorbid anxiety disorders in late-life depression: results of a cohort study." International Psychogeriatrics 27, no. 7 (November 5, 2014): 1157–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1041610214002312.

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ABSTRACTBackground:Comorbid anxiety disorders are common in late-life depression and negatively impact treatment outcome. This study aimed to examine personality characteristics as well as early and recent life-events as possible determinants of comorbid anxiety disorders in late-life depression, taking previously examined determinants into account.Methods:Using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 2.0), we established comorbid anxiety disorders (social phobia (SP), panic disorder (PD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and agoraphobia (AGO)) in 350 patients (aged ≥60 years) suffering from a major depressive disorder according to DSM-IV-TR criteria within the past six months. Adjusted for age, sex, and level of education, we first examined previously identified determinants of anxious depression: depression severity, suicidality, partner status, loneliness, chronic diseases, and gait speed in multiple logistic regression models. Subsequently, associations were explored with the big five personality characteristics as well as early and recent life-events. First, multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted with the presence of any anxiety disorder (yes/no) as dependent variable, where after analyses were repeated for each anxiety disorder, separately.Results:In our sample, the prevalence rate of comorbid anxiety disorders in late-life depression was 38.6%. Determinants of comorbid anxiety disorders were a lower age, female sex, less education, higher depression severity, early traumatization, neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness. Nonetheless, determinants differed across the specific anxiety disorders and lumping all anxiety disorder together masked some determinants (education, personality).Conclusions:Our findings stress the need to examine determinants of comorbid anxiety disorder for specific anxiety disorders separately, enabling the development of targeted interventions within subgroups of depressed patients.
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Martins, S. S., M. C. Fenton, K. M. Keyes, C. Blanco, H. Zhu, and C. L. Storr. "Mood and anxiety disorders and their association with non-medical prescription opioid use and prescription opioid-use disorder: longitudinal evidence from the National Epidemiologic Study on Alcohol and Related Conditions." Psychological Medicine 42, no. 6 (October 17, 2011): 1261–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291711002145.

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BackgroundNon-medical use of prescription opioids represents a national public health concern of growing importance. Mood and anxiety disorders are highly associated with non-medical prescription opioid use. The authors examined longitudinal associations between non-medical prescription opioid use and opioid disorder due to non-medical opioid use and mood/anxiety disorders in a national sample, examining evidence for precipitation, self-medication and general shared vulnerability as pathways between disorders.MethodData were drawn from face-to-face surveys of 34 653 adult participants in waves 1 and 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Logistic regression models explored the temporal sequence and evidence for the hypothesized pathways.ResultsBaseline lifetime non-medical prescription opioid use was associated with incidence of any mood disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder, any anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD in wave 2, adjusted for baseline demographics, other substance use, and co-morbid mood/anxiety disorders). Lifetime opioid disorder was not associated with any incident mood/anxiety disorders. All baseline lifetime mood disorders and GAD were associated with incident non-medical prescription opioid use at follow-up, adjusted for demographics, co-morbid mood/anxiety disorders, and other substance use. Baseline lifetime mood disorders, MDD, dysthymia and panic disorder were associated with incident opioid disorder due to non-medical prescription opioid use at follow-up, adjusted for the same covariates.ConclusionsThese results suggest that precipitation, self-medication as well as shared vulnerability are all viable pathways between non-medical prescription opioid use and opioid disorder due to non-medical opioid use and mood/anxiety disorders.
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Herring, Matthew P., Jacob B. Lindheimer, and Patrick J. O’Connor. "The Effects of Exercise Training on Anxiety." American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 8, no. 6 (November 6, 2013): 388–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1559827613508542.

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This review summarizes the extant evidence of the effects of exercise training on anxiety among healthy adults, adults with a chronic illness, and individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. A brief discussion of selected proposed mechanisms that may underlie relations of exercise and anxiety is also provided. The weight of the available empirical evidence indicates that exercise training reduces symptoms of anxiety among healthy adults, chronically ill patients, and patients with panic disorder. Preliminary data suggest that exercise training can serve as an alternative therapy for patients with social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Anxiety reductions appear to be comparable to empirically supported treatments for panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Large trials aimed at more precisely determining the magnitude and generalizability of exercise training effects appear to be warranted for panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Future well-designed randomized controlled trials should (a) examine the therapeutic effects of exercise training among understudied anxiety disorders, including specific phobias, social anxiety disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder; (b) focus on understudied exercise modalities, including resistance exercise training and programs that combine exercise with cognitive-behavioral therapies; and (c) elucidate putative mechanisms of the anxiolytic effects of exercise training.
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Walkup, John T. "59.2 ANXIETY DISORDERS IN AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER." Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 60, no. 10 (October 2021): S87—S88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.07.368.

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McIntyre, Roger S., Joanna K. Soczynska, Alexandra Bottas, Kamran Bordbar, Jakub Z. Konarski, and Sidney H. Kennedy. "Anxiety disorders and bipolar disorder: a review." Bipolar Disorders 8, no. 6 (December 2006): 665–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00355.x.

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Victor, Andrea M., and Gail A. Bernstein. "Anxiety Disorders and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Update." Psychiatric Clinics of North America 32, no. 1 (March 2009): 57–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2008.11.004.

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Vance, Alasdair, Katrina Harris, Marilyn Boots, Jessica Talbot, and Mary Karamitsios. "Which Anxiety Disorders May Differentiate Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type with Dysthymic Disorder from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type Alone?" Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 37, no. 5 (October 2003): 563–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2003.01235.x.

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Objective: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, combined type (ADHD-CT), dysthymic disorder, and anxiety disorders frequently co-occur in primary school age children, although there have been no published data describing their association. We investigated the association of anxiety, defined from a parent or child perspective, with primary school-age children with ADHD-CT with and without dysthymic disorder. Method: One hundred and forty-six medication naïve children with ADHD-CT were studied. Two groups with and without dysthymic disorder were formed to compare parent and child reports of anxiety, using categorical and continuous measures of anxiety, using logistic regression. Results: Separation anxiety disorder and social phobia were associated with primary school-age children with ADHD-CT and dysthymic disorder, compared to children with ADHD-CT without dysthymic disorder. Conclusions: The recognition of dysthymic disorder and anxiety disorders and their management in primary school-age children with ADHD-CT is generally poorly understood. The identification and elucidation of composite anxiety and depressive phenomena that may be systematically investigated through longitudinal studies of epidemiologically derived samples is needed in this particular group of children.
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Swinbourne, Jessica, Caroline Hunt, Maree Abbott, Janice Russell, Tamsen St Clare, and Stephen Touyz. "The comorbidity between eating disorders and anxiety disorders: Prevalence in an eating disorder sample and anxiety disorder sample." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 46, no. 2 (February 2012): 118–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004867411432071.

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Newcorn, Jeffrey H., Scott R. Miller, Iliyan Ivanova, Kurt P. Schulz, Jessica Kalmar, David J. Marks, and Jeffrey M. Halperin. "Adolescent Outcome of ADHD: Impact of Childhood Conduct and Anxiety Disorders." CNS Spectrums 9, no. 9 (September 2004): 668–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1092852900001942.

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ABSTRACTObjective: This study examines the impact of comorbidity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with disruptive and anxiety disorders in childhood on clinical course and outcome. We consider the relative contribution of each comorbid symptom constellation, and also their interaction, to assess the following questions: (1) Does early comorbidity with conduct disorder (CD) and anxiety disorders define specific developmental trajectories?; (2) Is comorbid anxiety disorders in childhood continuous with anxiety disorders in adolescence?; (3) Does comorbid anxiety disorders mitigate the negative behavioral outcome of youth with ADHD?; and (4) Is there an interaction between comorbid CD and anxiety disorders, when they occur simultaneously, that predicts a different outcome than either comorbid condition alone?Method: Thirty-two 15- to 18-year-old adolescent males, diagnosed with ADHD between 7 and 11 years of age, were re-evaluated for assessment of adolescent outcome 4.3–9.2 years later. Hierarchical regression analyses were run with each of the eight Child Behavior Checklist and Youth Self-Report problem scales, and the four anxiety symptom subscales of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children serving as outcome variables.Results: Findings indicate that comorbid CD at baseline predicteds parent reports of behavior problems in adolescence, while comorbid anxiety disorders in childhood predicted youth reports of anxiety and social problems. Anxiety disorders without CD did not predict poor behavioral outcome. Children with both comorbid CD and anxiety disorder had the highest levels of parent-rated symptoms on follow up. In particular, adolescent social problems were best predicted by the combination of comorbid CD and anxiety disorder in childhood.Conclusion: These data provide evidence that children with ADHD plus anxiety disorder do in fact have anxiety disorders, and that the combination of anxiety disorder and CD predicts a more rather than less severe course.
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Stein, D. J. "Generalised anxiety disorder." South African Journal of Psychiatry 19, no. 3 (August 30, 2013): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v19i3.950.

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<div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 324.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(1.06067);" data-canvas-width="421.662">Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) is a common disorder with</div><div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 344.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(1.03815);" data-canvas-width="421.12199999999996">a lifetime prevalence of 6.1% and a 1-year prevalence of 2.9% in</div><div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 364.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(1.04618);" data-canvas-width="101.39249999999998">one large study.</div><div style="left: 172.475px; top: 365.947px; font-size: 9.00733px; font-family: serif;">[</div><div style="left: 175.624px; top: 365.947px; font-size: 9.00733px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(0.97944);" data-canvas-width="7.3458000000000006">1]</div><div style="left: 183.1px; top: 364.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(1.09377);" data-canvas-width="309.60599999999994">It occurs most commonly in the 45 - 55-year</div><div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 384.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(1.08819);" data-canvas-width="405.0329999999999">age group with women twice as likely as men to have GAD.</div><div style="left: 476.121px; top: 385.947px; font-size: 9.00733px; font-family: serif;">[</div><div style="left: 479.269px; top: 385.947px; font-size: 9.00733px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(0.97944);" data-canvas-width="7.3458000000000006">1]</div>
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Seedat, S. "Social Anxiety Disorder." South African Journal of Psychiatry 19, no. 3 (August 30, 2013): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v19i3.953.

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<div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 324.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(0.971046);" data-canvas-width="419.81549999999993">According to epidemiological studies, rates of social anxiety disorder</div><div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 344.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(1.11655);" data-canvas-width="424.26750000000004">(SAD) or social phobia range from 3% to 16% in the general</div><div style="left: 70.8662px; top: 364.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(0.987995);" data-canvas-width="69.1185">population.</div><div style="left: 139.985px; top: 365.947px; font-size: 9.00733px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(0.952064);" data-canvas-width="16.423109999999998">[1,2]</div><div style="left: 156.408px; top: 364.72px; font-size: 15.45px; font-family: serif; transform: scaleX(0.977187);" data-canvas-width="334.422">Social phobia and specific phobias have an earlier age</div>of onset than other anxiety disorders.
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Patel, Gayatri, and Tonya L. Fancher. "Generalized Anxiety Disorder." Annals of Internal Medicine 159, no. 11 (December 3, 2013): ITC6. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-159-11-201312030-01006.

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Jurbergs, Nichole, and Deborah Roth Ledley. "Separation Anxiety Disorder." Psychiatric Annals 35, no. 9 (September 1, 2005): 728–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050901-05.

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Sramek, John J., Victoria Zarotsky, and Neal R. Cutler. "Generalised Anxiety Disorder." Drugs 62, no. 11 (2002): 1635–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200262110-00005.

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DeMartini, Jeremy, Gayatri Patel, and Tonya L. Fancher. "Generalized Anxiety Disorder." Annals of Internal Medicine 170, no. 7 (April 2, 2019): ITC49. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/aitc201904020.

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Patel, Avani K., and Beverly Bryant. "Separation Anxiety Disorder." JAMA 326, no. 18 (November 9, 2021): 1880. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.17269.

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Appenheimer, Timothy, and Russell Noyes. "Generalized Anxiety Disorder." Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice 14, no. 4 (December 1987): 635–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0095-4543(21)01034-4.

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Hoehn -Saric, Rudolf. "Generalised Anxiety Disorder." CNS Drugs 9, no. 2 (1998): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00023210-199809020-00002.

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Muller, Jacqueline E., Liezl Koen, Soraya Seedat, and Dan J. Stein. "Social Anxiety Disorder." CNS Drugs 19, no. 5 (2005): 377–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200519050-00002.

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Zakri, Hani. "Social anxiety disorder." InnovAiT: Education and inspiration for general practice 8, no. 11 (September 22, 2015): 677–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1755738015601449.

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Kaminer, Debra, and Dan J. Stein. "Social anxiety disorder." World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 4, no. 3 (January 2003): 103–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15622970310029902.

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