Academic literature on the topic 'Anti-predator response'

Large mammalian herbivores use a diverse array of strategies to survive predator encounters including flight, grouping, vigilance, warning signals, and fitness indicators. While anti-predator strategies appear to be driven by specific predator traits, no prior studies have rigorously evaluated whether predator hunting characteristics predict reactive anti-predator responses. We experimentally investigated behavioral decisions made by free-ranging impala, wildebeest, and zebra during encounters with model predators with different functional traits. We hypothesized that the choice of response would be driven by a predator’s hunting style (i.e., ambush vs. coursing) while the intensity at which the behavior was performed would correlate with predator traits that contribute to the prey’s relative risk (i.e., each predator’s prey preference, prey-specific capture success, and local predator density). We found that the choice and intensity of anti-predator behaviors were both shaped by hunting style and relative risk factors. All prey species directed longer periods of vigilance towards predators with higher capture success. The decision to flee was the only behavior choice driven by predator characteristics (capture success and hunting style) while intensity of vigilance, frequency of alarm-calling, and flight latency were modulated based on predator hunting strategy and relative risk level. Impala regulated only the intensity of their behaviors, while zebra and wildebeest changed both type and intensity of response based on predator traits. Zebra and impala reacted to multiple components of predation threat, while wildebeest responded solely to capture success. Overall, our findings suggest that certain behaviors potentially facilitate survival under specific contexts and that prey responses may reflect the perceived level of predation risk, suggesting that adaptive functions to reactive anti-predator behaviors may reflect potential trade-offs to their use. The strong influence of prey species identity and social and environmental context suggest that these factors may interact with predator traits to determine the optimal response to immediate predation threat.

Organisms are adept at altering behaviors to balance the tradeoff between foraging and predation risk in spatially and temporally shifting predator environments. In order to optimize this tradeoff, prey need to be able to display an appropriate response based on degree of predation risk. To be most beneficial in the earliest life stages in which many prey are vulnerable to predation, innate anti-predator responses should scale to match the risk imposed by predators until learned anti-predator responses can occur. We conducted an experiment that examined whether tadpoles with no previous exposure to predators (i.e., predator-naive) exhibit innate antipredator behavioral responses (e.g., via refuge use and spatial avoidance) that match the actual risk posed by each predator. Using 7 treatments (6 free-roaming, lethal predators plus no-predator control), we determined the predation rates of each predator onLithobates sphenocephalustadpoles. We recorded behavioral observations on an additional 7 nonlethal treatments (6 caged predators plus no-predator control). Tadpoles exhibited innate responses to fish predators, but not non-fish predators, even though two non-fish predators (newt and crayfish) consumed the most tadpoles. Due to a mismatch between innate response and predator consumption, tadpoles may be vulnerable to greater rates of predation at the earliest life stages before learning can occur. Thus, naïve tadpoles in nature may be at a high risk to predation in the presence of a novel predator until learned anti-predator responses provide additional defenses to the surviving tadpoles.

In response to predation pressure by raptors, snakes, and carnivores, primates employ anti-predator behaviours such as avoiding areas of high predation risk, cryptic behaviour and camouflage, vigilance and group formation (including mixedspecies associations), and eavesdropping on other species’ alarm calls. After detecting a predator, primates can produce alarm calls, show predator-specific escape strategies or even mob the predator. It remains unclear how solitary nocturnal primates respond to diurnal predation pressure while they sleep or rest. The aim of this study was to investigate the diurnal anti-predator behaviour of the nocturnal and solitary Sahamalaza sportive lemur, Lepilemur sahamalazensis, which regularly rests in exposed locations. We observed the responses of 32 Sahamalaza sportive lemurs to playbacks of territorial calls of an aerial predator (Madagascar harrier hawk), mating calls of a terrestrial predator (fossa), and the contact calls of a medium-sized bird (crested coua) as a control, at different diurnal sleeping sites. Lemurs never showed a flight response after replays of predator or control calls, but regularly froze after harrier hawk calls. Lemurs scanned the sky immediately after playback of harrier hawk calls, and the ground or trees after fossa calls. Lemur vigilance increased significantly after both predator calls. After crested coua calls the animals became significantly less vigilant, suggesting that contact calls of this bird serve as indicators of predator absence. We found no response differences between different types of sleeping sites. Our results show that resting Sahamalaza sportive lemurs recognise predator vocalisations as indicators of increased predation risk, discern vocalizations of different predators, and employ anti-predator behaviours specific for different predator classes. Their behavioural responses while resting or sleeping are comparable to those of active primates, and their response rate of 80% shows that this solitary and nocturnal primate is constantly aware of its environment.

Abstract Anti-predator behaviour is common among birds, but little research exists on whether differences in the predator landscape between urban and rural habitats results in differential anti-predator behaviour. We compared nest-defence behaviour of mountain chickadees (Poecile gambeli) in urban and rural habitats in Kamloops, BC, Canada to a simulated predator model (snake) on top of nest boxes while incubating females were away from nests on foraging bouts. Upon their return, we recorded proximity to the predator model, latency to contact the nest box and enter the nest, and number of gargle and chick-a-dee calls as measures of anti-predator behaviour and compared multivariate “predator aversion scores” across birds occupying either rural or urban landscapes. Rural-nesting birds had more aversive reactions to the predator model than the urban-nesting birds, which may suggest differences in perceived threat of the model, in combination with increased boldness associated with urban-nesting birds.

Isolated populations of Northern Bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) have declined causing many landowners to attempt population restoration by releasing captive-reared birds. These attempts have resulted in high mortality rates, which we hypothesised are caused by captive-reared birds exhibiting more naïve predator avoidance behaviour than wild birds. Captive-reared and wild-trapped Northern Bobwhites were subjected to raptorial and terrestrial predator simulations and their responses were recorded on high definition video. We recorded the time to predator detection, time to anti-predator defence, and reaction type for comparative analysis. Captive-reared birds detected simulated predators quicker than wild-trapped birds, but time to mount an anti-predator defence was not different between groups. The response type, however, was different between groups. Captive-reared birds typically flushed when encountering a simulated predator; yet, wild-trapped birds did not flush at all, and typically ran or held when subjected to the simulated predators. We hypothesise that flushing is a naïve anti-predator response that results in revealing of position in the presence of a threat, thereby increasing the individual risk of predation. These results potentially illuminate at least one reason why captive-reared Northern Bobwhite releases have been largely unsuccessful.

Abstract Many prey species detect chemical cues from predators and modify their behaviours in ways that reduce their risk of predation. Theory predicts that prey should modify their anti-predator responses according to the degree of threat posed by the predator. That is, prey should show the strongest responses to chemicals of highly dangerous prey, but should ignore or respond weakly to chemicals from non-dangerous predators. However, if anti-predator behaviours are not costly, and predators are rarely encountered, prey may exhibit generalised antipredator behaviours to dangerous and non-dangerous predators. In Australia, most elapid snakes eat lizards, and are therefore potentially dangerous to lizard prey. Recently, we found that the nocturnal velvet gecko Oedura lesueurii responds to chemicals from dangerous and non-dangerous elapid snakes, suggesting that it displays generalised anti-predator behaviours to chemicals from elapid snakes. To explore the generality of this result, we videotaped the behaviour of velvet geckos in the presence of chemical cues from two small elapid snakes that rarely consume geckos: the nocturnal golden-crowned snake Cacophis squamulosus and the diurnal marsh snake Hemiaspis signata. We also videotaped geckos in trials involving unscented cards (controls) and cologne-scented cards (pungency controls). In trials involving Cacophis and Hemiaspis chemicals, 50% and 63% of geckos spent long time periods (> 3 min) freezing whilst pressed flat against the substrate, respectively. Over half the geckos tested exhibited anti-predator behaviours (tail waving, tail vibration, running) in response to Cacophis (67%) or Hemiaspis (63%) chemicals. These behaviours were not observed in control or pungency control trials. Our results support the idea that the velvet gecko displays generalised anti-predator responses to chemical cues from elapid snakes. Generalised responses to predator chemicals may be common in prey species that co-occur with multiple, ecologically similar, dangerous predators.

Acoustic discrimination of anti-predator calls was examined in 11 species of Australian raptors, including 5 Falco species and 2 species of Elanus kites, by their responses to the playback of alarm and distress calls of Australian passerines. The present study investigated the ability of raptors to discriminate between alarm and distress calls that have different acoustic properties and are emitted in different behavioural contexts. The raptors were tested with broad-band calls (containing a wide range of frequencies) given as distress calls, mobbing calls and alarm calls to terrestrial predators, and with narrow-band calls (comprising a narrow range of frequencies) typically given as a response to flying predators. Raptor responses were categorised into three classes based on head orientation (or lack thereof) towards the sound source (i.e. one of 2 or 4 speakers positioned in the cage set-up); (1) ‘correct response’ – the raptor looked directly at the speaker; (2) ‘incorrect response’ – the raptor detected the sound, but oriented the head in a direction other than towards the sound source; (3) ‘no response’. All raptor species showed a higher percentage of correct responses (60–100%) for broad-frequency vocalisations and a lower percentage of correct responses (usually 0–40%) and more incorrect responses for narrow-band vocalisations. Further, all raptors showed a greater rate of overall responsiveness to broad-band alarm and distress calls than narrow-band calls, indicating a higher interest level in the former. The behavioural implications of acoustic discrimination by Australian raptors to different types of alarm call are discussed.

Predator pressure is a fundamental force driving changes at all levels of the community structure. It may protect native ecosystems from alien species. Therefore, resistance to diverse predators resulting from a universal anti-predator strategy seems crucial for invasion success. We present a comprehensive review of the responses of an invasive amphipod Dikerogammarus villosus to sympatric and allopatric predator signals. We summarize diverse aspects of the gammarid anti-predator strategy, including predator identification, morphological and behavioural adaptations, effectiveness of shelter use and resistance to indirect predator effects. The response of D. villosus is independent of predator species (including totally allopatric taxa), which assures the high flexibility of its predator recognition system. It has a harder exoskeleton and better capability of utilizing shelters compared to other gammarids, resulting in relatively high resistance to predators. Therefore, it can use predator kairomones as indirect food signals (sharing the diet with the predator) and follow the predator scent. This resistance may allow D. villosus to reduce the costs of its physiological responses to predators and sustain growth in their presence. This might facilitate invasion success by increasing its competitive advantage.

We consider a predator–prey system with prey population guided anti-predator behavior, in which anti-predator behaviors happen only when the population size of the prey is greater than a threshold. We investigate the rich dynamics of the proposed piecewise model as well as both subsystems without and with nonlinear functional response. In particular, the subsystem with anti-predator behaviors exhibits rich dynamical behaviors including saddle-node bifurcation, Hopf bifurcation, Bogdanov–Takens bifurcation and homoclinic bifurcation. Further, besides the dynamical properties of subsystems the piecewise system shows some new complicated dynamical behaviors as the threshold value varies, including unstable limit cycle, semistable limit cycle, bistability of equilibrium and limit cycle, and tristability of three equilibria. From the switching system we can conclude that a great anti-predator rate induces the prey population to persist more likely, but whether the prey and predator populations coexist depends further on the threshold that triggers anti-predator behavior. Especially, a large threshold not only makes coexistence of the prey and predator populations as an equilibrium more likely, but also damps the predator–prey oscillations.

Invasive species pose a severe threat to native ecosystems and represent the second cause of biodiversity loss on global scale after habitat destruction. In particular, invasive predators are major drivers of rapid population declines and local extinctions in native prey. During biotic invasions, native prey become abruptly exposed to novel predators with which they share no history of coevolution. Thus, the lack of common evolutionary history often hampers prey effective response to the novel predation pressures; native prey can both fail to recognise predators as a threat and exhibit anti-predator strategies that are inadequate. Nonetheless, mechanisms such as rapid adaptation and phenotypic plasticity can allow prey to cope with new selective pressures and drive evolutionary changes that can help native species withstanding invasive ones. Due to their relative ecological isolation, freshwater ecosystems are particularly sensitive to invasive species impacts and likewise are most of the organisms exploiting them like amphibians; aquatic and semi-aquatic amphibians are effective indicators of freshwater habitats conservation with an excellent potential for studying the responses towards invasive species. Indeed, generally, amphibians show high level of developmental and behavioural plasticity and have relatively short life cycles, which could allow the detection of important adaptive patterns even few years after the spreading of invasive organisms. This thesis investigated how amphibians can respond to a novel predation pressure, by assessing their modulation of anti-predator responses on multiple traits (i.e. behavioural morphological, life-history). In particular, I aimed to shed light on (i) the role of phenotypic plasticity in mediating the expression of anti-predator responses towards invasive predators; (ii) how novel predation pressures can interact with extant selective forces and foster rapid adaptation in native prey; and (iii) which evolutionary mechanisms are involved in allowing predator recognition by naïve prey. To this extent, I evaluated the expression of anti-predator responses in amphibian larvae towards the American red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). This widespread crayfish is listed among the 100 worst invasive alien species, and is a voracious predator of amphibian eggs and larvae, often associated to strong declines of amphibian populations outside its native range. In brief, the research consisted in two main experimental studies, the first of which focused on developmental shifts of a single anuran species, while the second one assessed behavioural responses to the invasive crayfish across the amphibian community of Northern Italy. In the first study, I exposed tadpoles of an endemic frog (Rana latastei) from recently invaded (10- 15 years) and uninvaded populations to the non-lethal presence of the invasive crayfish during their ontogenesis. Tadpoles from invaded populations showed rapid adaptation in life-history traits (reduced development time), and this caused the disappearance of pre-existing adaptive divergence between R. latastei populations exploiting environments with different climatic regimes. However, even if early metamorphosis in invaded populations probably has great advantages as it reduces exposure to crayfish predation, this shift can produce potential carry-over effects on post-metamorphic traits. Indeed, the observed development acceleration was not without a cost, as faster-developing froglets were smaller and displayed poorer jumping performances. Besides, experimental exposure to the invasive crayfish revealed tadpoles were also able to modulate both their development time and morphological traits through phenotypic plasticity. An acceleration in development time was observed even in exposed tadpoles. Moreover, tadpoles reared in presence of P. clarkii showed shift in body shape together with an increase in tail muscle size, which is a trait associated to faster swim and can increase escape from predators. By contrast, tadpole behaviour was not influenced nor by origin (invaded or not invaded populations) neither by crayfish exposure. The second study was performed on several species composing Northern Italy amphibian community (five urodele and eight anuran species); for each species I assessed how different stimuli mediated novel predator recognition and elicited the expression of anti-predator responses in naïve species. To this extent, I evaluated multiple larval behavioural traits after brief non-lethal exposure to crayfish-released cues (four treatments: visual cues, chemical cues, contemporary exposure to both cues and control). Moreover, I tested if these responses were influenced by the coevolutionary history some of these species shared with a similar native predator, the European crayfish (Austropotamobius italicus). I showed that all species altered their behaviour when exposed to the invasive crayfish while the modality and intensity of response was highly heterogeneous. However, almost all behavioural responses were driven by visual cues, while chemical cues elicited feeble and contrasting outcomes. Finally, I found no support for a coevolutionary history hypothesis between native amphibians and native crayfish, as responses to the invasive predator were not affected by species coexistence with native crayfish. Instead, behavioural responses observed in naïve species was likely elicited by recognition of general predator traits (e.g. an approaching large shape). The broad implication of my thesis is that amphibian facing invasive predators can both exhibit rapid adaptation to the novel selective pressures and modulate their developmental traits through phenotypic plasticity. Moreover, the expression of these responses is context-dependent and can highly vary in relation to the experienced conditions and across species. For instance, varying typology of risk exposure can produce marked difference in anti-predator response (e.g. activation of short-term behavioural response vs long-term morphological responses). Future studies assessing responses to invasive predators should evaluate multiple traits and carefully consider risk exposure conditions when planning experiments. Finally, the expression of anti-predatory responses of native amphibians, and particularly their effectiveness towards invasive predators, need further extensive investigation, and future conservation plans should take into account both species trends and their responsiveness to global change stressors.

The ability of prey to detect and respond appropriately to predator risk is important to overall prey fitness. Many aquatic organisms assess risk through the use of chemical cues that can change with predator diet. Two variable characteristics of diet are: 1. prey type and 2. prey mass. To assess the effect of these two characteristics on the assessment of risk by the mud crab Panopeus herbstii, I exposed mud crabs to the urine of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus fed one of 5 diet treatments: 10g of oyster shell free wet mass, 5g of oyster shell free wet mass, 10g crushed mud crabs, 5g crushed mud crabs, and a mix of 5g of oyster shell free wet mass and 5g crushed mud crab. Effects on P. herbstii foraging were tested in a previously developed bioassay by measuring shrimp consumption over a 4 hour period. I hypothesized that P. herbstii would have a larger magnitude response to urine from C. sapidus fed a diet of crushed mud crabs than to urine from C. sapidus fed a diet of oysters. I further hypothesized that P. herbstii would have a larger magnitude response to urine from C. sapidus fed a high mass diet relative to a lower mass diet. Contrary to expectations there was no observed effect of urine on P. herbstii foraging in any of the treatments. Results suggest that bioassay protocol may be unreliable suggesting further replication to determine the difference between this study and previous results. Future studies examining how P. herbstii varies with urine concentration will aid in understanding the ecological scale of this predator cue system. Determining the role of other potential cue sources will improve the predictive abilities of these studies.

This study considers the dynamical interaction of two predatory carnivores (Lions (Panthera leo) and Spotted Hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta)) and three of their common prey (Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)). The dependence on spatial structure of species’ interaction stimulated the author to formulate reaction-diffusion models to explain the dynamics of predator-prey relationships in ecology. These models were used to predict and explain the effect of threshold populations, predator additional food and prey refuge on the general species’ dynamics. Vital parameters that model additional food to predators, prey refuge and population thresholds were given due attention in the analyses. The stability of a predator-prey model for an ecosystem faced with a prey out-flux which is analogous to and modelled as an Allee effect was investigated. The results highlight the bounds for the conversion efficiency of prey biomass to predator biomass (fertility gain) for which stability of the three species ecosystem model can be attained. Global stability analysis results showed that the prey (warthog) population density should exceed the sum of its carrying capacity and threshold value minus its equilibrium value i.e., W >(Kw + $) −W . This result shows that the warthog’s equilibrium population density is bounded above by population thresholds, i.e., W < (Kw+$). Besides showing the occurrence under parameter space of the so-called paradox of enrichment, early indicators of chaos can also be deduced. In addition, numerical results revealed stable oscillatory behaviour and stable spirals of the species as predator fertility rate, mortality rate and prey threshold were varied. The stabilising effect of prey refuge due to variations in predator fertility and proportion of prey in the refuge was studied. Formulation and analysis of a robust mathematical model for two predators having an overlapping dietary niche were also done. The Beddington-DeAngelis functional and numerical responses which are relevant in addressing the Principle of Competitive Exclusion as species interact were incorporated in the model. The stabilizing effect of additional food in relation to the relative diffusivity D, and wave number k, was investigated. Stability, dissipativity, permanence, persistence and periodicity of the model were studied using the routine and limit cycle perturbation methods. The periodic solutions (b 1 and b 3), which influence the dispersal rate (') of the interacting species, have been shown to be controlled by the wave number. For stability, and in order to overcome predator natural mortality, the nutritional value of predator additional food has been shown to be of high quality that can enhance predator fertility gain. The threshold relationships between various ecosystem parameters and the carrying capacity of the game park for the prey species were also deduced to ensure ecosystem persistence. Besides revealing irregular periodic travelling wave behaviour due to predator interference, numerical results also show oscillatory temporal dynamics resulting from additional food supplements combined with high predation rates.

Vocal communication underpins behavioural interactions in many species. Receivers often show flexible responses to the same or acoustically similar vocalisations, but the causes and adaptive significance of this flexibility remain poorly understood in comparison to variation in signaller behaviour. In this thesis, I explore flexibility in responses to anti-predator vocalisations depending on caller identity and context, using dwarf mongooses (Helogale parvula) as a model system. I demonstrate that foragers rely more on surveillance calls from dominant sentinels compared to subordinates; dominant individuals perform more sentinel duty and chose higher guard posts, thus may provide higher quality information (Chapter 2). I find little evidence that caller dominance status affects response to recruitment calls, but that individuals show a stronger mobbing response to recruitment calls of closely affiliated groupmates; anti-predator assistance may be a benefit of close 'friendships' (Chapter 3). In Chapter 4, I examine whether receivers balance personal and social information when deciding whether to respond to potentially false alarm calls. Individuals use alarm · calls when they provide information about risk which is novel compared to personal information, are more responsive to alarms from sentinels (whose elevated position enhances predator detection) than foragers, and are more likely to respond when supplementary fed, adjusting their responses to the relative likelihood of predation and starvation. In Chapter 5, I explore potential effects of anthropogenic noise on receiver behaviour. Traffic noise lessens the response of foragers to surveillance calls through a combination of partial acoustic masking and greater perceived risk, disrupting optimisation of the foraging-vigilance trade-off. Finally, I show the importance of having previous knowledge about signallers when assessing available social information quality; foragers treated surveillance calls from recent immigrants as less reliable than those from resident individuals, and thus dispersal may carry short-term information costs (Chapter 6).

Thesis (M.A.)--Kent State University, 2009.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Jan. 26, 2010). Advisor: Marilyn Norconk. Keywords: predation; anti-predator strategies; alarm calls. Includes bibliographical references (p. 111-120).

Individuals within a single population can vary widely in their phenotype e.g. in their body shape. These differences are an important source of biodiversity and they can precede evolutionary divergence within a population. In this thesis we use the biological invasion of the zebra mussels into Swedish lakes to investigate which processes create or maintain phenotypic diversity within populations of the two native fish species perch and roach and the mussel itself. Both fishes have specially adapted body shapes that depend on whether they feed in the near-shore or open-water habitat of lakes. This habitat-specific divergence was more pronounced in lakes with zebra mussels, probably because resources in both habitats were in higher supply due to the mussels’ effects on the lakes. Divergence in perch body shapes between habitats was also higher in lakes with a higher water clarity, suggesting that visual conditions can affect the resource use and thus also the expression of a habitat-specific body shape. When investigating the diversity of body shapes in the mussel itself we found that mussels from one lake changed their shell shape when exposed to different predators: fish predators induced a more elongated shell shape while crayfish predators induced a rounder shell. These specific shell shapes probably serve as two alternative predator defenses protecting the mussel from predation. We conclude that the availability and use of distinct resources is an important source of diversity within populations. Abiotic conditions can play a previously underappreciated role by promoting or impairing the use of the distinct resources thus affecting the divergence. The diversity of shell shapes we found in the zebra mussels complements our study by demonstrating that not only consumer responses to resources but also resources’ responses to predators can generate phenotypic diversity.

碩士
國立屏東科技大學
野生動物保育研究所
100
Primates have different warning responses for different predators. Can primates differentiate between birds-mimicking calls or the actual calls of natural predators? In Taiwan, Mountain hawks eagle (Nisaetus nipalensis), the the largest diurnal forest raptor, is a predator to Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis), and the bird’s call was frequently imitated by Eurasian Jays (Garrulus glandarius). I did the playback of mimicked calls by the jays, that of the hawk eagle and Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela) in regions with or without the distribution of the hawk eagle to see whether macaques could differeciate among them. Crested serpent eagle is widely distributed in Taiwan, whose call is not strange to the macaque, and therefore was used for control. My study sites were located at Tahanshan and Shoushan, with and without the hawk eagle existence, respectively. I conducted the playback of one call type to each macaque flock encountered on the trail, and call type was used in the order of hawk eagle call, Crested serpent eagle call and minicked call. Results showed that Tahanshan macaques showed more anti-predator behaviors than in Shoushan to Mountain Hawk Eagle calls and minicked calls as well (NT=20, NS=17, t=12.735, df=35, *** P < 0.001). Formosan macaque group vigilance rate were significantly different between both with and without Mountain hawk eagle sites when broadcasting Mountain hawk eagle calls playback (NT=20, NS=17, t=12.735, df=35, *** P < 0.001) and jay imitate eagle calls (NT=20, NS=17, t=2.705, df=35, *** P < 0.001). But when I broadcasted serpent eagle call, macaques showed the anti-predator behaviors but vigilance rate were not significantly different between the two sites (NT=20, NS=17, t=0.920, df=35, P =0.06). Macaques showed the most fiercest anti-predator behaviors and response to hawk eagle call in Tahanshan. In conclusion, macaques could be fooled by the minicked call occassionally, and anti-predator behavior of macaque was affected by whether the hawk eagle existed or not, and this tended to be a learning behavior.

Predation is a common cause of mortality, having resulted in the evolution of a diverse kind of anti-predator behaviour across the animal kingdom. One such key behaviour is flight initiation distance (FID), defined as the distance at which animals take flight, when approached by a potential predator such as a human. Extensive research during the past two decades has revealed that optimal anti-predator behaviour is adjusted to life history (the combination of timing of reproduction, fecundity, survivorship, and others). FID is heritable, responds to natural selection and hence shows rapid micro-evolutionary change when animals are exposed to domestication, climate warming, or when introduced to novel environments. Peri-personal space (PPS) and inter-personal space (IPS) may be linked to FID, opening up the possibility of studying these disparate components of behaviour in a common context. Here, I provide a brief review of the extensive literature on FID, but much less well-studied PPS and IPS, and suggest ways in which such behaviour can provide insights into the evolution of anti-predator behaviour and life history. Such knowledge may help us resolve problems in conservation, effects of human disturbance on wild animals, problems of anti-predator behaviour for animal welfare, and potentially even maladaptive anti-predator behaviour and PPS and IPS in humans.