Journal articles on the topic 'Animali non umani'

Come è noto, l'unione Europea ha fra i suoi scopi quello di favorire lo sviluppo sociale ed economico dei Paesi aderenti, facilitando la ricerca scientifica, l’innovazione tecnologica, la produzione di beni e la circolazione degli stessi nell’ambito dell’Unione, eliminando per quanto è possibile differenze, normative e conflitti commerciali. Con questo spirito, dopo anni di difficile lavoro, è stata emanata la Direttiva 98/44/CE del Parlamento Europeo e del Consiglio (6luglio 1998) che riguarda la protezione giuridica delle invenzioni biotecnologiche, ne presupposto che si tratti di genoma – sia esso di origine vegetale, animale o umano – in quanto risultati da “invenzioni” suscettibili di applicazioni industriali e non dal mero isolamento (“scoperta”). L’Autore, che già ha esaminato in un precedente contributo gli aspetti etici dell’impiego delle biotecnologie nel campo vegetale e animale (v. Medicina e Morale 2000, 3: 449-504), si sofferma a descrivere quanto prevede la Direttiva 98/44/CE stessa, assieme ad altre norme internazionali precedentemente emanat, per la tutela dell’ambiente, degli animali e degli organismi umani. L’Autore riconosce che la direttiva vieta, nel dispositivo, lo sfruttamento commerciale che sia contrario all’ordine pubblico e al buon costume, fornendo gli esempi concreti dei divieti applicabili ai processi di clonazione umana a scopo riproduttivo, di modificazione dell’identità genetica germinale dell’essere umano; di modificazione degli embrioni umani a fini commerciali e industriali; di modificazione dell’identità genetica animale di natura tale da provocare sofferenza negli stessi, senza utilità sostanziale per l’uomo o per l’animale. Tuttavia la Direttiva – sotto l’aspetto giuridico – consente l’utilizzazione di embrioni umani (sia pure non direttamente ed espressamente prodotti a scopo di ricerca in base all’art. 18 della Convenzione sui diritti dell’uomo e la biomedicina) a scopo sperimentale e per applicazioni biotecnologiche riguardanti la produzione di cellule staminali od i medicamenti. L’Autore esamina anche il dibattito che è seguito alla emanazione della Direttiva soprattutto a livello di Assemblea parlamentare del Consiglio d’Europa (Strasburgo) in merito alle preoccupazioni dell’opinione pubblica sui cosiddetti “cibi transgenici” (raccomandazione n. 1398 (1998) dal titolo “sicurezza del consumatore e qualità degli alimenti”), nella quale è stata espressa contrarietà alla brevettabilità degli organismi viventi, pur riconoscendo la necessità di assicurare un’adeguata protezione ai diritti dell’”invenzione” (proprietà intellettuale) [Raccomandazione 1417/1999]. Questi problemi sono stati affrontati ma non risolti nella conferenza internazionale di Oviedo (16-19 maggio 19999) organizzata dal Consiglio d’Europa. Il Comitato Direttivo di Bioetica del medesimo Consiglio d’Europa è stato indicato di esprimere “parere” sulla complessa materia; nel frattempo sono intervenute la conferenza di Seattle e Montreal, ove è stato firmato, nel gennaio 2000, un Protocollo sulla biosicurezza che regolamenta il commercio internazionale di sementi e sostanze geneticamente modificate ritenuti pericolosi per l’ambiente e la salute, escludendo però i prodotti finiti, e perciò il cibo transgenico. Nel momenti in cui – scadendo la moratoria –la Direttiva 98/44/CE entrerà in vigore (31 luglio 2000) essendo improbabile l’accettazione delle argomentazioni di invalidazione sollevate da Olanda e Italia, l’Autore insiste per l’adozione del “principio di precauzione”, esplicitamente incorporato nel diritto comunicato relativo alla protezione della salute, oltreché alla tutela dell’ambiente, che dovrà essere tuttavia meglio specificato nella sua estensione e nelle conseguenze attese. Un secondo principio, quello della “trasparenza”, richiede un’ulteriore affinamento delle informazioni rivolte al consumatore, tramite una più chiara etichettatura che consenta una scelta realmente libera e consapevole dei prodotti derivanti da organismi geneticamente modificati posti in commercio. Dovrà essere perseguita la ricerca, escludendo peraltro l’uso dell’embrione umano.

La notizia che alcuni ricercatori inglesi sono riusciti a produrre la pecora “Dolly” mediante clonazione del patrimonio genetico di una pecora adulta, ha suscitato nell’opinione pubblica una catena di reazioni nel timore che l’esperimento possa essere ripetuto anche sull’uomo, con la conseguente organizzazione di dibattiti anche parlamentari e nelle commissioni istituite ad hoc, e l’emanazione di direttive a livello sia nazionale sia internazionale. Ma la paventata clonazione di individui umani è eticamente accettabile o meno? E quale sarebbe il significato antropologico di questa operazione? Dopo una breve premessa sugli aspetti scientifici della clonazione e sulle giustificazioni che vengono avanzate a sostegno non solo della clonazione di animali, ma anche di individui umani, l’Autrice fa un’analisi dei criteri che sono stati utilizzati nei documenti dei vari organismi per elaborare il giudizio morale su tale pratica: dal “contrattualismo” al “consequenzialismo” ad una cosiddetta “valutazione globale”.

Il pensiero di Hans Jonas, specie per quel che riguarda la cosiddetta “biologia filosofica”, tratta indirettamente del rapporto tra essere umano e animale. A questo riguardo, Jonas rifiuta sia l’approccio dualistico, sia quello monistico-riduzionistico e propende al contrario per una complessiva reinterpretazione del fenomeno della vita nei termini di quel che egli definisce una “rivoluzione ontologica”. In virtù di ciò, il pensatore rintraccia lo specifico del fenomeno della vita e individua nelle forme viventi una scala naturae di complessità, auto-trascendimento e libertà via via crescenti, le cui tappe significative sono la vita organica, quella animale e quella umana. Per quel che concerne la forma animale, varie specie presentano “potenzialità trans-animali”, che evidenziano un ponte biologico e ontologico verso l’essere umano. In altre parole, l’animale è in qualche modo in grado di prefigurare la forma di vita specificamente umana. Tuttavia, sostiene Jonas, non appena quest’ultima fa la propria comparsa, essa è tale per cui se ne evidenzia al tempo stesso anche lo “iato metafisico” rispetto alla vita animale. La specificità umana si manifesta nella propria capacità di essere responsabile e di preservare le condizioni basilari per una vita autentica sul pianeta.

Lo scompenso cardiaco (SC), processo evolutivo comune di più malattie cardiovascolari a differente eziologia (ad es. infarto del miocardio, ipertensione, cardiomiopatie, disturbi valvolari e altre), è diventato sempre più comune nella popolazione anziana, influenzando drasticamente il tasso di sopravvivenza e la qualità della vita. L’iperattività del sistema nervoso simpatico (SNS) che si associa allo SC determina un aumento delle catecolamine circolanti epinefrina e norepinefrina che, attraverso l’attivazione dei recettori beta-adrenergici (β-AR), svolgono un ruolo critico nella regolazione della funzione del sistema cardiovascolare. Una caratteristica distintiva dello SC è la diminuzione o la desensibilizzazione dei recettori β1-adrenergici (β1-AR) sulla membrana delle cellule cardiache. Le catecolamine e lo stress ossidativo sono coinvolti nella regolazione della densità dei β-AR. Lo stress ossidativo associato alla disfunzione mitocondriale sembra giocare un ruolo importante nella fisiopatologia dello SC. Infatti, una condizione di stress ossidativo è stata osservata sia in pazienti con SC che in modelli animali, e un’eccessiva esposizione a specie reattive dell’ossigeno (ROS) diminuisce l’espressione di β1-AR in cardiomiociti murini, sebbene i meccanismi sottostanti rimangano ancora non chiari. Recentemente, è stato scoperto che il recettore periferico delle benzodiazepine (PBR) svolge un ruolo chiave oltre che nell’energetica cellulare, nella regolazione della fisiologia mitocondriale e dell’equilibrio redox nei cardiomiociti. Nel presente studio, abbiamo valutato gli effetti delle catecolamine e dei ligandi del PBR sulla densità dei β1- e β2-AR nei monociti umani isolati da sangue periferico, che sono noti per esprimere entrambi i β-AR. La densità dei β-AR è stata misurata mediante citometria a flusso utilizzando anticorpi selettivi diretti contro un epitopo extracellulare di β1-AR o β2-AR. Il trattamento dei monociti con benzodiazepine induceva una riduzione della densità del β1-AR, ma non del β2-AR, sulla membrana dei monociti che veniva ripristinata utilizzando [1-(2-chlorophenyl)-N-methyl-(1-meth-ylpropyl)-3 isoquinolinecarboxamide] (PK11195), un antagonista del PBR. Questi risultati suggeriscono un possibile ruolo del PBR nella regolazione della densità del β1-AR proponendo i monociti isolati dal sangue periferico sia come modello in vitro utile per lo studio del sistema recettoriale β-adrenergico che come potenziali biomarcatori di progressione della malattia e risposta alla terapia.

Il tema di questo saggio č la linea di demarcazione che distingue e separa uomo e animale dagli albori della civiltÀ occidentale. Attraverso una rilettura critica di momenti e forme di tale linea, il discorso qui sviluppato propone di riconoscere i concetti di uomo e di animale, quali sono stati finora pensati e applicati, come artefatti umani che hanno tenuto in scarsa o nessuna considerazione il fatto che nella demarcazione sono insiti una vicinanza e un rapporto e insieme un'alteritÀ con cui il pensiero non puň piů evitare di misurarsi.

L’agricoltura è stata il motore che ha consentito lo sviluppo della civiltà umana; attraverso i suoi surplus alimentari ha permesso lo sviluppo di attività non agricole (sacerdoti e guerrieri) e l’affermarsi di differenziazioni economiche che permangono anche oggi (lavoratori e redditieri, ricchi e poveri). Ma la distribuzione degli alimenti fra tutta l’umanità ancor ora è insufficiente, malgrado gli strumenti di trasporto disponibili. Il legislatore europeo di questo secolo e le linee evolutive del commercio internazionale hanno progressivamente segnato una dichiarata e consapevole integrazione fra regole di prodotto e regole di produzione, fra ciclo della vita e mercato, valorizzando il ruolo dell’impresa verso la costruzione di un modello disciplinare unitario ed integrato, al cui interno rilievo essenziale e crescente viene riconosciuto alle scelte di coerenza ambientale e di corretto uso delle risorse naturali. Ma i cambiamenti climatici e la necessità di cambiare modello di sviluppo comporteranno una riduzione drastica degli allevamenti per diminuire la produzione di metano e CO2, e la sostituzione della carne con prodotti di laboratorio contenenti altre proteine derivate probabilmente da molecole di carne che non hanno mai vissuto in una stalla, una forte rivalutazione dei boschi e loro coltivazione in zone aride o artiche ovvero in altissima montagna per incarcerare CO2, lo sviluppo di coltivazioni erbacee modificate per produrre non solo carboidrati, ma anche vitamine e proteine; insomma, ci stiamo avviando verso una nuova rivoluzione agricola dove allo scopo ambientalistico si affiancherà anche lo scopo produttivistico: l’uomo incentiverà l’arboricoltura e alcune coltivazioni erbacee, ridurrà drasticamente l’allevamento di animali dando origine ad una nuova agricoltura, più efficace dal punto di vista ambientale ma anche meglio adatta alla coincidenza del settore primario con la sopravvivenza del genere umano, tentando di diminuire la sua invasività e di ricostruire un pianeta capace di sopportare la nostra invasiva presenza.

Taste perception is a primary driver of food choices; however, little is known about how perception of all five tastes (sweet, salt, sour, bitter, umami) collectively inform dietary patterns. Our aim was to examine the associations between a multivariable measure of taste perception—taste perception profiles—and empirically derived dietary patterns. The cohort included 367 community-dwelling adults (55–75 years; 55% female; BMI = 32.2 ± 3.6 kg/m2) with metabolic syndrome from PREDIMED-Plus, Valencia. Six taste perception profiles were previously derived via data-driven clustering (Low All, High Bitter, High Umami, Low Bitter and Umami, High All But Bitter, High All But Umami); three dietary patterns were derived via principal component analysis (% variance explained = 20.2). Cross-sectional associations between profiles and tertials of dietary pattern adherence were examined by multinomial logistic regression. Overall, there were several significant differences in dietary pattern adherence between profiles: the vegetables, fruits, and whole grains pattern was significantly more common for the High All But Umami profile (OR range for high vs. low adherence relative to other profiles (1.45–1.99; 95% CI minimum lower, maximum upper bounds: 1.05, 2.74), the non-extra virgin olive oils, sweets, and refined grains pattern tended to be less common for Low All or High Bitter profiles (OR range: 0.54–0.82), while the alcohol, salty foods, and animal fats pattern tended to be less common for Low Bitter and Umami and more common for High All But Bitter profiles (OR range: 0.55–0.75 and 1.11–1.81, respectively). In conclusion, among older adults with metabolic syndrome, taste perception profiles were differentially associated with dietary patterns, suggesting the benefit of integrating taste perception into personalized nutrition guidance.

L’articolo prende in esame Vesti bianche (Belye odeždy), il secondo romanzo di Vladimir Dudincev (1918-1998), figura tragica della letteratura sovietica. Dopo Non si vive di solo pane (1957), riscuote un enorme successo ma viene costretto al silenzio a causa dello scandalo politico che ne deriva. Vesti bianche, scritto nel 1966, ma pubblicato solo vent’anni più tardi (1987), è ambientato nel pieno del lysenkoismo, la violenta repressione nei confronti della comunità scientifica che ebbe luogo tra gli anni ’40 e ’50. I suoi protagonisti sono biologi: comprendere la natura, essere in dialogo con il mondo naturale, è la loro prerogativa per ottenere dei risultati. La riflessione scientifica è puntualmente accompagnata da quella filosofica. In una intensa discussione sul rapporto tra l’uomo e la Natura, i protagonisti si schierano su differenti posizioni e sembrano “indossare” figure animali quasi con valore totemico. Le possibili configurazioni della società umana, i rapporti professionali e le esperienze individuali vengono messe in relazione con il comportamento animale. Il carattere associato a questi animali riporta sia al loro comportamento in natura sia alla simbologia ad essi legata nella tradizione popolare russa. La ricerca della verità da parte degli uomini di scienza incontra la necessità di mascheramento, parola chiave della trama. Il mimetismo è vissuto come un inganno necessario, come per mantenere la varietà biologica nel mondo naturale, così per garantire la libertà del pensiero e della ricerca scientifica in un paese paralizzato dal regime.

The evolution of the chemical senses has resulted in a sensory apparatus for high taste and smell acuity in mammals and birds to ensure self-nourishment. Such peripheral chemosensory systems function as a code to unfold the nutritional value of feedstuffs. Food ingestion simultaneously evokes odor, taste and thermo-mechanical (somatosensing) sensations. Olfaction represents the capacity to identify feed volatiles that are predominantly derived from essential nutrients in plants. Comparative biology of olfaction shows that primates and chickens have a smaller olfactory epithelium and fewer olfactory receptor (OR) genes than non-primate mammals studied to date including farm and companion animals, such as the pig, the cow, the dog, the cat and the horse. A significant proportion of the total OR genes in mammals and birds have lost their functionality (pseudogenes) in a process that seems to reflect a decrease in the animal’s reliance on the sense of smell, particularly in humans and cows. The taste system allows animals to recognize a diverse repertoire of nutrient (sugars, amino acids, salts, acids and fats) or toxic related chemical entities that provide valuable information about the quality of food. Taste senses non-volatile molecules in the oral cavity through taste receptors (TR). The TR are expressed in the sensory cells forming the taste buds of the tongue’s papillae. Taste cells are linked to a network of solitary chemosensory cells diffused through many non-taste tissues involved in metabolic homeostasis. The number of functional taste receptor genes (TASR) in humans is equivalent to that in other mammals and superior to that in chickens. The TASR family 1 (TAS1R coding for umami and sweet TR) is conserved, in number and type, across the species evaluated, with the exception of the sweet receptor in chicken and feline species. The TASR family 2 (TAS2R coding for bitter TR) shows a strong adaptive capacity to dietary sources and digestive physiology across vertebrates. Pseudogenization (loss of gene functionality) in the TAS2R family seems to be a frequent strategy. The implications of oronasal nutrient sensing related to comparative animal feeding strategies and behaviors such as neophobia, feed refusal and hedonic preferences are discussed. Feed palatability and appetence might be one of the main driving forces in short-term feed consumption. Finally, practical applications relevant to animal production are outlined. Key words: Nutrient sensing, taste, olfaction, somatosensing, feed intake, farm, companion animals

L’elaborato si propone di analizzare il pensiero ecologico di Anna Maria Ortese, concentrandosi su Alonso e i visionari, testo che, seppur trascurato dal pubblico e dalla critica, può essere considerato il manifesto dell’intera poetica ortesiana. Il credo dell’autrice è infatti rivolto ad annullare la differenza tra umano e non umano, a combattere per l’inclusione dell’animale nel circolo etico, a difendere i diritti di tutti gli esseri viventi e non viventi, alla ricerca di una forma di pensiero più inclusiva e che si fondi su nuovi valori come l’amore, la pietà, la partecipazione al dolore e il “soccorso” a tutte le creature e alla Terra stessa. Propongo di rileggere Alonso e i visionari da una prospettiva ecologica al fine di dimostrare non solo come l’autrice partecipi al dibattito su “La questione animale” al centro degli studi sull’animalità, ma come anticipi spesso riflessioni e considerazioni di filosofi e pensatori del Novecento, tra cui Agamben, Cavalieri, Derrida, Deleuze e Guattari. Abstract This essay aims to analyze Anna Maria Ortese’s ecological thought, which significantly distinguishes her last novel, Alonso e i visionari. I believe that the novel, which has been overlooked both by critics and by readers, can be considered as the manifesto of the author’s poetics. Indeed, it summarizes the writer’s tenets, devoted to annulling the difference between human and nonhuman world, to struggling for the animal’s inclusion in the moral community, to proposing an understanding of intelligence that combines reason, compassion, and care for both human and nonhuman beings as well as for the entire planet Earth itself. I suggest reading the novel from an ecocritical perspective to illustrate how Ortese anticipates Braidotti’s posthuman thought, and provides original theoretical frameworks and criteria for exploring fundamental issues of “The Animal Question” even before such themes commanded the attention of prominent twentieth-century philosophers such as Agamben, Cavalieri, Derrida, Deleuze, and Guattari. Resumen Este ensayo analiza el pensamiento ecológico de Anna Maria Ortese y examina la novela Alonso e i visionari, que puede ser considerada como el manifiesto de la obra ortesiana, aunque la obra no tuvo gran éxito de público ni de crítica en el momento de su publicación. El credo de la autora pretende invalidar la diferencia entre humano y no humano, luchar por la inclusión de los animales en el círculo ético, defender los derechos de todos los seres, buscar una tipología de pensamiento más inclusiva y que se base no solo en la razón sino en nuevos valores como el amor, la piedad, la participación en el dolor y la ayuda a todas las criaturas que lo necesiten, lo que la autora llama emblemáticamente “soccorso”. Mi trabajo sugiere una lectura de la novela desde una perspectiva ecocrítica para mostrar que Ortese participa en el debate conocido como “La cuestión de los animales,” y de la misma manera, anticipa el pensamiento de Braidotti sobre el posthumano y algunas consideraciones de destacados filósofos del siglo XX, como Agamben, Cavalieri, Derrida, Deleuze y Guattari.

Sommario: Il mio obiettivo in questo testo è discutere la nozione di lavoro produttivo nell’ambito della opera di Kierkegaard, con speciale atenzione alla teoria degli stadi esistenziali. Partendo dal concetto di uomo come un essere relazionale cioè che si rapporta a sé stesso ed alle altre persone, cerco di esaminare come il teologo danese descrive il lavoro in ogni stadio (l’estetico, l’etico e poi il religioso). Mentre si può dire che nell’etico il lavoro (come approfondimento dell’interiorità e come lavoro produttivo) sia il dovere di ogni uomo, dovere che lo porta all’universale, e nell’estetico che il lavoro sia una noiosa attività almeno quando non si riesce ad svilupparsi qualche talento speciale, nel religioso tutto cambia. Nello stadio religioso l’altro è il prossimo cioè un somigliante e quindi l’esistenza umana prende come scopo un attuarsi del sé verso ad una possibilità che si trova oltre sé stesso, una possibilità che Kierkegaard designa come coscienza eterna. Dunque il lavoro diventa sfera anche per la manifestazione dello umano come coscienza e libertà e non soltanto uno sforzo per soddisfare le necessità materiale dell’uomo come individuo di una spezie animale.Abstract: My purpose here was to discuss the notion of productive work in the philosophy of Kierkegaard. I put special attention upon the so-called theory of the life’stages. Firstly I take the concept of man as a relational being, that is a being that related himself to himself and to the other people. Then I examine Kierkegaardian discussion of the concept of work in each stage: the esthetic, the ethical and the religious. It is possible to affirm that while in the ethical the work (both as the inner working of the personality and as productive work) is an universal duty, and for the esthetic it is a boring activity or at the best, is one occasion for exercising a special talent, in the religious everything changes. In the religious the Other person with whom the Self relates himself must be taken as the biblical-neighbour and so the human life takes a diferente purpose: become conscious of his own eternal calling. In the same sense working becomes a way of developing the most important atributes of human beings – his self-conscience and his liberty – more than a way of caring about the material necessities of life as an individual of an animal specie. Key words: Life’stages; Work; Subjectivity

L’articolo si interroga sulla relazione tra parole divine, semplici, monadiche e il dire degli uomini legato alla corporeità, privo di chiarezza e di univocità. Perché la parola divina sia colta dagli uomini è necessaria una sorta di trasformazione. Si può ipotizzare l’esistenza di un linguaggio archetipico, primordiale, ad imitazione dell’essenza delle cose. È la lingua di Adamo per cui, data la perfezione di un’anima ancora pura, non intaccata da infermità, malattia o passione, il progenitore coglieva le impressioni immediate, afferrava il significato delle cose le cui nature potevano essere insieme enunciate e pensate. È la lingua perfetta originaria ed era forse comune ad uomini ed animali se nel giardino dell’Eden le parole del serpente erano comprese da Eva. Si passa dal linguaggio di Adamo, mimetico rispetto al linguaggio di Dio, alla lingua mosaica in cui interviene la traduzione del linguaggio divino in linguaggio umano. Questo, nonostante che, anche per Mosè sia detto che i nomi corrispondono alla descrizione delle cose. Un ulteriore passaggio avviene con la traduzione da una lingua in un’altra. Vi è un trascorrere tra comunicazioni di Dio che si volge all’interlocutore in maniera differente a seconda delle sue possibilità. Si tratta di “traduzione” di una lingua noetica che può esprimersi monadicamente – ed è il caso della comunicazione a Mosè – o assumere già la forma di nomi e verbi propria del linguaggio umano – ed è quanto avviene con i Settanta, traduttori al pari di Aronne.

Al fine di valutare la precocità e la sensibilità diagnostica della RM, unitamente alla eventuale ripetibilità degli eventi, abbiamo voluto sperimentare un nuovo modello di ischemia, che abbiamo definito «collaterale», poichè secondaria ad occlusione di due o più vasi pre - Willisiani. Per l'analogia con il circolo cerebrale umano sono stati studiati 12 conigli albini New Zealand (4–5 Kg) che venivano sottoposti ad anestesia generale. Per tutta la durata dell'esperimento si procedeva al monito-raggio della pressione arteriosa sistemica media, della frequenza cardiaca del pH e dell'emogas. L'ischemia veniva indotta con tecnica microchirurgica in 8 animali mediante chiusura di entrambe le carotidi comuni al collo (durata da un minimo di 2 h ad un massimo di 24 h) ed in altri 4 mediante chiusura dei vasi epiaor-tici a livello dell'arco aortico (durata da un minimo di 2 h ad un massimo di 4h). L'animale veniva sacrifi-cato senza previa riperfusione. Veniva quindi eseguito in tutti gli animali uno studio RM. In un caso (#12) il danno non è stato valutabile per la scarsa qualità iconografica. In otto casi sono state chiaramente iden-tificate incostanti e sfumate immagini lesionali lineari e/o puntiformi, prevalentemente monolaterali e a sede variabile. In analogia con quanto dimostrato in alcuni modelli di ischemia «terminale» studiati con RM, nel nostro gruppo di animali il danno ischemico «collaterale» è già evidente entro le prime due ore sia con chiusure di entrambe le carotidi che dell'arco aortico. La povertà dei reperti ottenuti, la aspecificità degli stessi, forse legata ad una vulnerabilità selettiva al-Pipossia di alcune strutture cerebrali mesiali e la scarsa ripetibilità degli stessi, scoraggia l'impiego del modello in oggetto per uno studio sistematico sperimentale dell'ischemia e quindi dell'efficacia di trials tera-peutici, sebbene la stessa negatività dello studio RM non possa escludere completamente un danno ischemico neuronale.

Descartes considera la medicina e la morale come due discipline accomunate dal conseguimento – ciascuna con mezzi e metodi propri – di un fine comune: la salute psicofisica sia come valore in sé, sia come indispensabile premessa per cogliere la felicità in questo mondo. Infatti, se l’uomo non è una “macchina animale”, ma un “composto umano” di anima e di corpo, allora bisogna riconoscere che la medicina e la morale mirano entrambe all’integrità di questo composé humain: l’una guardando al corpo unito alla mente, l’altra alla mente unita al corpo. Sulla scia degli studi condotti sulla machine animale, Descartes aveva tentato di elaborare una medicina anti-animista fondata sui princìpi della meccanica animale; ma, se è vero che tutto si spiega meccanicisticamente nell’organismo, è anche vero però che i princìpi meccanicistici non sono in grado di spiegare la totalità del composé humain, ossia dell’individuo composto di anima e corpo. Da qui la necessità di passare da una medicina basata sulla fisica pura ad una medicina basata sul composto sostanziale, e quindi dall’assoluto meccanicismo fisico al teleologismo psicofisico. Su queste premesse Descartes elabora un particolare concetto di natura su una duplice direttrice di pensiero: da un canto, egli si riallaccia a Ippocrate in merito alla natura intesa come medico delle malattie; dall’altro, apre la strada a certe suggestioni sulla medicina naturale, che invita l’uomo ad ascoltare la natura, quale fonte di rimedi ai suoi mali. ---------- Descartes considers medicine and ethics as two disciplines connected by the achievement – each with different means and methods – of a common goal: psychophysical health, both as a value in itself and as an essential condition to experience happiness in this world. Indeed, if man is not an “animal machine”, but a “human mixture” of soul and body, then it has to be recognised the medicine and ethics both target the integrity of this composé humain: one seeing the body linked to the mind, the other looking at the mind linker to the body. In line with the contribution on the machine animale, Descartes had attempted to develop an anti-animist medicine based on the principles of animal mechanics; however, if it is true that everything can be explained mechanistically in the body, it is also true that mechanistic principles cannot explain the entirety of the composé humain, i.e. the individual made of soul and body. Thus the necessity to move from a medicine purely based on physics to a medicine based on a substantial mixture; therefore, from the absolute physical mechanism to psychophysical teleology. On these conditions Descartes develops a specific concept of nature based on two ideas: on one hand, he looks at Hippocrates regarding the concept of nature seen as a healer of illness; on the other, opens the door to various intuitions of natural medicine that suggests that man should look at nature for remedies to his problems.

This study evaluated the ability of Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma koningii to improve the quality of tea dregs (TDs) through solid-state fermentation as well as the value of the fermented tea dregs (FTDs) produced for use as bio-feed additives. After fermentation, FTDs differed in color and structure. Fermentation with A. niger and T. koningii increased the contents of crude protein, crude fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber of TDs. Compared to the unfermented group, the contents of reducing sugar, total flavonoids, total polyphenols, and theasaponins were increased in A. niger FTDs, while in T. koningii FTDs caffeine was completely degraded, the theasaponins were lower, and the contents of reducing sugar and caffeine higher. Regarding free amino acids, A. niger FTDs had the highest content of total amino acids, total essential amino acids, total non-essential amino acids, total aromatic amino acids, total branched-chain amino acids, and total non-protein amino acids, and all types of essential amino acids, followed by T. koningii FTDs and the control TDs. Fungal fermentation had similar effects on the content of various hydrolytic amino acids as those on above free amino acids, and increased the content of bitter and umami components. The composition of essential amino acids of TDs or FTDs was similar to that of the standard model, except for sulfur-containing amino acids and isoleucine. Solid-state fermentation with A. niger and T. koningii effectively improved the nutritional value of TDs, increased the contents of functional substances, and improved the flavor of TDs. This study demonstrated a feasible approach to utilize TDs that not only increases animal feed resources, but also reduces the production of resource waste and pollution.

On September 29, 2021, Volodymyr Frankovych Stakhovskyi, a senior research fellow at the Laboratory of Biotechnology of Reproduction of the Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics named after M.V.Zubets of the National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine, turned 60 years old. He was born in the village Chupyra, Bila Tserkva district, Kyiv region. After studying at Ozeryansk Secondary School in 1978, Volodymyr Frankovych became a student of the veterinary faculty of the Bila Tserkva Agricultural Institute. In 1983, having obtained the specialty of veterinary medicine, he began working at the Lynovytsk Sugar Plant, working as a chief veterinarian. The first experience outlined the interests of the young specialist. Acting as a chief veterinarian, Volodymyr Frankovych, along with traditional biotechnological methods of increasing the level of reproduction of the cattle herds, has repeatedly been interested in the possibilities and prospects of introducing the method of embryo transplantation for accelerated reproduction of high-value animals. He began to master the latest technological developments and put them into production at the Pryluky Tribal Enterprise, where he worked since 1990 as Deputy Head of Embryo Transplantation. The main task of the project headed by him was to accelerate the creation of a herd of sires with a high genetic level of productivity for the Chernihiv RTE, which was successfully completed. As of 1998, 80% of the sires of this tribal association were transplants. Achieving high rates of obtaining and engraftment of embryos from record-breaking cows became possible due to perseverance and creative search for a specialist. This contributed to the further scientific path of the scientist, the practical implementation of which the future scientist began as a graduate student of the stationary form of education of the Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics of UAAS in 1995. In 1998, Volodymyr Frankovych was hired as a researcher at the Laboratory of Farm Animal Breeding in the Northern Regions of Ukraine of the Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics of UAAS. Within the walls of the Institute under the leadership of A.P.Krugliak, the scientist prepared and in 2004 successfully defended his dissertation "Biotechnological ways to increase the level of reproduction of cattle" in the specialty 06.02.01 – breeding and selection of animals (agricultural sciences). Since 2005 he has been working in the Laboratory of Cell Engineering (now the Laboratory of Biotechnology of Reproduction). Scientific research of Volodymyr Frankovych Stakhovskyi is aimed at the development and implementation of the modern methods of biotechnology of farm animal reproduction, in particular the in vivo production and non-surgical transplantation of cattle embryos. The main directions of scientific research are the development of ways to increase the level of reproduction of the cattle herd by improving the organization and technology of insemination of females and methods of embryo transplantation. Based on research, a method of effective use of bulls in production conditions was developed, which was approved by the Scientific and Technical Council of Ukrainian Tribal Enterprise (February 8, 1999) and included in the Instruction on the organization and technology of artificial insemination of cows and heifers (1999). Currently, scientific and practical activities of the scientist are aimed at assessing the level of reproduction of the herd, he constantly provides methodological and practical assistance in diagnosing gynecological diseases of cattle, insemination, infertility control to ensure productive and reproductive animal health in farms (TOV "AF Petrodolynske" of Odessa region, "Galax-Agro" of Zhytomyr region, TOV "Milk of the Fatherland" of Sumy region, TOV "Inter" and POSP "Zhatkivske" of Chernihiv region (http://iabg.org.ua/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=402: seminar03052018&catid=1&Itemid=30, http://iabg.org.ua/index.php?option=com_content&view =article&id=344:11042017&catid=1&Itemid=30)). Thus, in 2015 in the farm of TOV "AF Petrodolynske" together with scientists of the laboratory as a result of transplantation of 35 embryos of Angeln breed received pregnancy and birth of calves at the level of 23.0%. In 2015–2016, at the State Enterprise research farm "Khrystynivske" of the Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics named after M.V. Zubets of National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine they transplanted 25 cryopreserved embryos of Holstein breed (red-spotted coat) of German selection (SPERMEX GmbH), which were obtained from five donor cows using the semen of nine bulls. As a result of transplantation of 25 cryopreserved embryos of Holstein breed in SE RF "Khrystyniske of IABG named after M.V.Zubets NAAS" received a pregnancy rate of 20.0% and five transplant calves were born, among which four bulls (including two monozygotic twins) and one heifer. It was found that the highest genetic potential had embryos, the genetic parents of which were the donor cow Annabel 78492720 and the bull Paradox 297648, from which one bull № 4605 was obtained, which was a sire at PrAT "Uman Tribal Enterprise" for the selection process. Also, after the transplantation of embryos from the cow Dagmar 13341914 and the bull Avanti 297505, two monozygotic twin bulls were born (№№ 4606, 4607), which are currently also located and used at PrAT "Uman Tribal Enterprise". Over the past three years, with the scientific support of Volodymyr Frankovych, the laboratory for transplantation of embryos of cattle on the basis SE RF IRGT "Khrystyniske of IABG named after M.V.Zubets NAAS" was established (http://iabg.org.ua/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id= 460:kovtun-060519&catid=1&Itemid=30, http://iabg.org.ua/index.php?option=com_content&view =article&id=564:14092021&catid=1&Itemid=30). The functioning of this laboratory as a training and demonstration site of NAAS for embryo transplantation has been ensured. They obtained 55 embryos, transplanted 27 ones to 19 recipient heifers, pregnancy and birth of calves - 50.0%. Also in 2019 on the basis of TOV "Milk of the Fatherland" (Sumy region) the creation of such a laboratory under the concluded economic contract was started (http://iabg.org.ua/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=481:kovtun-11019&catid= 1&Itemid=30). In the experimental farms of the system of National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine V. F. Stakhovskyi performs a set of visual-clinical-reflexological methods of assessment and correction of sexual function of heifers to increase the efficiency of embryo transplantation and artificial insemination. He provides recommendations on ethological and morphological features of sexual arousal in cows and heifers unsuitable for embryo transplantation and the feasibility of their use for artificial insemination. Such approaches are part of the task of adjusting the breeding system, the use of breeds of foreign selection, obtaining purebred bulls (Resolution of the Presidium of NAAS from 30.06.15, protocol № 7). The main research results are used in the farms of various forms of ownership ("Breeder" of Pryluky district of Chernihiv region, Pryluky and Chernihiv regional tribal enterprises, PrAT "Agro-Soiuz", PAT "Poltavaplemservice"). The results of V. F. Stakhovsky's scientific research are presented in the 30 scientific works, including three methodical recommendations and a patent for a utility model.

Abstract The advent of commercially viable synthetic amino acids (AA) and least cost formulation (LCF) have fundamentally changed swine and poultry diets over the past 40 years. Amino acids can be produced by chemical synthesis, hydrolysis of intact proteins and fermentation. Chemical synthesis of AA was first reported by Strecker (1850). Discovery of glutamate as the basis of Umami taste category (1907) spurred commercial AA production by hydrolysis. The discovery of commercially viable fermentative production of glutamate, by Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Co. (1957), revolutionized AA production. Their parallel discovery of lysine (Lys) production, using a natural C. glutmanicum mutant subsequently followed. This led to further screening for bacterial mutants for threonine (Thr, 1961), tryptophan (Trp, 1972), valine (Val, 1959) and isoleucine (Ile, 1972). The next milestone occurred with development of the first main-frame LCF programs (1960s). The first commercial application of dietary AA involved methionine (Met) for poultry, followed closely by Lys in swine. Use of other synthetic AA was cost-prohibitive, but they served as research tools. The next revolution involved recombinant DNA technology (1980s), which dramatically increased AA yield and reduced production cost. Simultaneously, development of PC based LCF enabled cost effective formulation. Subsequently, growth-derived AA ratio’s emerged from the labs of Fuller (1989) and Baker (1992). Patent expirations in the late 1980s led to new companies that produced rapid advances in fermentation methods, with new recombinant strains. Production cost declined further for Lys (1988), and production efficiencies allowed Thr (1995) and Trp (2000) to enter commercial diets. Advances in fermentation technology have enabled production of all ten essential AA. Extensive AA displacement of protein supplements has led to an ever-expanding global tonnage of AA for food and pet animals. With routine addition of 4–6 AA in swine diets, we question whether non-essential AA nitrogen may emerge as limiting (essential).

Gli scienziati del Regno Unito stanno cercando di ottenere il permesso per creare ibridi umano-animale per mezzo della clonazione. La ragione di ciò risiede nel fatto che c’è una scarsità di ovocellule umane per creare embrioni al fine della ricerca sulle cellule staminali umane embrionali. L’idea è quella di usare ovuli di coniglio o di mucca anziché quelli umani per clonare embrioni che sarebbero al 99% umani e all’1% animali. Il nucleo di un uovo animale verrebbe rimosso per essere sostituito da un nucleo di cellula umana. Questi progetti sollevano domande morali e metafisiche. Essi, infatti, pongono la domanda su ciò che significa essere umano e la questione sulla legittimità morale di rimuovere il “Rubicone” che separa le creature umane dagli (altri) animali. Questo articolo discute lo status degli ibridi umano-animale creati attraverso la clonazione, usando ovociti animali al posto di quelli umani per creare embrioni clonati quasi-umani. In esso si tratta anche dello status di embrioni – e di creature più sviluppate – i cui corpi sono composti di cellule, o tessuti, di origine umana ed animale. Non è la prima volta che le nuove tecnologie riproduttive ci pongono di fronte a nuove scelte. La scienza avanza velocemente. Ha un impeto tutto suo. Ma possiamo permetterci di permettere che qualsiasi cosa che può essere fatta sia fatta? Certamente, la ragione e il rispetto per l’essere umano devono prevalere, affinché non creiamo un mondo in cui alcuni esseri umani saranno compromessi biologicamente e meno umani degli altri. ---------- Scientists in the UK are seeking to obtain permission to create humananimal hybrids by means of cloning. This is because there is a shortage of human eggs to create embryos for human embryonic stem-cell research. The idea is to use rabbit or cow eggs instead of human eggs to clone embryos that would be 99% human and 1% animal. The nucleus of an animal egg would be removed and replaced by a human cell nucleus. These projects raise both moral and metaphysical questions. They raise the question of what it means to be human. And they raise the question of whether it is morally legitimate to remove the Rubicon that separates humans from (other) animals. This paper discusses the status of human-animal hybrids created by cloning, using animal eggs instead of human eggs to create near-human cloned embryos. It also discusses the status of embryos--and more mature creatures--whose bodies are composed of cells, or tissues, of both human and animal origin. Not for the first time new reproductive technologies face us with new choices. Science is moving fast. It has a momentum of its own. But can we afford to allow anything that can be done to be done? Surely, reason and respect for the human being must prevail, lest we create a world in which some humans will be biologically compromised and less human than the rest.

Il liberalismo, fin dalle sue origini, si basa sul riconoscimento e sul rispetto di tre diritti fondamentali: vita, proprietà e libertà —uno dei fondatori di questa dottrina politica fu il filosofo inglese John Locke (1632-1704)—. Per il liberalismo classico la libertà e la proprietà sono strettamente correlate; i liberali e, in seguito, i libertari, si sono spinti oltre affermando che la libertà e la proprietà sono la stessa cosa. Anche il diritto alla vita è stato riformulato nei termini di proprietà di sé, cioè ognuno è proprietario del proprio corpo e del proprio intelletto, insomma della propria vita. I tre diritti fondamentali —inalienabili— che stanno alla base di ogni altro diritto sono quindi riconducibili al diritto di proprietà. Nel giustificare questo diritto alcuni autori liberali e libertari —come per esempio Murray N. Rothbard (1926-1995)— si sono appoggiati al giusnaturalismo, cioè a una dottrina filosofico-giuridica che si basa sul riconoscimento dell’esistenza di un diritto naturale e razionale universalmente valido, considerato il fondamento di ogni diritto civile. In questo lavoro cercheremo di giustificare il concetto di proprietà abbandonando la sua fondazione giusnaturalistica, che molti contestano per le sue pretese universalistiche —non tutti, infatti, sono disposti a riconoscere l’universalismo dei diritti naturali e l’aura di «sacralità» e «misticismo» che sembrano emanare— sforzandoci di dare un fondamento razionale al rispetto che gli individui tendono ad avere nei confronti dei diritti di proprietà. Per fare ciò utilizzeremo la branca della teoria della scelta razionale che si occupa delle decisioni interattive o strategiche: la teoria dei giochi. In questo passo mostreremo, quindi, servendoci dei principi della teoria evoluzionistica dei giochi (TEG),1 come il concetto di proprietà privata non sia arbitrario, ma sia nato e si sia evoluto per la sua efficienza nel dirimere contese, sia nel mondo animale che tra gli esseri umani. Non sono solo gli esseri umani, infatti, a riconoscere e rispettare la proprietà altrui; anche la maggior parte degli animali distinguono tra lo stato di proprietario e quello di intruso e si comportano in modo diverso qualora si trovino nel primo o nel secondo. Nel primo paragrafo forniremo una breve introduzione ai concetti fondamentali della teoria evoluzionistica dei giochi; nel secondo definiremo il concetto di proprietà privata. Nel terzo considereremo, sulle tracce di David Friedman e degli autori della scuola «austriaca»,2 la funzione sociale della proprietà privata, per passare poi, nel quarto paragrafo, all’analisi della nascita e dell’evoluzione della proprietà, analisi che verrà condotta sulla base della TEG.

Nel 2006, Takahashi e Yamanaka hanno dimostrato, per la prima volta, che i fibroblasti di topo possono essere riprogrammati ad uno stato simile a quello di cellule staminali embrionali con l’introduzione di una combinazione di quattro fattori di trascrizione. Queste cellule sono state chiamate “cellule staminali pluripotenti indotte” o “cellule iPS”. A differenza delle cellule staminali embrionali, l’uso di cellule iPS non solleva questioni etiche. In questo articolo, si fa riferimento in particolare a: 1. esperimenti preclinici condotti fino ad oggi utilizzando cellule iPS, 2. la creazione di linee cellulari a partire da cellule iPS ottenute da cellule adulte di pazienti affetti da varie malattie e 3. l’ottenimento di animali clonati da cellule iPS. Esperimenti preclinici sono stati condotti con l’anemia falciforme e modelli di topi affetti da emofilia. Nel gennaio 2009, Nelson et al. hanno ampliato le indicazioni terapeutiche delle cellule umane iPS, fornendo la prima prova per la riparazione di disturbi cardiaci. Diverse linee di cellule sono state ottenute da cellule umane iPS. Fino ad ora sono stato ottenuto linee di cellule in pazienti con sclerosi laterale amiotrofica, l’immunodeficienza combinata grave da deficit di adenosina deaminasi, la sindrome di Shwachman-Bodian-Diamond, la malattia di Gaucher di tipo III, la distrofia muscolare di Duchenne e Becker, il morbo di Parkinson, la corea di Huntington, il diabete mellito di tipo 1, la sindrome di Down (trisomia 21) e la malattia di Lesch-Nyhan, il morbo di Parkinson idiopatica, l’atrofia muscolare spinale, l’anemia di Fanconi, le malattie mieloproliferative, il diabete di tipo 1. Ottenere animali vivi da cellule iPS. In base alle nostre conoscenze, Kang et al. sono stati i primi a dimostrare che le cellule iPS possono autonomamente generare topi a termine tramite la complementazione della blastocisti tetraploide. Dopo gli esperimenti di Kang anche Boland et al. hanno prodotto 31 topi vivi da 37 linee di cellule iPS generate dai fibroblasti della pelle. L’uso di cellule di IPS per impedire l’uso di cellule staminali embrionali non può avere altro che una valutazione positiva da un punto di vista etico. Tuttavia, il loro utilizzo per produrre esseri umani clonati, se questo diventasse tecnicamente realizzabile, non sarebbe eticamente ammissibile. ---------- In 2006, Takahashi and Yamanaka demonstrated, for the first time, that mouse fibroblasts can be reprogrammed into an embryonic stem cell-like state by introducing combinations of four transcription factors. These cells were termed “induced pluripotent stem cells” or “iPS cells”. Unlike embryonic stem cells, the use of iPS cells has no ethical difficulty. In this article, we are going to refer specifically to: 1. preclinical experiments conducted to date using iPS cells; 2. the creation of cell lines from iPS cells obtained from the adult cells of patients with different diseases; and 3. the obtaining of cloned animals from iPS cells. Preclinical experiments have been conducted with sickle cell anaemia and haemophilic mice models. In January 2009, Nelson et al. expanded the therapeutic indications of human iPS cells by providing the first evidence for repair of heart disorders. Different disease cell lines obtained from human iPS cells. Up until now it has been obtained cell lines in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, adenosine deaminase deficiency-related severe combined immunodeficiency, Shwachman-Bodian-Diamond syndrome, Gaucher disease type III, Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, juvenile onset, type 1 diabetes mellitus, Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21) and the carrier state of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, spinal muscular atrophy, Fanconi anaemia, myeloproliferative disorders, type 1 diabetes. Obtaining live animals from iPS cells. To our knowledge, Kang et al. were the first to demonstrate that iPS cells can autonomously generate fullterm mice via tetraploid blastocyst complementation. After Kang’s experiments also Boland et al. produced 31 live mice from 37 iPS cell lines generated from skin fibroblasts. The use of iPS cells to prevent the use of embryonic stem cells cannot have anything other than a positive ethical evaluation. However, using them to produce cloned human beings, if this becomes technically feasible, would not be ethically admissible.

Otto anni dopo l'inizio della ricerca sulle cellule staminali umane, sembra essere arrivato il momento di considerare oggettivamente quale possa essere il futuro di tale ricerca, e quali siano i problemi etici collegati. In questo articolo sono considerate le cellule staminali embrionali (ES) a livello tecnico e clinico. L'interesse particolare di tali cellule risiede nella loro capacità di continua proliferazione indifferenziata e di stabile sviluppo potenziale in un’ampia tipologia di cellule, anche dopo una coltura prolungata. Numerosi lavori mostrano, in particolare, che le cellule ES possono essere differenziate in neuroni e glia ed integrarsi nel tessuto neurale in animali riceventi. La differenziazione verso neuroni dopaminergici è stata ottenuta per le cellule staminali embrionali umane (hES) con promesse per il trattamento clinico della malattia di Parkinson. Le cellule ES hanno anche dimostrato la capacità di facilitare il recupero del danno del midollo spinale, nel topo. L'innesto di cellule ES in ratti con infarto miocardico provoca un miglioramento a lungo termine della funzione del cuore ed aumenta la percentuale di sopravvivenza. Tuttavia, ci sono molti ostacoli che devono essere superati prima di pensare ad un uso clinico di tali cellule. Il problema forse più complesso è di poter dirigere in modo efficiente e riproducibile la differenziazione delle cellule ES attraverso percorsi specifici. In secondo luogo, il rischio di difetti o instabilità epigenetiche nelle cellule ES è reale, tenendo conto della loro origine da embrioni ottenuti da fecondazione in vitro e del processo di coltura di tali cellule, una volta individuate. Terzo, le cellule ES allo stato indifferenziato sono cancerogeniche, il che, per un uso clinico, rende necessaria la loro differenziazione e l’attenta eliminazione di cellule ES rimaste indifferenziate. Infine, l'uso clinico delle cellule ES richiede la soluzione del problema immunologico della compatibilità HLA con il ricevente. A tale scopo sono state proposte varie soluzioni, per prima il trasferimento nucleare, detto anche “clonazione terapeutica”. Allo stato attuale essa non è applicabile ai primati ed alla specie umana. Inoltre sarebbe necessaria una quantità enorme ed irrealistica di ovociti umani. Ci si orienta oggi, anche per motivi etici, verso soluzioni "alternative" come il trasferimento nucleare modificato, nel quale si producono embrioni deficitari incapaci di svilupparsi correttamente, la partenogenesi, la raccolta di blastomeri in occasione della diagnosi preimpiantatoria, o la riprogrammazione delle cellule staminali somatiche. Ad oggi, lo studio delle cellule staminali embrionali rappresenta una promettente chiave per futuri progressi in ambito biologico (biologia dello sviluppo, biologia cellulare e biologia molecolare), nella misura in cui permette di capire meglio i processi ed i meccanismi della differenziazione e della rigenerazione dei tessuti. ---------- Eight years after the onset of the investigation on embryonic stem cells (ESCs), it seems that time has come to consider objectively what the future of such research can be, and what are the ethical issues that are involved. In this first part ESCs are considered at the technical and clinical level. The particular interest of such cells resides in their ability for endless undifferentiated proliferation and for potential development in a large array of various types of cells, even after prolonged culture. A large amount of studies show in particular that ESCs can differentiate in neurons and glia and integrate in the neural tissue of recipient animals. The promotion of such differentiation toward dopaminergic neurons has been obtained for human embryonic stem cells (hESCS), which is promising for possible future clinical application to the treatment of Parkinson's disease. The ESCs have also demonstrated their ability to facilitate the recovery of damaged spinal cord in mice. The graft of ESCs in the hearts of rats with myocardial infarction leads to an improvement of heart function and increases survival. Nevertheless, there are many obstacles that must be overcome before thinking to a clinical use of such cells. The problem perhaps more complex is to be able to direct in an efficient and reproducible way the differentiation of the ESCs in culture. Second, the risk of epigenetic defects or instability with ESCs is real, keeping in mind their origin from embryos created by in vitro fertilization, and the fact that they are kept proliferating in culture for a long period of time, once individualized. Third, ESCs in the undifferentiated state generate cancers when injected in tissues, and that makes necessary, for a clinical use, to start their differentiation in vitro and then to eliminate carefully from the end product these ESCs that are still undifferentiated. Finally, the clinical use of ESCs supposes resolved the immunological problem of their HLA compatibility with the patient who will receive them. Various solutions have been proposed for resolving this last problem, with, in first line, nuclear transfer, the so called "therapeutic cloning." Up to now this nuclear transfer has not been successful in primates and humans. Moreover, it would require the availability of unrealistically large amounts of human ovocytes. Today, also for ethical reasons, the tendency is to look after "alternative solutions" such as "altered nuclear transfer", in which are created disabled embryos, unable to develop correctly, parthenogenesis, the harvest of human blastomeres in the course of preimplantation diagnosis or the reprogramming of human somatic stem cells to an "embryonic state". At present time, the study of ESCs represents a promising key to progresses in the knowledge of cellular and molecular aspects of development, healing and tissue regeneration. These progresses may in turn lead to clinical applications, especially in the field of degenerative diseases and for the recovery of damaged tissues and organs.

I giocattoli con tratti fisici non antropomorfizzati in letteratura, specie quando rivolta a un pubblico infantile, si rivelano come un utile strumento per riflettere sulla distinzione tra ‘umano’ e ‘non umano’. Il corpo artificiale del giocattolo e la caratterizzazione animale incarnano, infatti, in modo evidente il concetto di alterità rispetto all’idea stereotipica di umanità. Ispirati dalle vicende narrate, i giovani lettori possono trarre degli essenziali insegnamenti, quali le capacità di empatia e di resilienza ai traumi di piccola o grande entità che ciascuno può incontrare nel corso della vita. L’introduzione critica a queste riflessioni è completata dall’analisi letteraria circa la caratterizzazione dei giocattoli in alcuni testi per l’infanzia: il giocattolo-coniglio in The Velveteen Rabbit (1922) di Margery Williams, i giocattoli-topi in The Mouse and His Child (1967) di Russell Hoban e il giocattolo-orso in Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) di A. A. Milne.

AbstractThe cryptophyte Rhodomonas salina is widely used in aquaculture due to its high nutritional profile. This study aims to investigate the effect of salinity and pH on the growth, phycoerythrin concentrations, and concentrations of non-volatile umami taste active compounds of R. salina, using a design of experiment approach. Rhodomonas salina was cultivated in a flat-panel photobioreactor in turbidostat mode in a range of salinity (20–40 ‰) and pH (6.5–8.5). The strain was able to grow steadily under all conditions, but the optimal productivity of 1.17 g dry weight L−1 day−1 was observed in salinity 30 ‰ and pH 7.5. The phycoerythrin concentration was inversely related to productivity, presenting higher values in conditions that were not optimal for the growth of R. salina, 7% of dry weight at salinity 40 ‰, and pH 8.5. The identification of the umami taste of R. salina was based on the synergistic effect of umami compounds 5′-nucleotides (adenosine 5′-monophosphate, guanosine 5′-monophosphate, inosine 5′-monophosphate) and free amino acids (glutamic and aspartic acids), using the equivalent umami concentration (EUC). The results indicated that an increase in pH induces the accumulation of 5′-nucleotides, resulting in an EUC of 234 mg MSG g−1 at a salinity of 40 and pH 8.5. The EUC values that were observed in R. salina were higher compared to other aquatic animals, a fact that makes R. salina promising for further research and application in the food and feed sectors.

Questa analisi nasce con la volontà di indagare alcuni nuclei filosofici espressi dalla poetica di Anna Maria Ortese. Nel caso della scrittura ortesiana, infatti, si dovrà parlare di un ragionamento di carattere etico, politico e teologico che in nessun caso prescinde dalla produzione letteraria, ma al contrario nasce e si sviluppa proprio in seno alla fiction. Dunque si è scelto di leggere Le Piccole Persone, raccolta di lettere, articoli e piccoli saggi, in stretta connessione con esempi di narrativa. A tale proposito, si è individuato ne L’Infanta Sepolta, opera meno conosciuta rispetto ai romanzi, un interessante case study capace di offrire un punto di vista privilegiato sulla poetica dell’autrice, di cui la novella rende manifesti alcuni tratti salienti; fra tutti, un ricorso al meraviglioso, che si fa portatore di contenuti simbolici e semantici poiché luogo di espressione di un’alterità che conserva la propria intraducibilità. Il lavoro vuole quindi dimostrare che la cifra irriducibile del meraviglioso ortesiano incarna un pensiero critico profondamente complesso, il quale mostra affinità con la riflessione delle filosofe e teologhe novecentesche (Simone Weil, Edith Stein), ma anche con la tradizione mistica (soprattutto Teresa d’Avila). Attraverso una poetica così organizzata, l’autrice riesce a sondare con potenza e originalità le principali questioni del Novecento: il male, la storia, la cosificazione, lo sfruttamento, i rapporti fra umano e non umano, la distruzione dell’altro.

Nel presente articolo viene affrontato il tema della qualità della vita. Dopo una breve ricostruzione dell’origine di questa espressione e un esame dei contesti in cui più frequentemente essa ricorre, viene presentato l’Approccio che Amartya Sen e Martha Nussbaum hanno elaborato e su cui continuano a lavorare per misurare la qualità della vita in differenti nazioni: l’approccio delle Capacità. In particolare viene presentata l’elaborazione di Martha Nussbaum con la sua lista delle capacità. Sulla base della sua radice aristotelica, questa lista lascia intravedere un’immagine dell’essere umano come un animale razionale fragile e dipendente, in più momenti della sua vita bisognoso di cure. Dunque per quanto l’autonomia sia considerata una meta significativa da raggiungere e proteggere, essa non diventa l’unico fondamento della dignità dell’uomo. Quest’idea, insieme al tema della deformazione dei desideri e delle aspettative in situazioni di difficoltà, offre interessanti spunti alla riflessione bioetica, configurando l’esigenza di qualità della vita come strettamente legata al riconoscimento del suo intrinseco valore e della sua sacralità. ---------- In this article the author deals with the “Quality of Life” issue. After a brief history of the origin of this expression and an exam of the main contexts in which it is used, the approach that Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum have been shaping, in order to mesure the Quality of Life in different nations - the Capabilities Approach -, is presented. In particular the author focuses on Nussbaum’s account and on her list of capabilities. On the basis of its Aristotelian root, the list shows an idea of human being as a vulnerable and dependent rational animal - so that he/she needs care, in different moments of his/her life. Hence, autonomy is recognized as a valuable thing to pursue and preserve, but it is not considered as the only ground of human dignity. This issue, with the one of the deformation of preferences and expectations due to difficult situations, gives precious suggestions to bioethics. Namely, the istance of the “Quality of Life” is stressed as closely linked with the recognition of its intrinsic value and sacredness.

Da angolature prospettiche diverse, letteraria, poetica, cinematografica, i corpora teorici di Jurij Lotman tracciano una strada comune, rivolta fin dall’inizio allo studio di quei linguaggi che caratterizzano l’essere umano come animale semiotico, ovvero i testi artistici capaci di raffigurazione [izobraženie]. Si tratta della caratterizzazione specifica di un testo che vuole assurgere a testo artistico, modellato in senso semiotico sulla base della funzione che esso svolge in una cultura e del riconoscimento che questa gli assegna come appartenete ad un genere testuale. L’approccio lotmaniano di tipo “culturologico” amplia e specifica la nozione di testo che da struttura sincronica chiusa assurge a “testo culturale” con la sua specifica funzione creativa/estetica/poetica, con il suo valore etico e sociale, con i suoi legami con la realtà nella sua dimensione cronotopica. Tali studi hanno assegnato una speciale centralità ai testi artistici, ai “generi di discorso secondari” (qui nell’accezione bachtiniana riferita ai generi letterari). Ciò ha reso possibile, di riflesso, l’assunzione del testo artistico e dei suoi specifici linguaggi quale modello e strumento essenziali per lo studio/comprensione della Cultura, per sua natura dinamica e eterogenea, tanto da non lasciarsi facilmente descrivere, da non rendersi riducibile a modelli caratterizzati dalla codificazione-decodificazione, a farsi uniformare/unificare, situare dentro un sistema (quale la langue), presentandosi invece, come un insieme di pratiche sociali. Ciò permette di riconoscere/ristabilire l’importanza vitale che ha, per il rinnovamento del “reale”, la visione artistica con le sue rifrazioni estetiche intersemiotiche. E ciò sia come risultato dell’interrelazione tra scrittura e immagini del mondo, sia anche tramite una particolare lente meta-semiosica, con l’assumersi la responsabilità del mantenimento della vita stessa dei segni in una prospettiva semioetica, dimostrandoci come Lotman possa essere considerato attualmente tra gli autori in campo semiotico più creativi e anche specificamente “modellizzatori”, costruttori, innovatori nei confronti del “reale”.

Introduzione: Secondo i CDC americani il bioterrorismo viene definito come “rilascio di virus, batteri e altri agenti allo scopo di causare malattie o morte nella popolazione, ma anche animali e piante”. Fin dall’antichità si riconobbe il potenziale degli agenti biologici come arma, ma solo con le scoperte di Kock e Pasteur del XIX secolo si poté parlare più propriamente di “guerra batteriologica”. Lo scopo del presente lavoro è stato quello di studiare e confrontare tutte le più moderne evidenze scientifiche in materia di bioterrorismo, per valutare lo stato dell’arte in materia e fornire uno strumento utile per la prevenzione e gestione di una possibile minaccia biologica. Metodologia: Lo studio è stato condotto ricercando la letteratura scientifica attraverso la banca dati PUBMED. Si è basata sull’utilizzo di differenti stringhe di ricerca utilizzando keywords che potessero ben centrare l’argomento di interesse. A ciò è stata aggiunta anche la consultazione dei database dei Centers For Disease Control and Prevention che si focalizzassero sull’argomento. Risultati: Il caso delle “lettere all’antrace” ha dimostrato come il bioterrorismo rimane ancora un pericolo per tutta la comunità, e deve essere preso seriamente in considerazione a livello individuale e politico. Il requisito fondamentale per un attacco biologico è innanzitutto la disponibilità dell’agente patogeno o di tossine, in quantità sufficiente a colpire l’organismo umano e causare malattia. I terroristi tuttavia non necessitano, per i loro scopi, di agenti di distruzione di massa e ciò apre loro un più ampio schieramento di possibilità, preferendo agenti prontamente disponibili, prima fra tutte la tossina del ricino. Necessaria è pertanto una preparazione adeguata per microbiologi clinici e personale sanitario volta a identificare e trattare tempestivamente gli agenti biologici implicati, e il mantenimento di scorte di emergenza di farmaci. Conclusioni: Sebbene il bioterrorismo rappresenti una forma marginale, se confrontato con forme tradizionali di terrorismo con armi ed esplosivi, è fondamentale che la Sanità Pubblica risponda in modo adeguato a questa potenziale minaccia: un pronto riconoscimento dell’evento è il passo fondamentale per assicurare il contenimento dell’infezione del numero delle vittime.

ObjectivesIt has been well established that cooking method, marbling level, and cooked internal temperature endpoint affect beef flavor, the most important driver of consumer acceptance. However, beef cuts respond differently to cooking method and cooked internal temperature endpoint based on their inherent chemical characteristics.Materials and MethodsTreatments were: beef cuts (inside round, bottom round, and eye of round); USDA beef quality grade (upper two-thirds Choice and Select); cooking methods (pan grill, stir fry, stew no marinade, stew marinade, and roast); and internal cook temperature endpoints (58, 70, and 80°C). The pan grill cook method included 0.25 and 0.75 in samples from each muscle type. The stir fry cook method treatment was limited to 0.25 in cuts, which were cut into 1.00 in strips prior to cooking. The marinated and non-marinated stew cook method treatments included 0.25 and 0.75 in samples from each muscle. These samples were then cut into 0.25 × 1.00 × 1.00 in and 0.75 × 1.00 × 1.00 in samples prior to cooking. Stew marinated samples were marinated with 118 mL water, 90 mL lemon juice, 30 mL canola oil, 5 mL salt, and 2.5 mL pepper. Two lb roasts were cut from bottom round and eye of round subprimals and inside round subprimals were cut into 2.00 in roasts prior to cooking. An expert descriptive beef flavor and texture attribute panel evaluated each sample using 16-point scales for flavor and texture attributes. Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) were determined. The trained panel results and WBSF values were analyzed using Proc Means and Proc GLMMIX procedures of SAS (version 9.4, SAS Institute, Cary, NC) with a predetermined α of 5%.ResultsQuality grade impacted flavor for the inside round (P < 0.05). USDA quality grade had minimal effect on tenderness as expected, as beef round cuts are highly active muscles in the animal and contain considerable amounts of connective tissue. Cooking method and internal cook temperature endpoint, or cooking time for the stewing cooking treatment, impacted beef flavor to a greater extent (P < 0.05). When pan fried, thicker cuts resulted in more positive flavor attributes. For cuts that were roasted, cooking to higher internal temperatures resulted in higher levels of beef identity, roasted, and umami flavors and less serumy/bloody flavors, as well as decreased tenderness (P < 0.0001), especially in inside round roasts. Marinated round cuts were more tender than their non-marinated counterparts (P < 0.0001). Cuts that were thinner and had longer cooking times were more tender but had more off-flavor attributes (P < 0.05).ConclusionCut thickness, cooking method, length of cooking or internal cook temperature endpoint, and presence of marinade affected flavor and texture of bottom round, eye of round, and inside round cuts. This data will be useful in providing consumer and food service personnel recommendation on how to maximize the flavor and texture of beef round cuts.

The expression Grossesco Crimine, making the Latin verb grossescere its own, literally means "Accresco nel Crimine" (Growing in Crime) and wants to suggest that concept of brutality of man who, if dominated by criminal inclinations, often grotesque and vulgar, sees that evil instinct increase, almost animal-like, that feeds its own instincts in a foolish way. We are therefore confronted with the theme of evil, too often, for convenience, manipulated. But always and in any case opposed to the concept of good. And if evil is a sad prerogative of man, good represents its essence, hope and desire: and to discuss evil one must inevitably speak of the sense of pleasure, understood not only as physical pleasure, but also psychological and mental. Pleasure is what nourishes the desire of man and his instinctive impulses; it is something that one ardently wants to replicate and increase. Where limiting (or subtracting) the experiences that determine pleasure in one's life causes pain and flows into the abstraction of the concept of evil. RiassuntoIl tema del male, inteso come una prerogativa dell’essere umano, viene analizzato attraverso la tendenza a commettere atti criminali sulla base di impulsi irrefrenabili, non soltanto in un contesto in cui lo sviluppo psichico risulta deviato da fenomeni destrutturanti ma anche e, soprattutto, nei contesti in cui l’ego malevolo dell’uomo accresce in maniera proporzionale alla natura dei cimini commessi. L’utilizzo della locuzione “grossesco crimine” vuole riferirsi, appunto, al male quale espressione di una violenza scaturita da situazioni di intolleranza verso le proprie frustrazioni che, unita ad una totale mancanza di empatia o di sensibilità nei confronti dei sentimenti altrui, può alimentare una pulsione naturale che trova sfogo nell’acting out dell’azione criminale. E i tentativi delle scienze filosofiche appaiono chiari nel ricondurre il tema del male nel più ampio concetto di crisi di senso, da intendersi come vera e propria crisi della ragione, comportando, pertanto, una concreta compromissione della capacità di definire la realtà in maniera critica ed obiettiva. L’astrazione del male nella filosofia, e delle sue proiezioni nella società, si concretizza nel male dell’uomo sull’uomo: dai delitti di istigazione al suicidio ove il male si esplicita attraverso quelle attitudini idonee a rafforzare un proposito autolesivo, alle condotte che rappresentano il preludio di un atto suicidario o che ne rappresentano un tentativo non compiuto e che sono ricomprese, in letteratura, nel concetto di parasuicidio. ResumenEl tema del mal, entendido como prerogativa del ser humano, se analiza a través de la tendencia a cometer actos criminales sobre la base de impulsos irrefrenables, no solamente en un ámbito en el cual el desarrollo psíquico resulta desviado por fenómenos desestructurantes pero también, y sobre todo, en contextos en los cuales el ego malévolo del hombre aumenta en manera proporcional al carácter de los crimines cometidos. La utilización de la locución “grossesco crimine” hace referencia al mal cual expresión de una violencia surgida de situaciones de intolerancia hacia las propias frustraciones que, unida a una total falta de empatía o de sensibilidad respecto a los sentimientos ajenos, puede alimentar una pulsión natural que encuentra desahogo en el acting out de la acción criminal. Los intentos de las ciencias filosóficas aparecen claros en reconducir el tema del mal en el más amplio concepto de crisis de sentido, de entenderse como autentica crisis de la razón, comportando, por tanto, una concreta alteración de la capacidad de definir la realidad de modo crítico y objetivo. La abstracción del mal en filosofía, y de sus proyecciones en la sociedad, se concretiza en el mal del hombre: desde los delitos de instigación al suicidio en los cuales el mal se expresa a través de aquellos comportamientos aptos para reforzar una intención autolesiva, a las conductas que señalan el preludio de un acto suicida o del cual representan un tentativo no cumplido y que son incluidas, en literatura, en el concepto de parasuicidio.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) has, at the request of the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet; NFSA), assessed the risk of "other substances" in food supplements and energy drinks sold in Norway. VKM has assessed the risk of doses given by the NFSA. These risk assessments will provide the NFSA with the scientific basis for regulating the addition of “other substances” to food supplements and other foods. "Other substances" are described in the food supplement directive 2002/46/EC as substances other than vitamins or minerals that have a nutritional or physiological effect. They are added mainly to food supplements, but also to energy drinks and other foods. VKM has not in this series of risk assessments of "other substances" evaluated any claimed beneficial effects from these substances, only possible adverse effects. The present report is limited to the use of L-glutamine and L-glutamic acid in food supplements. Risks related to glutamine and glutamic acid added to food and drinks, protein hydrolysates or high dietary protein intake are outside the scope of the opinion. The report is based on previous risk assessments of glutamine and glutamic acid and scientific papers retrieved from a comprehensive literature search. L-glutamine is considered a non-essential amino acid in humans. In addition to its role in protein synthesis and the handling by the body of ammonia (via urea cycle), L-glutamine participates in other complex metabolic pathways e.g. in the central nervous system, immune system, and insulin secretion. L-glutamine is deaminated by glutaminase to form glutamic acid. L-glutamine is available from all protein-containing foods. High-protein foods contain the most (e.g. meat, fish, eggs and dairy products). L-glutamic acid is a non-essential amino acid. At physiological conditions its side chain is fully ionised, i.e. it exists in the form of glutamate. In addition to its role as substrate in protein synthesis, glutamic acid has important metabolic roles as a source of α-ketoglutarate in the citric acid cycle and in the handling by the body of ammonia (via urea cycle). Glutamic acid is also a major neurotransmitter. In the unbound form only, glutamic acid is responsible for umami, one of the five basic tastes sensed by humans. Glutamic acid is used as a flavour enhancer in the form of its salt monosodium glutamate. All meats, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products are excellent sources of glutamic acid. Some protein-rich plant foods also serve as sources, e.g. wheat protein contains 30% to 35% glutamic acid. According to information from the NFSA, L-glutamine and glutamic acid are ingredients in food supplements sold in Norway. The NFSA has requested a risk assessment of the following doses of L-glutamine in food supplements: 3500 mg/day, 5000 mg/day, 8000 mg/day, 10000 mg/day, 12000 mg/day, 15000 mg/day, and 16500 mg/day, and the following doses of glutamic acid: 1000 mg/day, 2000 mg/day, 3000 mg/day, 4000 mg/day, 5000 mg/day, and 5500 mg/day. Dietary intake in Norway is not known, but data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) 1988-1994 in the USA suggest a mean dietary intake of about 15 g glutamic acid per day. In phase 1 of the present evaluation of "other substances", previous reports that assessed the safety of L-glutamine or L-glutamic acid supplementation in humans were identified. For the present report, a systematic literature search was performed to retrieve human studies published in the period 2011-2015, and in addition separate literature searches were performed for animal studies and studies in children and adolescents. The main search retrieved no publications reporting results from trials with L-glutamine or L-glutamic acid in healthy humans, nor did the search for studies in children and adolescents identify any relevant publications. Three human studies on glutamates were included as part of the risk assessment of glutamic acid. The search for animal studies retrieved four relevant reports. No major specific issues related to safety of L-glutamine and L-glutamic acid used as food supplements were identified in previous reports. However, a lack of studies in healthy adult individuals as well as in children was pointed out, and in particular the absence of long-term studies in healthy individuals. According to previous reports, short-term intake of doses of L-glutamine up to 0.5 g/kg bw per day has not been found to cause significant adverse effects. Up to 1.5 g per day of Lglutamic acid has been reported not to be associated with adverse effects. Conclusions in previous reports have indicated maximum supplemental levels of 3.5 and 5 g per day of Lglutamine and 1 g per day of L-glutamic acid. For the risk characterisation of L-glutamine, in the absence of long-term human studies in healthy individuals, VKM will base the value of comparison on the highest dose tested (no observed adverse effect level; NOAEL) in two 90-day studies in rodents, 3832 mg/kg bw per day. Employing an uncertainty factor of 10 for the extrapolation between species, the value of comparison is set to 383 mg/kg bw per day, corresponding to 26.8 g per day in a 70 kg adult. Data from studies in various patient groups support the data from the two animal studies indicating the absence of significant adverse effects with this dose. In the risk characterisation of L-glutamic acid, in the absence of any unequivocally demonstrated reproducible adverse effect in short-term human studies and an absence of long-term studies in healthy individuals, VKM will base the value of comparison on the highest dose tested (NOAEL) in a 28-day study in rodents, 953 mg/kg bw per day. Employing an uncertainty factor of 10 for the extrapolation between species, the value of comparison is set to 95 mg/kg bw, corresponding to 6.7 g per day in a 70 kg adult. Data from early long-term studies in humans (doses up to 45 g per day) and in animals as well as short-term studies on glutamates support the data from the animal study indicating the absence of significant adverse effects with this dose. Based on these data, the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) concludes that: L-glutamine: In adults (≥18 years), the specified doses of 3500, 5000, 8000, 10000, 12000, 15000 and 16500 mg/day L-glutamine in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In adolescents (14 to <18 years), the specified doses of 3500, 5000, 8000, 10000, 12000, 15000 and 16500 mg/day mg/day L-glutamine in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In children (10 to <14 years), the specified doses of 3500, 5000, 8000, 10000, 12000, 15000 and 16500 mg/day mg/day L-glutamine in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. L-glutamic acid: In adults (≥18 years), the specified doses of 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 5500 mg/day L-glutamic acid in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In adolescents (14 to <18 years), the specified doses of 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 5500 mg/day L-glutamic acid in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In children (10 to <14 years), the specified doses 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 mg/day Lglutamic acid in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. The specified doses of 5000 and 5500 mg/day may represent a risk of adverse health effects. Children below 10 years were not included in the terms of reference. Short summary: The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) has, at the request of the Norwegian Food Safety Authority, assessed the risk of specified doses of L-glutamine and Lglutamic acid in food supplements. VKM concludes that: L-glutamine In adults (≥18 years), the specified doses of 3500, 5000, 8000, 10000, 12000, 15000 and 16500 mg/day L-glutamine in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In adolescents (14 to <18 years), the specified doses of 3500, 5000, 8000, 10000, 12000, 15000 and 16500 mg/day L-glutamine in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In children (10 to <14 years), the specified doses of 3500, 5000, 8000, 10000, 12000, 15000 and 16500 mg/day L-glutamine in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. L-glutamic acid: In adults (≥18 years), the specified doses of 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 5500 mg/day L-glutamic acid in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In adolescents (14 to <18 years), the specified doses of 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 5500 mg/day L-glutamic acid in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. In children (10 to <14 years), the specified doses 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 mg/day Lglutamic acid in food supplements are considered unlikely to cause adverse health effects. The specified doses of 5000 and 5500 mg/day may represent a risk of adverse health effects. Children below 10 years were not included in the terms of reference.

Background “The sense of taste,” write Nelson and colleagues in a 2002 issue of Nature, “provides animals with valuable information about the nature and quality of food. Mammals can recognize and respond to a diverse repertoire of chemical entities, including sugars, salts, acids and a wide range of toxic substances” (199). The authors go on to argue that several amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—taste delicious to humans and that “having a taste pathway dedicated to their detection probably had significant evolutionary implications”. They imply, but do not specify, that the evolutionary implications are positive. This may be the case with some amino acids, but contemporary tastes, and changes in them, are far from universally beneficial. Indeed, this article argues that modern food production shapes and distorts human taste with significant implications for health and wellbeing. Take the western taste for fried chipped potatoes, for example. According to Schlosser in Fast Food Nation, “In 1960, the typical American ate eighty-one pounds of fresh potatoes and about four pounds of frozen french fries. Today [2002] the typical American eats about forty-nine pounds of fresh potatoes every year—and more than thirty pounds of frozen french fries” (115). Nine-tenths of these chips are consumed in fast food restaurants which use mass-manufactured potato-based frozen products to provide this major “foodservice item” more quickly and cheaply than the equivalent dish prepared from raw ingredients. These choices, informed by human taste buds, have negative evolutionary implications, as does the apparently long-lasting consumer preference for fried goods cooked in trans-fats. “Numerous foods acquire their elastic properties (i.e., snap, mouth-feel, and hardness) from the colloidal fat crystal network comprised primarily of trans- and saturated fats. These hardstock fats contribute, along with numerous other factors, to the global epidemics related to metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease,” argues Michael A. Rogers (747). Policy makers and public health organisations continue to compare notes internationally about the best ways in which to persuade manufacturers and fast food purveyors to reduce the use of these trans-fats in their products (L’Abbé et al.), however, most manufacturers resist. Hank Cardello, a former fast food executive, argues that “many products are designed for ‘high hedonic value’, with carefully balanced combinations of salt, sugar and fat that, experience has shown, induce people to eat more” (quoted, Trivedi 41). Fortunately for the manufactured food industry, salt and sugar also help to preserve food, effectively prolonging the shelf life of pre-prepared and packaged goods. Physiological Factors As Glanz et al. discovered when surveying 2,967 adult Americans, “taste is the most important influence on their food choices, followed by cost” (1118). A person’s taste is to some extent an individual response to food stimuli, but the tongue’s taste buds respond to five basic categories of food: salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami. ‘Umami’ is a Japanese word indicating “delicious savoury taste” (Coughlan 11) and it is triggered by the amino acid glutamate. Japanese professor Kikunae Ikeda identified glutamate while investigating the taste of a particular seaweed which he believed was neither sweet, sour, bitter, or salty. When Ikeda combined the glutamate taste essence with sodium he formed the food additive sodium glutamate, which was patented in 1908 and subsequently went into commercial production (Japan Patent Office). Although individual, a person’s taste preferences are by no means fixed. There is ample evidence that people’s tastes are being distorted by modern food marketing practices that process foods to make them increasingly appealing to the average palate. In particular, this industrialisation of food promotes the growth of a snack market driven by salty and sugary foods, popularly constructed as posing a threat to health and wellbeing. “[E]xpanding waistlines [are] fuelled by a boom in fast food and a decline in physical activity” writes Stark, who reports upon the 2008 launch of a study into Australia’s future ‘fat bomb’. As Deborah Lupton notes, such reports were a particular feature of the mid 2000s when: intense concern about the ‘obesity epidemic’ intensified and peaked. Time magazine named 2004 ‘The Year of Obesity’. That year the World Health Organization’s Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health was released and the [US] Centers for Disease Control predicted that a poor diet and lack of exercise would soon claim more lives than tobacco-related disease in the United States. (4) The American Heart Association recommends eating no more than 1500mg of salt per day (Hamzelou 11) but salt consumption in the USA averages more than twice this quantity, at 3500mg per day (Bernstein and Willett 1178). In the UK, a sustained campaign and public health-driven engagement with food manufacturers by CASH—Consensus Action on Salt and Health—resulted in a reduction of between 30 and 40 percent of added salt in processed foods between 2001 and 2011, with a knock-on 15 percent decline in the UK population’s salt intake overall. This is the largest reduction achieved by any developed nation (Brinsden et al.). “According to the [UK’s] National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), this will have reduced [UK] stroke and heart attack deaths by a minimum of 9,000 per year, with a saving in health care costs of at least £1.5bn a year” (MacGregor and Pombo). Whereas there has been some success over the past decade in reducing the amount of salt consumed, in the Western world the consumption of sugar continues to rise, as a graph cited in the New Scientist indicates (O’Callaghan). Regular warnings that sugar is associated with a range of health threats and delivers empty calories devoid of nutrition have failed to halt the increase in sugar consumption. Further, although some sugar is a natural product, processed foods tend to use a form invented in 1957: high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). “HFCS is a gloopy solution of glucose and fructose” writes O’Callaghan, adding that it is “as sweet as table sugar but has typically been about 30% cheaper”. She cites Serge Ahmed, a French neuroscientist, as arguing that in a world of food sufficiency people do not need to consume more, so they need to be enticed to overeat by making food more pleasurable. Ahmed was part of a team that ran an experiment with cocaine-addicted rats, offering them a mutually exclusive choice between highly-sweetened water and cocaine: Our findings clearly indicate that intense sweetness can surpass cocaine reward, even in drug-sensitized and -addicted individuals. We speculate that the addictive potential of intense sweetness results from an inborn hypersensitivity to sweet tastants. In most mammals, including rats and humans, sweet receptors evolved in ancestral environments poor in sugars and are thus not adapted to high concentrations of sweet tastants. The supranormal stimulation of these receptors by sugar-rich diets, such as those now widely available in modern societies, would generate a supranormal reward signal in the brain, with the potential to override self-control mechanisms and thus lead to addiction. (Lenoir et al.) The Tongue and the Brain One of the implications of this research about the mammalian desire for sugar is that our taste for food is about more than how these foods actually taste in the mouth on our tongues. It is also about the neural response to the food we eat. The taste of French fries thus also includes that “snap, mouth-feel, and hardness” and the “colloidal fat crystal network” (Rogers, “Novel Structuring” 747). While there is no taste receptor for fats, these nutrients have important effects upon the brain. Wang et al. offered rats a highly fatty, but palatable, diet and allowed them to eat freely. 33 percent of the calories in the food were delivered via fat, compared with 21 percent in a normal diet. The animals almost doubled their usual calorific intake, both because the food had a 37 percent increased calorific content and also because the rats ate 47 percent more than was standard (2786). The research team discovered that in as little as three days the rats “had already lost almost all of their ability to respond to leptin” (Martindale 27). Leptin is a hormone that acts on the brain to communicate feelings of fullness, and is thus important in assisting animals to maintain a healthy body weight. The rats had also become insulin resistant. “Severe resistance to the metabolic effects of both leptin and insulin ensued after just 3 days of overfeeding” (Wang et al. 2786). Fast food restaurants typically offer highly palatable, high fat, high sugar, high salt, calorific foods which can deliver 130 percent of a day’s recommended fat intake, and almost a day’s worth of an adult man’s calories, in one meal. The impacts of maintaining such a diet over a comparatively short time-frame have been recorded in documentaries such as Super Size Me (Spurlock). The after effects of what we widely call “junk food” are also evident in rat studies. Neuroscientist Paul Kenny, who like Ahmed was investigating possible similarities between food- and cocaine-addicted rats, allowed his animals unlimited access to both rat ‘junk food’ and healthy food for rats. He then changed their diets. “The rats with unlimited access to junk food essentially went on a hunger strike. ‘It was as if they had become averse to healthy food’, says Kenny. It took two weeks before the animals began eating as much [healthy food] as those in the control group” (quoted, Trivedi 40). Developing a taste for certain food is consequently about much more than how they taste in the mouth; it constitutes an individual’s response to a mixture of taste, hormonal reactions and physiological changes. Choosing Health Glanz et al. conclude their study by commenting that “campaigns attempting to change people’s perception of the importance of nutrition will be interpreted in terms of existing values and beliefs. A more promising strategy might be to stress the good taste of healthful foods” (1126). Interestingly, this is the strategy already adopted by some health-focused cookbooks. I have 66 cookery books in my kitchen. None of ten books sampled from the five spaces in which these books are kept had ‘taste’ as an index entry, but three books had ‘taste’ in their titles: The Higher Taste, Taste of Life, and The Taste of Health. All three books seek to promote healthy eating, and they all date from the mid-1980s. It might be that taste is not mentioned in cookbook indexes because it is a sine qua non: a focus upon taste is so necessary and fundamental to a cookbook that it goes without saying. Yet, as the physiological evidence makes clear, what we find palatable is highly mutable, varying between people, and capable of changing significantly in comparatively short periods of time. The good news from the research studies is that the changes wrought by high salt, high sugar, high fat diets need not be permanent. Luciano Rossetti, one of the authors on Wang et al’s paper, told Martindale that the physiological changes are reversible, but added a note of caution: “the fatter a person becomes the more resistant they will be to the effects of leptin and the harder it is to reverse those effects” (27). Morgan Spurlock’s experience also indicates this. In his case it took the actor/director 14 months to lose the 11.1 kg (13 percent of his body mass) that he gained in the 30 days of his fast-food-only experiment. Trivedi was more fortunate, stating that, “After two weeks of going cold turkey, I can report I have successfully kicked my ice cream habit” (41). A reader’s letter in response to Trivedi’s article echoes this observation. She writes that “the best way to stop the craving was to switch to a diet of vegetables, seeds, nuts and fruits with a small amount of fish”, adding that “cravings stopped in just a week or two, and the diet was so effective that I no longer crave junk food even when it is in front of me” (Mackeown). Popular culture indicates a range of alternative ways to resist food manufacturers. In the West, there is a growing emphasis on organic farming methods and produce (Guthman), on sl called Urban Agriculture in the inner cities (Mason and Knowd), on farmers’ markets, where consumers can meet the producers of the food they eat (Guthrie et al.), and on the work of advocates of ‘real’ food, such as Jamie Oliver (Warrin). Food and wine festivals promote gourmet tourism along with an emphasis upon the quality of the food consumed, and consumption as a peak experience (Hall and Sharples), while environmental perspectives prompt awareness of ‘food miles’ (Weber and Matthews), fair trade (Getz and Shreck) and of land degradation, animal suffering, and the inequitable use of resources in the creation of the everyday Western diet (Dare, Costello and Green). The burgeoning of these different approaches has helped to stimulate a commensurate growth in relevant disciplinary fields such as Food Studies (Wessell and Brien). One thing that all these new ways of looking at food and taste have in common is that they are options for people who feel they have the right to choose what and when to eat; and to consume the tastes they prefer. This is not true of all groups of people in all countries. Hiding behind the public health campaigns that encourage people to exercise and eat fresh fruit and vegetables are the hidden “social determinants of health: The conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age, including the health system” (WHO 45). As the definitions explain, it is the “social determinants of health [that] are mostly responsible for health iniquities” with evidence from all countries around the world demonstrating that “in general, the lower an individual’s socioeconomic position, the worse his or her health” (WHO 45). For the comparatively disadvantaged, it may not be the taste of fast food that attracts them but the combination of price and convenience. If there is no ready access to cooking facilities, or safe food storage, or if a caregiver is simply too time-poor to plan and prepare meals for a family, junk food becomes a sensible choice and its palatability an added bonus. For those with the education, desire, and opportunity to break free of the taste for salty and sugary fats, however, there are a range of strategies to achieve this. There is a persuasive array of evidence that embracing a plant-based diet confers a multitude of health benefits for the individual, for the planet and for the animals whose lives and welfare would otherwise be sacrificed to feed us (Green, Costello and Dare). Such a choice does involve losing the taste for foods which make up the lion’s share of the Western diet, but any sense of deprivation only lasts for a short time. The fact is that our sense of taste responds to the stimuli offered. It may be that, notwithstanding the desires of Jamie Oliver and the like, a particular child never will never get to like broccoli, but it is also the case that broccoli tastes differently to me, seven years after becoming a vegan, than it ever did in the years in which I was omnivorous. When people tell me that they would love to adopt a plant-based diet but could not possibly give up cheese, it is difficult to reassure them that the pleasure they get now from that specific cocktail of salty fats will be more than compensated for by the sheer exhilaration of eating crisp, fresh fruits and vegetables in the future. Conclusion For decades, the mass market food industry has tweaked their products to make them hyper-palatable and difficult to resist. They do this through marketing experiments and consumer behaviour research, schooling taste buds and brains to anticipate and relish specific cocktails of sweet fats (cakes, biscuits, chocolate, ice cream) and salty fats (chips, hamburgers, cheese, salted nuts). They add ingredients to make these products stimulate taste buds more effectively, while also producing cheaper items with longer life on the shelves, reducing spoilage and the complexity of storage for retailers. Consumers are trained to like the tastes of these foods. Bitter, sour, and umami receptors are comparatively under-stimulated, with sweet, salty, and fat-based tastes favoured in their place. Western societies pay the price for this learned preference in high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, and obesity. Public health advocate Bruce Neal and colleagues, working to reduce added salt in processed foods, note that the food and manufacturing industries can now provide most of the calories that the world needs to survive. “The challenge now”, they argue, “is to have these same industries provide foods that support long and healthy adult lives. And in this regard there remains a very considerable way to go”. If the public were to believe that their sense of taste is mutable and has been distorted for corporate and industrial gain, and if they were to demand greater access to natural foods in their unprocessed state, then that journey towards a healthier future might be far less protracted than these and many other researchers seem to believe. References Bernstein, Adam, and Walter Willett. “Trends in 24-Hr Sodium Excretion in the United States, 1957–2003: A Systematic Review.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92 (2010): 1172–1180. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. 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India has one of the world’s highest proportions of plant-based consumers relative to its total population (Sawe). However, the view that India is a predominantly vegetarian nation is likely inaccurate, as recent findings from the 2014 Indian Census indicate that only three in ten Indians self-identity as vegetarian (Census of India). Other studies similarly estimate the prevalence of vegetarianism to range from about 25% (Mintel Global) to about 40% (Euromonitor International; Statista, “Share”), and many Indians are shifting from strict plant-based diets to more flexible versions of plant-based eating (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). When it comes to meat eating, poultry is the most widely consumed (USDA Foreign Agricultural Service; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Some claim that the changing consumer landscape is also eroding traditional taboos associated with beef and buffalo meat consumption (Kala; Bansal), with many tending to underreport their meat consumption due to religious and cultural stigmas (Bansal).This change in food choices is driven by several factors, such as increasing urbanisation (Devi et al.), rising disposable incomes (Devi et al.; Rukhmini), globalisation, and cross-cultural influences (Majumdar; Sinha). Today, the urban middle-class is one of India’s fastest growing consumer segments (Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania), and the rise in the consumption of animal products is primarily occurring in urban India (National Sample Survey Office), making this an important market to investigate.From a global perspective, while many Western nations are increasingly adopting plant-based diets (Eswaran), the growth in meat consumption is predicted to mainly come from emerging markets (OECD/FAO) like India. With these points in mind, the purpose of this study was to explore contemporary eating practices in urban India and to understand how social structures, cultures, and traditions influence these practices. The findings indicate that the key reasons why many are transitioning away from plant-based diets are the rise of new and diverse meat-based foods in urban India, emerging tastes for meat-based cuisines, and meat becoming to be viewed as a status symbol. These factors are further elaborated upon in this article.MethodA key question of this research was “What are eating practices like in urban India today?” The question itself is a challenge, given India’s varied cultures and traditions, along with its myriad eating practices. Given this diversity, the study used an exploratory qualitative approach, where the main mode of data gathering was twenty-five unstructured individual face-to-face interviews, each approximately sixty minutes in duration. The discussions were left largely open to allow participants to share their unique eating practices and reflect on how their practices are shaped by other socio-cultural practices. The research used an iterative study design, which entailed cycles of simultaneous data collection, analysis, and subsequent adaptations made to some questions to refine the emerging theory. Within the defined parameters of the research objectives, saturation was adequately reached upon completion of twenty-five interviews.The sample comprised Mumbai residents aged 23 to 45 years, which is fairly representative given about a third of India’s population is aged under 40 (Central Intelligence Agency). Mumbai was selected as it is one of India’s largest cities (Central Intelligence Agency) and is considered the country’s commercial capital (Raghavan) and multicultural hub (Gulliver). The interviews were conducted at a popular restaurant in downtown Mumbai. The interviews were conducted predominantly in English, as it is India’s subsidiary official language (Central Intelligence Agency) and the participants were comfortable conversing in English. The sample included participants from two of India’s largest religions—Hindus (80%) and Muslims (13%) (Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India), and comprised an even split of males and females.The Market Research Society of India has developed a socio-economic classification (SEC) grid that segments urban households into twelve groups (Market Research Society of India). This segmentation is based on two questions: level of education—from illiteracy to a postgraduate degree—and the ownership of eleven items that range from fairly basic (e.g., electricity connection, gas stove) to relatively sophisticated (e.g., refrigerator, personal computer). As previous qualitative work has found that education levels and disposable incomes can significantly impact one’s ability to make informed and deliberate food choices (Khara), and given meat is a relatively expensive commodity in India (Puskar-Pasewicz), the study focused on the most affluent segments—i.e., SEC A1 and some of SEC A2.It is said that researcher values and predispositions are to some extent inseparable from the research process, and therefore that potential researcher bias must be managed by being self-aware, looking for contradictory data, and being open to different interpretations of the data (Ogden). As the interviewer is a vegan of Indian ethnicity, she attempted to manage researcher bias in several ways. Triangulation of data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, product analysis) helped provide a multi-faceted understanding of the topic (Patton). The discussion guide and findings were also discussed with researchers from different cultural and dietary backgrounds. It is also argued that when a researcher shares the same background as the participants—as was the case in this study—participants may remain silent on certain issues, as they may assume the researcher knows the context and nuances in relation to these issues (McGinn). This arose in some instances as some participants said, “it’s standard stuff you know?” The interviewer hence took an “outsider” role, stating “I’ll need to know what standard stuff is”, so as to reduce any expectation that she ought to understand the social norms, conventions, and cultural practices related to the issue (Leckie). This helped yield more elaborate discussions and greater insight into the topic from the participant’s own unique perspective.The Rise of New and Diverse Meat-based Foods in Urban India Since the early 1990s, which marked the beginning of globalisation in India, urban Indian food culture has undergone a significant change as food imports have been liberalised and international food brands have made their way into the domestic market (Vepa). As a result, India’s major urban centres appear to be witnessing a food revolution:Bombay has become so metropolitan, I mean it always was but it’s so much more in terms of food now … and it’s so tempting. (Female, age 32)The changing food culture has also seen an increase in new dishes, such as a lamb burger stuffed with blue cheese, and the desire to try out exotic meats such as octopus, camel, rabbit, and emu. Many participants described themselves as “food obsessed” and living in a “present and continuous state of food”, where “we finish a meal and we’ve already started discussing our next meal”.In comparison, traditional plant-based foods were seen to have not undergone the same transformation and were described as “boring” and “standard” in comparison to the more interesting and diverse meat-based dishes:a standard restaurant menu, you don’t have all the different leafy vegetables…It’s mostly a few paneer and this or that—and upon that they don’t do much justice to the vegetable itself. It’s the same masala which they mix in it so everything tastes the same to me. So that’s a big difference when you consider meats. If I eat chicken in different preparations it has a different taste, if I have fish each has a different taste. (Male, age 29)If I’m going out and I’m spending, then I’m not going to eat the same thing which I eat at home every day which is veg food ... I will always pick the non-vegetarian option. (Male, age 32)Liberalisation and the transformation of the local media landscape also appears to have encouraged a new form of consumerism (Sinha). One participant described how an array of new TV channels and programmes have opened up new horizons for food:The whole visual attraction of food, getting it into your living room or into your bedroom and showing you all this great stuff … [There are now] kiddie birthdays which are MasterChef birthdays. There are MasterChef team building activities … So food is very big and I think media has had a very, very large role to play in that. (Female, age 40+)In a similar vein, digital media has also helped shape the food revolution. India has the world’s second largest number of Internet users (Statista, Internet) and new technology seems to have changed the way urban Indians interact with food:We are using social sites. We see all the cooking tips and all the recipes. I have a wife and she’s like, “Oh, let’s cook it!” (Male, age 25)I see everything on YouTube and food channels and all that. I really like the presentation, how they just a little they cook the chicken breast. (Female, age 42)Smartphones and apps have also made access to new cuisines easier, and some participants have become accustomed to instant gratification, givendelivery boys who can satisfy your craving by delivering it to you … You order food from “Zomato” at twelve o’clock, one o’clock also. And order from “Sigree” in the morning also nowadays … more delivery options are there in India. (Male, age 30)This may also partially explain the growing popularity of fusion foods, which include meat-based variations of traditional plant-based dishes, such as meat-filled dosas and parathas.Emerging Tastes for Meat-based Cuisines Many highlighted the sensory pleasure derived from meat eating itself, focusing on a broad range of sensory qualities:There’s the texture, there’s the smell, there’s aroma, there’s the taste itself … Now imagine if chicken or beef was as soft as paneer, we probably wouldn’t enjoy it as much. There’s a bit of that pull. (Female, age 32)Some discussed adopting a plant-based diet for health-related reasons but also highlighted that the experience, overall, was short of satisfactory:I was doing one week of GM Diet … one day it was full of fruits, then one day it was full of vegetables. And then in the third day, when it was actually the chicken part, frankly speaking even I enjoyed … you just cannot have veggies everyday. (Female, age 35)Only eating veg, I think my whole mouth was, I think gone bad. Because I really wanted to have something … keema [minced meat]. (Female, age 38)Plant-based foods, in comparison to meat-based dishes, were described as “bland”, “boring”, and lacking in the “umami zing”. Even if cooked in the same spices, plant-based foods were still seen to be wanting:you have chicken curry and soya bean curry made from the same masala … but if you replace meat with some other substitutes, you’re gonna be able to tell the difference ... the taste of meat, I feel, is better than the taste of a vegetable. (Male, age 32)The thing is, vegetarian dishes are bland … They don’t get the feeling of the spices in the vegetarian dish ... So when you are eating something juicy, having a bite, it’s a mouthful thing. Vegetarian dishes are not mouthful. (Male, age 25)At the end of a vegetarian meal … I think that maybe [it is] a lack of fullness … I’m eating less because you get bored after a while. (Female, age 32)Tasting the Forbidden FruitIn India, chicken is considered to be widely acceptable, as pork is forbidden to Muslims and beef is prohibited for Hindus (Devi et al.; Jishnu). However, the desire for new flavours seems to be pushing the boundaries of what is deemed acceptable, as highlighted in the discussion below with a 25-year-old male Muslim participant:Participant: When I go out with my friends then I try new things like bacon.Moderator: Bacon?Participant: Yeah... when I went with my colleagues to this restaurant in Bandra—it’s called Saltwater Cafe. And they had this chicken burger with bacon wrapped on it.Moderator: Okay.Participant: And I didn’t know at the time that it’s bacon … They didn’t tell me what we are having … When I had it, I told them that it’s tasting like different, totally different, like I haven’t had this in my life.Moderator: Yeah.Participant: And when they told me that it’s bacon then, I thought, okay fine. Something new I can have. Now I’m old enough to make my own choices.Similarly, several Hindu participants expressed similar sentiments about beef consumption:One of our friends, he used to have beef. He said this tastes better than chicken so I tried it. (Male, age 30)I ended up ordering beef which I actually would never eat ... But then everyone was like, it’s a must try ... So I start off with eating the gravy and then it entices me. That’s when I go and try the meat. (Female, aged 23)Although studies on meat eating in India are limited, it seems that many prefer to consume meats outside the home (Suresh; Devi et al.), away from the watchful eyes of parents, partners and, in some instances, the neighbours:My dad would say if you want to eat beef or anything have it outside but don’t bring it home. (Male, age 29)One of my friends … he keeps secret from his girlfriend … he come with us and eat [meat] and tell us not to tell her. (Male, age 26)People around have a little bit of a different view towards people eating non-veg in that area—so we wouldn’t openly talk about eating non-veg when somebody from the locality is around. (Female, age 32)Further to this point, some discussed a certain thrill that arose from pushing social boundaries by eating these forbidden meats:feel excited ... it gave me confidence also. I didn’t know ... my own decision. Something that is riskier in my life, which I hadn’t done before. (Male, age 25)Meat as a Status SymbolIn urban India, meat is increasingly considered a status symbol (Roy; Esselborn; Goswami). Similarly, several participants highlighted that meat-based dishes tend to be cooked for special occasions:non-vegetarian meals [at home] were perceived as being more elaborate and more lavish probably as compared to vegetarian meals. (Male, age 34)Dal [a lentil dish] is one of the basic things which we don’t make in the house when you have guests, or when you have an occasion … We usually make biryani…gravies of chicken or mutton. (Female, age 38)Success in urban India tends to be measured through one’s engagement with commodities that hold status-enhancing appeal (Mathur), and this also appears to apply to eating practices. Among meat-eating communities, it was found that serving only plant-based foods on special occasions was potentially seen as “low grade” and not quite socially acceptable:It’s just considered not something special. In fact, you would be judged…they would be like, “Oh my God, they only served us vegetables.” (Female, age 32)If you are basically from a Gujarati family, you are helpless. You have to serve that thing [vegetarian food] ... But if you are a non-vegetarian … if you serve them veg, it looks too low grade. (Female, age 38)In fact, among some families, serving “simple vegetarian food” tended to be associated with sombre occasions such as funerals, where one tends to avoid eating certain foods that give rise to desires, such as meat. This is elaborated upon in the below discussion with a Hindu participant (female, aged 40+):Participant: So an aunt of mine passed away a little over a year ago … traditionally we have this 13 day thing where you eat—We call it “Oshoge”… the khaana [food] is supposed to be neutral.Moderator: The khaana is supposed to be vegetarian?Participant: Yeah, it’s not just vegetarian … You’re supposed to have very simple vegetarian food like boiled food or you know dahi [plain yoghurt] and puffed rice … after a day of that, we were all looking at each other and then my cousin said, “Let me teach you how to fillet fish.” Similarly, a Muslim participant mentioned how serving certain dishes—such as dal, a common vegetarian dish—tends to be reserved for funeral occasions and is therefore considered socially unacceptable for other occasions:I’m calling a guest and I make dal chawal [lentils and rice] okay? They will think, arrey yeh kya yeh mayat ka khaana hai kya? [oh what is this, is the food for a corpse or what]? ... I can make it on that particular day when somebody has died in the family ... but then whenever guest is at home, or there is an occasion, we cannot make dal. (Female, age 38)ConclusionUrban India is experiencing a shift in norms around food choices, as meat-based dishes appear to have become symbolic of the broader changing landscape. Meat is not only eaten for its sensory properties but also because of its sociocultural associations. In comparison, many plant-based foods are perceived as relatively bland and uninteresting. This raises the question of how to make plant-based eating more appealing, both in terms of social significance and sensory enjoyment. In view of the attachment to familiar customs against the backdrop of a rapidly changing urban culture (Sinha; Venkatesh), perhaps plant-based foods could be re-introduced to the urban Indian as a blend of Western novelty and traditional familiarity (Majumdar), thereby representing the “the new along with the old” (Sinha 18), and hence enhancing their status. 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