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1
Veasey, J. S., N. K. Waran, and R. J. Young. "On Comparing the Behaviour of Zoo Housed Animals with Wild Conspecifics as a Welfare Indicator." Animal Welfare 5, no. 1 (February 1996): 13–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600018297.
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AbstractIt is commonly assumed that animals suffer if they cannot perform behaviours seen in wild conspecifics. Although comparisons with the behaviour of wild conspecifics are a popular method of assessing the welfare of captive animals, their validity has not been fully assessed. Homeostatic models of motivation suggest that many behaviours are stimulus driven rather than internally generated. Thus, it is possible that the non-performance of some wild-type behaviours does not necessarily compromise animal welfare, unless welfare is defined as being compromised by such non-performance. The flexibility of wild animal behaviour and the fact that animals free to perform the complete range of wild behaviours can suffer, must also put into the question the validity of such comparisons. Technical criticisms also arise when one considers the difficulty of constructing accurate and unbiased time budgets for wild animals. It is possible that the expressions of wild-type behaviours correlate with enhanced welfare, rather than cause enhanced welfare. Thus, if the consequences of behaviour are more important than the expression of behaviour itself, environmental enrichment does not necessarily need to rely upon the performance of wild-type behaviours for the improvement of animal welfare. Therefore, although behavioural comparisons with wild animals can be considered as potentially useful indicators of behavioural differences, they cannot always be relied upon to give an objective assessment of animal welfare. To make an assessment of welfare, behavioural comparisons with wild animals should be used in conjunction with other techniques to demonstrate that the consequences of non-performance of wild behaviours results in impoverished welfare.
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Munn, A. J., S. Phelan, M. Rigby, and J. A. Roberts. "Behavioural adjustments of wild-caught kangaroos to captivity." Australian Mammalogy 39, no. 2 (2017): 213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/am16019.
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It is important to understand how wild-caught animals may respond to captivity, and whether their behaviours in captivity are reflective of their wild counterparts. We observed the behaviour of wild-caught western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) and red kangaroos (Osphranter rufus; formerly M. rufus) that were transferred to a large naturally vegetated enclosure. Observations were made on the first day of captivity and again after 7–10 days, and were compared with the behaviour of free-living kangaroos at the same locality and over the same period. We quantified feeding, moving, grooming and non-alert behaviours. Of these, grooming was higher in captive kangaroos than in free-living animals on the first day of captivity only, and was no different to that of wild animal by 7–10 days’ captivity. Such self-directed behaviour may be indicative of heightened distress for kangaroos on the first day of captivity, but it may also be indicative of grooming to eliminate contamination of human smells or debris following capture by darting and recovery. Overall, our findings indicate that after a short period of captivity, wild-caught kangaroos adjust to a novel environment relatively quickly, and animals from each species showed behaviour patterns comparable with free-ranging counterparts within 7–10 days after capture and captivity.
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Hughey, Lacey F., Andrew M. Hein, Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, and Frants H. Jensen. "Challenges and solutions for studying collective animal behaviour in the wild." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, no. 1746 (March 26, 2018): 20170005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0005.
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Mobile animal groups provide some of the most compelling examples of self-organization in the natural world. While field observations of songbird flocks wheeling in the sky or anchovy schools fleeing from predators have inspired considerable interest in the mechanics of collective motion, the challenge of simultaneously monitoring multiple animals in the field has historically limited our capacity to study collective behaviour of wild animal groups with precision. However, recent technological advancements now present exciting opportunities to overcome many of these limitations. Here we review existing methods used to collect data on the movements and interactions of multiple animals in a natural setting. We then survey emerging technologies that are poised to revolutionize the study of collective animal behaviour by extending the spatial and temporal scales of inquiry, increasing data volume and quality, and expediting the post-processing of raw data. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Collective movement ecology’.
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Lima, Danilo Sabino da Silva, Esau Marlon Franco da Paz, Charbel Niño El-Hani, and Hilton Ferreira Japyassú. "A comparison between affiliative and agonistic behaviours in wild and captive Sapajus libidinosus (Spix, 1823) (Mammalia, Primates, Cebidae)." Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia 62 (May 27, 2022): e202262033. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/1807-0205/2022.62.033.
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Organisms modulate the expression of their behaviours through environmental contexts. Several studies have suggested that the frequencies of social behaviours may differ between captive and free-living primates. In the present study, we compared the social behaviours displayed by captive and free-living groups of the bearded capuchin monkey (Sapajus libidinosus), describing and analysing their social behaviours. We observed through focal animal sampling 59 animals distributed in 10 social groups, analysing 191:45 h of videos of their behaviours. Captivity reduced the frequency of agonistic, but not of affiliative behaviours. Furthermore, neither group size nor sex could explain the overall variability in affiliative behaviour. We conclude that captivity has indeed an important impact only on some aspects of social behaviour, namely, on agonistic behaviours.
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Wiepkema, P. R. "Remarks on the behaviour of wild boar." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15, no. 2 (May 1986): 179–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(86)90066-3.
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Zwart, H. A. E. "The Birth of a Research Animal: Ibsen's The Wild Duck and the Origin of a New Animal Science." Environmental Values 9, no. 1 (February 2000): 91–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096327190000900106.
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What role does the wild duck play in Ibsen's famous drama? I argue that, besides mirroring the fate of the human cast members, the duck is acting as animal subject in a quasi-experiment, conducted in a private setting. Analysed from this perspective, the play allows us to discern the epistemological and ethical dimensions of the new scientific animal practice (systematic observation of animal behaviour under artificial conditions) emerging precesely at that time. Ibsen's play stages the clash between a scientific and a romantic understanding of animals that still constitutes the backdrop of most contemporary debates over animals in research. Whereas the scientific understanding reduces the animal's behaviour, as well as its environment, to discrete and modifiable elements, the romantic view regards animals as being at one with (or violently disconnected from) their natural surroundings.
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Morris, P. A., K. Meakin, and S. Sharafi. "The Behaviour and Survival of Rehabilitated Hedgehogs (Erinaceus Europaeus)." Animal Welfare 2, no. 1 (February 1993): 53–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600015451.
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AbstractFull ‘rehabilitation’ of sick and injured wild animals should include restoration to the wild. Few attempts have been made to discover the fate of released ‘rehabilitated’ animals, a significant omission in terms of animal welfare. They may die, unable to find adequate food or nest sites in unfamiliar places. They may be ostracized or even attacked by wild resident conspecifics.Eight ‘rehabilitated’ hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) were released into farmland and radio-tracked to monitor their movements and nesting; they were also weighed frequently. Three wild hedgehogs caught on site were studied in parallel.Only one animal remained close to the release site throughout the eight week study. The rest scattered, perhaps seeking more familiar terrain. One animal died, possibly not having fully recovered from its original disorder. Of the seven others, three survived at least seven weeks, but two then met with accidental deaths (drowning and road kill). Contact was lost with four animals, but circumstances suggested that they were probably still alive at least five weeks after release. There was no evidence of negative interaction with local wild hedgehogs nor any indication of difficulty with foraging, nesting or finding their nests again. Body-weights were generally maintained or increased. It is concluded that rehabilitated adult hedgehogs can probably cope well with release.
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Nicol, C. J. "Farm animal cognition." Animal Science 62, no. 3 (June 1996): 375–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1357729800014934.
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AbstractAlthough there may be task-specific differences in performance between wild and domestic animals, there is no evidence for any generally reduced cognitive capacity in domestic animals. It is not possible to compare intelligence between species or breeds without recognizing the contribution of differences in attention and motivation, and domestic animals often perform better on learning tasks than wild animals because they are less fearful. Considerable flexibility and complexity in behaviour can arise from context-specific decisions that may not require learning. Examples include alarm calling and maternal behaviour in chickens. However, the majority of intelligent behaviour shown by farm animals is dominated by learned associations, sometimes in response to remarkably subtle cues. Seemingly straightforward learning abilities may result in surprising emergent properties. An understanding of these properties may enable us to investigate how farm animals interact socially, and whether they form concepts. Other abilities, such as imitation and the re-organization of spatial information, do not appear to depend on associative learning. The study offarm animal cognition tells us little about the issue of animal consciousness but, none the less, plays an important role in the animal welfare debate. The types of cognitive abilities animals have provide clues as to the types of situations in which (given the benefit of the doubt) they might suffer.
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MacIntosh, Andrew J. J., Concepción L. Alados, and Michael A. Huffman. "Fractal analysis of behaviour in a wild primate: behavioural complexity in health and disease." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 8, no. 63 (March 23, 2011): 1497–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2011.0049.
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Parasitism and other stressors are ubiquitous in nature but their effects on animal behaviour can be difficult to identify. We investigated the effects of nematode parasitism and other indicators of physiological impairment on the sequential complexity of foraging and locomotion behaviour among wild Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata yakui ). We observed all sexually mature individuals ( n = 28) in one macaque study group between October 2007 and August 2008, and collected two faecal samples/month/individual ( n = 362) for parasitological examination. We used detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) to investigate long-range autocorrelation in separate, binary sequences of foraging ( n = 459) and locomotion ( n = 446) behaviour collected via focal sampling. All behavioural sequences exhibited long-range autocorrelation, and linear mixed-effects models suggest that increasing infection with the nodular worm Oesophagostomum aculeatum , clinically impaired health, reproductive activity, ageing and low dominance status were associated with reductions in the complexity of locomotion, and to a lesser extent foraging, behaviour. Furthermore, the sequential complexity of behaviour increased with environmental complexity. We argue that a reduction in complexity in animal behaviour characterizes individuals in impaired or ‘stressed’ states, and may have consequences if animals cannot cope with heterogeneity in their natural habitats.
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Van Elven, B. "Behavioural Approaches to Conservation in the Wild." Pacific Conservation Biology 4, no. 3 (1998): 273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc98273a.
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Behavioural Approaches to Conservation in the Wild is based on a series of papers from a symposium entitled "Conservation and Behaviour in the Wild" held during the Animal Behaviour Society annual meetings in Lincoln, Nebraska in 1995. The book was compiled because the editors (and others) felt that both behavioural researchers and conservation biologists did not adequately recognize the important role that behavioural studies could play in conservation efforts. Traditionally, behavioural researchers have limited the conservation applications of their research to captive breeding and reintroduction programmes of endangered species, while conservation biologists have focussed on landscape design and ecosystem restoration without necessarily considering animal behaviour. The objectives of the book are twofold: to stimulate behavioural researchers to think about how their work can contribute to conservation of biological diversity, and to show conservation biologists the relevance of behavioural research in solving conservation problems. As expected given the location of the symposium and the high proportion of northern hemisphere contributors, most examples presented are from that region.
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Candea, Matei. "Habituating Meerkats and Redescribing Animal Behaviour Science." Theory, Culture & Society 30, no. 7-8 (October 10, 2013): 105–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0263276413501204.
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This article examines influential recent arguments in science studies which stress the interactive and mutually transformative nature of human-animal relations in scientific research, as part of a broader ontological proposal for science as material engagement with the world, rather than epistemic detachment from it. Such arguments are examined in the light of ethnography and interviews with field biologists who work with meerkats under conditions of habituation. Where philosophers of science stress the mutually modifying aspect of scientific interspecies relationality, these researchers present habituation as a way to study meerkats ‘in the wild’, and to access their putatively natural, undisturbed, behaviour. Building on this contrast, I will argue that the logic of scientific habituation remains difficult to grasp as long as we think of it exclusively in terms of human-animal relations. The seeming ‘paradox’ of habituation – the idea that it transforms precisely that which it aims to hold stable, namely the ‘wildness’ of animals – is an artefact of a frame of analysis which takes animals to be the object of the science of animal behaviour. Habituation ceases to look paradoxical, however, if we remain faithful to these researchers’ own interests, for whom the scientific object does not coincide with the animal as a whole, but is rather only a selected subset of its behaviour. In conclusion I suggest that this account of habituation sheds a new light on the articulations and disjunctions between diverse practices and commitments in social anthropology, philosophy and biological science.
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Crystal, Jonathon D. "Animal Behavior: Timing in the Wild." Current Biology 16, no. 7 (April 2006): R252—R253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.03.001.
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Neethirajan, Suresh, and Bas Kemp. "Social Network Analysis in Farm Animals: Sensor-Based Approaches." Animals 11, no. 2 (February 8, 2021): 434. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11020434.
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Natural social systems within animal groups are an essential aspect of agricultural optimization and livestock management strategy. Assessing elements of animal behaviour under domesticated conditions in comparison to natural behaviours found in wild settings has the potential to address issues of animal welfare effectively, such as focusing on reproduction and production success. This review discusses and evaluates to what extent social network analysis (SNA) can be incorporated with sensor-based data collection methods, and what impact the results may have concerning welfare assessment and future farm management processes. The effectiveness and critical features of automated sensor-based technologies deployed in farms include tools for measuring animal social group interactions and the monitoring and recording of farm animal behaviour using SNA. Comparative analyses between the quality of sensor-collected data and traditional observational methods provide an enhanced understanding of the behavioural dynamics of farm animals. The effectiveness of sensor-based approaches in data collection for farm animal behaviour measurement offers unique opportunities for social network research. Sensor-enabled data in livestock SNA addresses the biological aspects of animal behaviour via remote real-time data collection, and the results both directly and indirectly influence welfare assessments, and farm management processes. Finally, we conclude with potential implications of SNA on modern animal farming for improvement of animal welfare.
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Fisher, David N., Adèle James, Rolando Rodríguez-Muñoz, and Tom Tregenza. "Behaviour in captivity predicts some aspects of natural behaviour, but not others, in a wild cricket population." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1809 (June 22, 2015): 20150708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.0708.
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Examining the relevance of ‘animal personality’ involves linking consistent among- and within-individual behavioural variation to fitness in the wild. Studies aiming to do this typically assay personality in captivity and rely on the assumption that measures of traits in the laboratory reflect their expression in nature. We examined this rarely tested assumption by comparing laboratory and field measurements of the behaviour of wild field crickets ( Gryllus campestris ) by continuously monitoring individual behaviour in nature, and repeatedly capturing the same individuals and measuring their behaviour in captivity. We focused on three traits that are frequently examined in personality studies: shyness, activity and exploration. All of them showed repeatability in the laboratory. Laboratory activity and exploration predicted the expression of their equivalent behaviours in the wild, but shyness did not. Traits in the wild were predictably influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and sunlight, but only activity showed appreciable within-individual repeatability. This suggests that some behaviours typically studied as personality traits can be accurately assayed in captivity, but the expression of others may be highly context-specific. Our results highlight the importance of validating the relevance of laboratory behavioural assays to analogous traits measured in the wild.
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Spiezio, Caterina, Valentina Valsecchi, Camillo Sandri, and Barbara Regaiolli. "Investigating individual and social behaviour of the Northern bald ibis (Geronticus eremita): behavioural variety and welfare." PeerJ 6 (September 4, 2018): e5436. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5436.
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The Northern bald ibis (Geronticus eremita) (NBI) is one of the most threatened birds in the world. Intense conservation efforts have been undertaken and several research projects on the species are being done in Morocco and in Europe. Observing animal behaviour has been proved to be an efficient and non-invasive technique to assess the animal welfare, with the performance of a wide array of natural behaviours being one of the mostly used indicators of good mental and physical well-being. The aim of this study was to investigate the behaviour of a flock of 14 zoo-living NBI of different ages. The study focused on the variety of species-specific individual and social behaviours, in the light of reintroduction of the study juveniles in the wild. Per subject, 20 10-min. sessions were done. A continuous focal animal sampling method was used to collect individual and social behaviours. Behavioural data have been compared between adults and juveniles. Moreover, a Behavioural Variety Index (BVI) has been proposed and calculated based on previous literature describing natural ibis behaviours. The BVI might help in the evaluation of the variety of behaviours performed by each individual and the monitoring of the diversity of the behavioural repertoire of zoo animals. Our results showed that the birds performed species-specific behaviours and no abnormal behaviour was reported. Moreover, the BVI highlighted a good behavioural variety as each bird performed approximately 78% of the natural behaviours described in the Northern bald ibis and in close relative species. Our findings seem to suggest the presence of qualitative and quantitative similarities between the behavioural repertoires of the study ibises and those described in wild conspecifics, suggesting a good welfare of the colony. Finally, the BVI proposed in the current study seems to be a useful and practical tool to test behavioural diversity in zoo animals.
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Ham, Jackson R., Malin K. Lilley, and Heather M. Manitzas Hill. "Conspecific scarring on wild belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) in Cunningham Inlet." Behaviour 158, no. 8-9 (April 9, 2021): 663–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-bja10086.
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Abstract Intra-specific aggression is not frequently observed in wild cetaceans, including belugas. One proxy, identified in past research, that indicates past aggressive behaviour is the presence of rake marks (scars left on skin by the teeth of conspecifics). Behavioural observations of belugas, compared to bottlenose dolphins, suggest that belugas engage in less physically aggressive behaviour; yet, a detailed study of beluga aggressive behaviour remains to be conducted. Beluga intra-specific aggression was assessed by scoring photographs taken from July to August in 2015 at Cunningham Inlet, Canada for the presence/absence and body location of rake marks. Of the 252 belugas analysed, 44% had rake marks. The results suggest that physical aggression occurs comparatively less with only half of the observed beluga population having rake marks compared to almost all bottlenose dolphins previously surveyed. We suggest social structure, skin pigmentation, and/or species-specific behaviours as explanations for the differences in rake marks among species.
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Kokocińska, Agata, and Tadeusz Kaleta. "The role of ethology in animal welfare." Roczniki Naukowe Polskiego Towarzystwa Zootechnicznego 12, no. 1 (March 31, 2016): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.6981.
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Knowledge of the behaviour of a species makes it possible to ensure the well-being of animals raised in farm conditions, because when we know the behavioural standard we can guarantee that at least the animals’ minimum needs will be met. Observation of animal behaviour is the first element in assessing their physical and psychological comfort. The main objective is to maximize production while at the same time maintaining animal welfare. However, this is often difficult and economic considerations come into conflict with the comfort and needs of the animals. The elements of knowledge of behaviour, in addition to ethology, i.e. the science dealing with animal behaviour, also include zoosemiotics and cognitive science, which explain of the occurrence of specific behaviours in terms of biology and physiology.
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Erdtmann, Dana, and Oliver Keuling. "Behavioural patterns of free roaming wild boar in a spatiotemporal context." PeerJ 8 (November 18, 2020): e10409. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10409.
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Although the almost worldwide distributed wild boar Sus scrofa is a well-studied species, little is known about the behaviour of autochthonous, free living wild boar in a spatiotemporal context which can help to better understand wild boar in conflict terms with humans and to find solutions. The use of camera traps is a favourable and non-invasive method to study them. To observe natural behaviour, 60 camera traps were placed for three months in a state forest of 17.8 km2 in the region of the Luneburg Heath in northern Germany. In this area wild boar, roe deer, red deer, wolves and humans are common. The cameras recorded 20 s length video clips when animals passed the detection zone and could be triggered again immediately afterwards. In total 38 distinct behavioural elements were observed, which were assigned to one of seven behavioural categories. The occurrence of the behavioural categories per day was evaluated to compare their frequencies and see which are more essential than others. Generalised Additive Models were used to analyse the occurrence of each behaviour in relation to habitat and activity time. The results show that essential behavioural categories like foraging behaviour, locomotion and vigilance behaviour occurred more frequently than behaviour that “just” served for the well-being of wild boar. These three behavioural categories could be observed together mostly in the night in broad-leaved forests with a herb layer of 50–100%, comfort behaviour occurred mostly at the ponds in coniferous forest. It is also observable that the behavioural categories foraging and comfort behaviour alternated several times during the night which offers the hypothesis that foraging is mostly followed by comfort behaviour. These findings pave the way towards implementing effective control strategies in the wild and animal welfare in captivity.
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Edwards, Anna-Marie A. R., and John D. Todd. "Homosexual behaviour in wild white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar)." Primates 32, no. 2 (April 1991): 231–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02381180.
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Csermely, Davide, Danilo Mainardi, and Nicolantonio Agostini. "The predatory behaviour of captive wild kestrel,Falco tinnunculusL." Bolletino di zoologia 56, no. 4 (January 1989): 317–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11250008909355657.
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Matsumoto-Oda, Akiko. "Self-Suckling Behaviour by a Wild Chimpanzee." Folia Primatologica 68, no. 6 (1997): 342–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000157262.
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Derebe, Binega, Yonas Derebe, and Birtukan Tsegaye. "Human-Wild Animal Conflict in Banja Woreda, Awi Zone, Ethiopia." International Journal of Forestry Research 2022 (August 8, 2022): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/4973392.
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Human-wild animal conflict has serious conservation consequences, both for populations of wild animals and for the people who live around wild animals’ habitats. The aim of this study was to assess the human-wild animal conflict in Banja Woreda, Awi Zone, Ethiopia. First, the area was selected purposively because it is expected to be prone to a high level of human-wild animal conflict, and then the selected areas were stratified based on the distance to wild animals’ habitats. A total of 95 household heads (HHs) from the two kebeles were interviewed using structured and semistructured questionnaires. Additional information was also gathered through focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews, and personal observation during data collection. About 84 (88%) of the respondents replied that wild animals had an effect on the livelihood of the local communities through both crop and livestock loss. The crop and animal loss was different across the distance categories of the study area ( P < 0.05 ). The highest proportion of loss was reported in the closest settlement than far-located settlements. The chi-square association test shows that there was a significant association ( P < 0.05 ) between livelihood activity across crops and domestic animal loss. The farmers who led their livelihoods in both farming and livestock activity reported higher animal and crop losses than the only farming or livestock activity. The crop types that were more raided by wild animals were maize and potato. The risks of crop raiding were significantly different among crop varieties ( P < 0.05 ). Wild animals affected crops in different development stages, and mature stage ranked the first followed by fruiting stage. Crop growth stages that were attacked by wild animals showed significant variations ( P < 0.05 ). Of the crop type that was attacked by wild animals, potato was highly attacked, which reaches to 113.8 quintals (28%), followed by maize 96 quintals (23%) and small millet 74.7 quintals (18%) within three years. The loss of crops in the kebeles was not significantly different ( P > 0.05 ). Wild animals also affected the domestic animals; accordingly, 79 (83.2%) of the respondents replied that wild animals attacked all domestic animals and the remaining 16 (16.8%) said wild animals attacked goats, sheep, and chickens. However, the animal loss in the kebeles was not significantly different ( P > 0.05 ). The trend of the population status of wild animals was significantly different among the perceptions of respondents ( P < 0.05 ). The settlement near the forest habitat of wild animals and habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and deforestation were the major causes of conflict. The proportion of the causes of human-wild animal conflict in the area was significantly different ( P < 0.05 ). According to the respondents, the most effective controlling mechanisms of the conflict were guarding, followed by fencing and slipping at night in cropland. Out of the total number of respondents, 65 (68.4%) said guarding is the most effective conflict control mechanism, for protecting both crop and livestock. To limit the negative impact of human-wild animal conflict, good wild animal habitat management is required, such as minimizing agricultural expansion and overgrazing, demarcating the forest habitats for wild animals only, and creating awareness among local communities.
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Reinhardt, Catherine, Annie Reinhardt, and Viktor Reinhardt. "Social behaviour and reproductive performance in semi-wild Scottish Highland cattle." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15, no. 2 (May 1986): 125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(86)90058-4.
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Collins, Courtney Keane, Sean McKeown, and Ruth O’Riordan. "Does an Animal–Visitor Interactive Experience Drive Conservation Action?" Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens 2, no. 3 (September 7, 2021): 473–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jzbg2030034.
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Inspiring visitors to engage in conservation-related behaviour following a zoo visit is a primary objective for most zoos. Animal–visitor interactive (AVI) experiences are often central to this goal. Yet, these interactive experiences are insufficiently evaluated from both the visitors’ and captive animals’ perspectives. The current study took place at Fota Wildlife Park and involved the construction of an environmental enrichment device during an interactive visitor experience with Sumatran tigers (Panthera tigris sumatrae). It aimed to simultaneously encourage pro-conservation behaviour in visitors and promote animal welfare. Visitors (n = 51) completed a survey, observed the tigers’ behaviour and made a pledge to help tigers in the wild after completion of the AVI. Tiger behaviour was simultaneously observed by a trained researcher using occurrence or non-occurrence sampling, which found no indication that tiger welfare was compromised during the activity and was likely enhanced by engaging with the enrichment. Additionally, visitors observed a range of tigers’ behaviours. The results indicated that some visitors (8%) had continued with their pledge six weeks after the experience, and most visitors exhibited a high level of knowledge and a positive attitude towards tigers. The use of enrichment during AVIs may be a positive link between the visitor experience and animal welfare. These results can be used to guide AVIs in zoos which aim to connect people with nature and drive pro-conservation behaviour in visitors.
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Bell, Jessica. "“There Is No Wild”." Society & Animals 23, no. 5 (November 3, 2015): 462–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685306-12341377.
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This paper documents the discourse used by contemporary circuses to justify their exploitation of nonhuman animals. The circus is undergoing redefinition due to cultural changes, animal welfare concerns, and political legislation. Critical Discourse Analysis is applied to a sample of articles (N= 128) on animals in circuses published inusnewspapers and magazines from 2007 to 2012. Analyses revealed that circus discourse attempts to (a) promote the circus as an ecologically important endeavor, (b) minimize the differences between human and nonhuman animals, (c) naturalize culturally induced behavior, (d) assert that captivity is preferable to the wild, and (e) collapse domesticity and wildness. These discursive strategies serve to legitimize, naturalize, and produce consent for the use of nonhuman animals in circuses. Furthermore, circus discourse conceptualizes nature and culture in ways that are ideologically significant and detrimental to the promotion of a conservation mindset.
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Westhoff, Katharina M., André Fetzer, Kathrin Büttner, Gerhard Schuler, Johannes Lang, and Michael Lierz. "Stress Assessment of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in Corral-Style Traps Using Serum Cortisol Levels." Animals 12, no. 21 (November 2, 2022): 3008. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12213008.
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Capture of wild boar in corral-style traps with subsequent culling is increasingly used for population management. The method is debated due to animal welfare concerns making welfare studies in traps necessary. While previous studies focused on behaviour and injuries, this study dealt with the physiological aspect. Cortisol levels in wild boar caught in corral-style traps (50–90 qm2, n = 138) were compared with those killed during single (n = 37) and driven hunts (n = 90). Collected sera were purified by solid phase extraction (SPE) and analysed via radioimmunoassay. Cortisol levels in blood samples were stable under cooled (4–7 °C) conditions for a storage time of up to 87 h before centrifugation. Cortisol levels were significantly higher in wild boar killed in corral-style traps than during driven hunts and single hunts. Wild boar caught in groups of five or more showed lower cortisol levels than single animals or in smaller groups. Therefore, time span inside the trap and of culling should be reduced to a minimum, and capturing groups of animals should be preferred to reduce stress. For animal welfare assessment of wild boar live-trapping, additional data from behavioural analyses and pathological examinations must be integrated.
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Veissier, Isabelle, and Mara Miele. "Animal welfare: towards transdisciplinarity – the European experience." Animal Production Science 54, no. 9 (2014): 1119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an14330.
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The premises of animal welfare science can be found in the debate about the moral status of animals in philosophy, the introduction of the concept of stress in physiology, and the description of the behaviour of animals by ethologists. In the 1970s animal welfare became an object of study for applied research with the aim of improving the life of domesticated animals. It was first studied within disciplines, e.g. applied ethologists compared the behaviour of domesticated animals to that of their wild counterparts and identified behavioural needs. Then it became clear that stress is more a psychological concept than a physiological one. The links between stress and behavioural needs and preferences were also established. Similarly the links between animal welfare and health were investigated by looking at malaise behaviour and at stress-immunity relations. More recently, frameworks developed in human psychology were applied to animals to identify the emotions they can experience. This typically requires that researchers from one discipline engage with other disciplines for a cross fertilisation of concepts and frameworks. Animal welfare scientists now use many indicators, covering a wide range of possible disorders from abnormal behaviour, diseases, production failure, and poor emotional states. Animal scientists started to work with social scientists to relate their own perception of animal welfare and that of society at large. This interdisciplinary approach is illustrated by the Welfare Quality project where an overall assessment of animal welfare was built according to scientific evidence of what matters to animals as seen by animal scientists and of what society value as good care to these animals. We feel that animal welfare requires breaking frontiers between disciplines to create a holistic approach. We discuss whether we need to move from an interdisciplinary to a transdisciplinary approach, across and beyond disciplines, whereby not only scientists but also stakeholders and society at large can contribute to the definition of this particular research object: animal welfare.
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Rodríguez, Verónica, J. Guillermo Seijo, Graciela I. Lavia, Aveliano Fernández, and Charles E. Simpson. "Meiotic Behaviour in Wild Diploid Arachis (Leguminosae) Species." CYTOLOGIA 69, no. 2 (2004): 209–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1508/cytologia.69.209.
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Evans, Caitlin A., Mark G. Trotter, and Jaime K. Manning. "Sensor-Based Detection of Predator Influence on Livestock: A Case Study Exploring the Impacts of Wild Dogs (Canis familiaris) on Rangeland Sheep." Animals 12, no. 3 (January 18, 2022): 219. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12030219.
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In Australia, wild dogs are one of the leading causes of sheep losses. A major problem with managing wild dogs in Australia’s rangeland environments is that sheep producers are often unaware of their presence until injuries or deaths are observed. One option for earlier detection of wild dogs is on-animal sensors, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking collars, to detect changes in the behaviour of sheep due to the presence of wild dogs. The current study used spatio-temporal data, derived from GPS tracking collars, deployed on sheep from a single rangeland property to determine if there were differences in the behaviour of sheep when in the presence, or absence, of a wild dog. Results indicated that the presence of a wild dog influenced the daily behaviours of sheep by increasing the daily distance travelled. Differences in sheep diurnal activity were also observed during periods where a wild dog was present or absent on the property. These results highlight the potential for on-animal sensors to be used as a monitoring tool for sheep flocks directly impacted by wild dogs, although further work is needed to determine the applicability of these results to other sheep production regions of Australia.
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Riddell, Pia, Monique C. J. Paris, Carolynne J. Joonè, Patrick Pageat, and Damien B. B. P. Paris. "Appeasing Pheromones for the Management of Stress and Aggression during Conservation of Wild Canids: Could the Solution Be Right under Our Nose?" Animals 11, no. 6 (May 27, 2021): 1574. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11061574.
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Thirty-six species of canid exist globally, two are classified as critically endangered, three as endangered, and five as near threatened. Human expansion and the coinciding habitat fragmentation necessitate conservation interventions to mitigate concurrent population deterioration. The current conservation management of wild canids includes animal translocation and artificial pack formation. These actions often cause chronic stress, leading to increased aggression and the suppression of the immune and reproductive systems. Castration and pharmaceutical treatments are currently used to reduce stress and aggression in domestic and captive canids. The undesirable side effects make such treatments inadvisable during conservation management of wild canids. Pheromones are naturally occurring chemical messages that modulate behaviour between conspecifics; as such, they offer a natural alternative for behaviour modification. Animals are able to distinguish between pheromones of closely related species through small compositional differences but are more likely to have greater responses to pheromones from individuals of the same species. Appeasing pheromones have been found to reduce stress- and aggression-related behaviours in domestic species, including dogs. Preliminary evidence suggests that dog appeasing pheromones (DAP) may be effective in wild canids. However, the identification and testing of species-specific derivatives could produce more pronounced and beneficial behavioural and physiological changes in target species. In turn, this could provide a valuable tool to improve the conservation management of many endangered wild canids.
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John, David T., and Beverly L. Smith. "Amebicidal Activity of Wild Animal Serum." Journal of Parasitology 83, no. 4 (August 1997): 757. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3284259.
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Langergraber, Kevin E., Christophe Boesch, Eiji Inoue, Miho Inoue-Murayama, John C. Mitani, Toshisada Nishida, Anne Pusey, et al. "Genetic and ‘cultural’ similarity in wild chimpanzees." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278, no. 1704 (August 18, 2010): 408–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.1112.
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The question of whether animals possess ‘cultures’ or ‘traditions’ continues to generate widespread theoretical and empirical interest. Studies of wild chimpanzees have featured prominently in this discussion, as the dominant approach used to identify culture in wild animals was first applied to them. This procedure, the ‘method of exclusion,’ begins by documenting behavioural differences between groups and then infers the existence of culture by eliminating ecological explanations for their occurrence. The validity of this approach has been questioned because genetic differences between groups have not explicitly been ruled out as a factor contributing to between-group differences in behaviour. Here we investigate this issue directly by analysing genetic and behavioural data from nine groups of wild chimpanzees. We find that the overall levels of genetic and behavioural dissimilarity between groups are highly and statistically significantly correlated. Additional analyses show that only a very small number of behaviours vary between genetically similar groups, and that there is no obvious pattern as to which classes of behaviours (e.g. tool-use versus communicative) have a distribution that matches patterns of between-group genetic dissimilarity. These results indicate that genetic dissimilarity cannot be eliminated as playing a major role in generating group differences in chimpanzee behaviour.
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Carder, Gemma, Tinka Plese, Fernando Machado, Suzanne Paterson, Neil Matthews, Laura McAnea, and Neil D’Cruze. "The Impact of ‘Selfie’ Tourism on the Behaviour and Welfare of Brown-Throated Three-Toed Sloths." Animals 8, no. 11 (November 19, 2018): 216. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani8110216.
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The use of wild animals as photo props is prevalent across the globe and is widely recognised to represent a potential animal welfare concern. However, detailed information regarding the specific impacts of such activity on wild animal behaviour is currently lacking. Herein, we investigated how brown-throated three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus) were handled by tourists, and how sloths behaved during wildlife ‘selfies’ taken in Manaus, Brazil and Puerto Alegria and Iquitos in Peru. In total, we observed 17 sloths (during 70 focal observations) that were provided for use in wildlife selfies on 34 different tours. We found that an average number of 5 people held each sloth during each focal observation. For 48.6% of the time the sloths were handled in a way which involved physical manipulation of the sloths’ head and/or limbs and/or being held by the claws. From the eight different types of sloth behaviour observed, we found that the two types performed for the longest average duration of time were surveillance (55.3%) and limb stretching (12.6%). Our findings show that when being handled sloths were frequently held in ways that may compromise their welfare. Although to date the behaviour of sloths while being handled has not been reported in any published literature, in this study we document certain behaviours which may act as indicators of compromised welfare. We suggest that our data provides a potential baseline for future study into the behaviour and welfare of sloths.
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Stewart, F. E. C., and A. G. McAdam. "Wild Peromyscus adjust maternal nest-building behaviour in response to ambient temperature." Canadian Journal of Zoology 95, no. 6 (June 2017): 411–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2016-0236.
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The heat dissipation limit (HDL) hypothesis suggests that energy output during lactation in mammals might be constrained by their ability to dissipate heat. This hypothesis predicts that wild mammals ought to adjust nest insulation in response to heat load, but these predictions have rarely been tested in wild mammals. Here we developed a simple score of nest-building for wild deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus (Wagner, 1845)) on an ordinal scale from 0 to 4, based on three qualitative and easy to observe aspects of nest-building behaviour: bedding quality, nest shape, and mouse visibility. We used this measure to track 472 nest-building observations across 14 wild P. maniculatus that were brought into captivity and housed under pseudoambient temperatures across one reproductive event. Our observations of nest-building behaviour of the genus Peromyscus Gloger, 1841 provide varying support for the HDL hypothesis; there is a negative effect of ambient temperature on nest-building behaviour and lactating females became more sensitive to temperature as days post partum increased. However, females generally build more elaborate nests in lactation than other reproductive states and there are no effects of litter size, total pup mass, or days post partum on nest scores during lactation. Our observations have broad implications for quantifying behaviours in nest-building species and metabolic relationships in wild mammals.
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Vitale, A. F., M. Tenucci, M. Papini, and S. Lovari. "Social behaviour of the calves of semi-wild Maremma cattle, Bos primigenius taurus." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 16, no. 3 (November 1986): 217–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(86)90115-2.
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Shepherd, Jon K., R. John Rodgers, Robert J. Blanchard, Linda K. Magee, and D. Caroline Blanchard. "Ondansetron, gender and antipredator defensive behaviour." Journal of Psychopharmacology 7, no. 1_suppl (January 1993): 72–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026988119300700111.
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The 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron has provided a somewhat equivocal profile in a number of animal models of anxiety. The present study assessed the effects of this compound in two ethological test batteries. The Fear/Defense Test Battery (F/DTB) and the Anxiety/Defense Test Battery (A/DTB) have been developed to investigate antipredator defensive reactions in rats. The F/DTB measures behavioural reactions of wild-trapped rats to human threat, while the A/DTB assesses behavioural responding in laboratory rats as a consequence of exposure to a domestic cat, and to cat odour per se. Ondansetron (0.001–0.10 mg/kg) failed to provide any reliable and consistent profile of anxiety/fear reduction in either test battery. In addition to the elucidation of drug effects, previous studies have provided clear evidence of gender differences with female rats showing higher levels of defensiveness than males in the A/DTB. Until now, no such differences have been observed with wild-trapped rats in the F/DTB. Thus, the present study indicated a clear gender difference with females exhibiting greater defensiveness. This finding is discussed with reference to the general decrease in defensiveness of the first generation animals compared with their wild-trapped parents.
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Tkaczynski, Patrick J., Alexander Mielke, Liran Samuni, Anna Preis, Roman M. Wittig, and Catherine Crockford. "Long-term repeatability in social behaviour suggests stable social phenotypes in wild chimpanzees." Royal Society Open Science 7, no. 8 (August 2020): 200454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.200454.
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Consistent individual differences in social phenotypes have been observed in many animal species. Changes in demographics, dominance hierarchies or ecological factors, such as food availability or disease prevalence, are expected to influence decision-making processes regarding social interactions. Therefore, it should be expected that individuals show flexibility rather than stability in social behaviour over time to maximize the fitness benefits of social living. Understanding the processes that create and maintain social phenotypes requires data encompassing a range of socioecological settings and variation in intrinsic state or life-history stage or strategy. Using observational data spanning up to 19 years for some individuals, we demonstrate that multiple types of social behaviour are repeatable over the long term in wild chimpanzees, a long-lived species with complex fission–fusion societies. We controlled for temporal, ecological and demographic changes, limiting pseudo-repeatability. We conclude that chimpanzees living in natural ecological settings have relatively stable long-term social phenotypes over years that may be independent of life-history or reproductive strategies. Our results add to the growing body of the literature suggesting consistent individual differences in social tendencies are more likely the rule rather than the exception in group-living animals.
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Fischer, C., and R. Tagand. "Spatial behaviour and survival of translocated wild brown hares." Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 35, no. 2 (December 2012): 189–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.32800/abc.2012.35.0189.
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The fragility of many populations of brown hares in Western Europe is a concern for managers, hunters and naturalists. We took advantage of a locally high density population to use wild individuals to restock areas where the species had disappeared or was close to disappearing. The aim of the project was to assess the evolution of the spatial behaviour after release using radio–tracking. Over 150 wild brown hares were translocated, one third of which were fitted with radio collars. In addition, fifteen individuals were radio–tagged and released back into the source population as a control. Most individuals settled in less than two months and their seasonal home range, once settled, was similar to that observed in the source population. Mean duration of tracking was not significantly different between the two groups. Moreover, two years after the last translocation, tagged individuals can still be observed, but most hares present are not tagged, which indicates natural reproduction of the released individuals. The translocation of wild individuals thus appears to give encouraging results.
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Ghai, Ria R., Vincent Fugère, Colin A. Chapman, Tony L. Goldberg, and T. Jonathan Davies. "Sickness behaviour associated with non-lethal infections in wild primates." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1814 (September 7, 2015): 20151436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.1436.
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Non-lethal parasite infections are common in wildlife, but there is little information on their clinical consequences. Here, we pair infection data from a ubiquitous soil-transmitted helminth, the whipworm (genus Trichuris ), with activity data from a habituated group of wild red colobus monkeys ( Procolobus rufomitratus tephrosceles ) in Kibale National Park, Uganda. We use mixed-effect models to examine the relationship between non-lethal parasitism and red colobus behaviour. Our results indicate that red colobus increased resting and decreased more energetically costly behaviours when shedding whipworm eggs in faeces. Temporal patterns of behaviour also changed, with individuals switching behaviour less frequently when whipworm-positive. Feeding frequency did not differ, but red colobus consumption of bark and two plant species from the genus Albizia , which are used locally in traditional medicines, significantly increased when animals were shedding whipworm eggs. These results suggest self-medicative plant use, although additional work is needed to verify this conclusion. Our results indicate sickness behaviours, which are considered an adaptive response by hosts during infection. Induction of sickness behaviour in turn suggests that these primates are clinically sensitive to non-lethal parasite infections.
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Woods, RE, and FD Ford. "Observations on the behaviour of the smoky mouse Pseudomys fumeus (Rodentia: Muridae)." Australian Mammalogy 22, no. 1 (2000): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/am00035.
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This study examined aspects of behaviour in a captive colony of smoky mice, Pseudomys fumeus, over a two year period. Wherever possible behaviours observed in the captive population are compared to data collected in a study of a wild population in south-eastern New South Wales. This paper provides the first recorded observations of behavior in this species. Both captive and wild populations of P. fumeus display strictly nocturnal circadian activity rhythms. In the captive study, P. fumeus were found to exhibit social interactions similar to some previously studied Pseudomys species. However, in the wild, the species was found to communally nest during the breeding season, behaviour not observed in other Pseudomys from similar habitats. P. fumeus in captivity can have more than two litters in one breeding season which suggests that their reproductive parameters are more flexible than previous studies of wild populations have shown. Field data indicate that post-partum oestrus can occur in this species, and that gestation lasts for approximately 30 days, although these observations are based on a small sample.
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González-Redondo P. "Maternal behaviour in peripartum influences preweaning kit mortality in cage-bred wild rabbits." World Rabbit Science 18, no. 2 (July 12, 2010): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2010.18.12.
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This study describes and models maternal nest-building and parturition behaviour in cage-bred wild rabbits (oryctolagus cuniculus), and its influence on the kits pre-weaning mortality. In a total of 91 litters, perinatal mortality was 33%; mortality during the nursing period was 16.05%, and therefore the accumulated mortality up to weaning was 43.94%. These mortality rates, higher than those described in the literature among domestic breeds, were linked to failures in maternal behaviour. Such failures included the non-introduction of straw into the nest box (41.8% of births), a lack of hair lining in the nest (28.6%), births in which one or all of the kits were born outside the nest box (18.7%), and births in which one or all of the kits were cannibalised by the doe (13.2%). Maternal behaviour in relation to the kits viability was modelled by performing multiple correspondence and cluster analyses with two dimensions and a 67.2% total inertia. The fi rst dimension (inertia: 0.400) was represented by the presence of hair in the nest box; the place where the kits were born (inside or outside the nest box), and the does previous experience (primiparous or multiparous), while the total number of kits born represents the second dimension (inertia: 0.272). Three maternal behaviour types were identified: types 1 and 3 representing births in which the failure of maternal behaviour at kindling led to high kit mortality. Maternal behaviour type 1 corresponds to primiparous does of parity orders 1 and 2 with a high number of total kits born and of stillborn kits. Type 3 births were characterised by all of the kits died during peripartum, with a high incidence of cannibalism. Type 2 included births of experienced does showing successful development of maternal behaviour, as well as high kits survival rates during the peripartum and nursing periods. Although wild rabbits are subject to the same modulating factors in the development of the maternal repertoire as domestic does, showed a lower preweaning viability due to the failure to display maternal behaviour during peripartum.<p class="MsoNormal"> </p>
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Stephan, Claudia, Jess J. D. Bahamboula, and Terry M. Brncic. "Responses to a poached conspecific in wild forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis)." Behaviour 157, no. 8-9 (September 8, 2020): 823–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-bja10025.
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Abstract The increased attention towards deceased conspecifics in various social animal species is one of the most intriguing conundrums in animal behaviour. The factors that might explain the observed behavioural variation amongst individuals remain nebulous. Here we analyse forest elephants’ (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) responses to a poached adult male conspecific, using remote camera trapping during a period of eight months. After completely avoiding the carcass site for over a week, females and males substantially differed in behavioural responses. Males consistently stayed longer around the remains, showed signs of increased arousal, interacted with the dead body, and twisted trunks with each other. Females, in contrast, were more passively explorative and preferred to visit the site without their dependent offspring. Findings show a previously unknown sexual-dimorphism in forest elephant behaviour towards a poached conspecific and raise the possibility that individuals might be able to infer further context-specific information about the event.
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Ben Mocha, Yitzchak, Roger Mundry, and Simone Pika. "Joint attention skills in wild Arabian babblers ( Turdoides squamiceps ): a consequence of cooperative breeding?" Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286, no. 1900 (April 3, 2019): 20190147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.0147.
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Human cooperation strongly relies on the ability of interlocutors to coordinate each other's attentional state: joint attention. One predominant hypothesis postulates that this hallmark of the unique cognitive system of humans evolved due to the combination of an ape-like cognitive system and the prosocial motives that facilitate cooperative breeding. Here, we tested this hypothesis by investigating communicative interactions of a cooperatively breeding bird species, the Arabian babbler ( Turdoides squamiceps ). The behaviour of 12 wild social groups was observed focusing on two distinct communicative behaviours: object presentation and babbler walk . The results showed that both behaviours fulfilled the criteria for first-order intentional communication and involved co-orientation of recipients' attention. In turn, recipients responded with cooperative and communicative acts that resulted in coordinated joint travel between interlocutors. These findings provide the first evidence that another animal species shows several key criteria traditionally used to infer joint attention in prelinguistic human infants. Furthermore, they emphasize the influence of cooperative breeding on sophisticated socio-cognitive performances, while questioning the necessity of an ape-like cognitive system underlying joint attentional behaviour.
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Lindsay, DR. "Reproductive Behaviour in Survival: A Comparison between Wild and Domestic Sheep." Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 41, no. 1 (1988): 97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bi9880097.
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The recorded behaviour of wild species of Ovis at the beginning of the breeding season supports the proposal that mating is synchronized by the 'ram effect', a phenomenon already described in domestic sheep. Animals separate into exclusive male flocks, and flocks of females and young animals for most of the year. They reunite just before the rutting season. At lambing there appear to be behavioural mechanisms that ensure that ewes lamb in close proximity to one another. It is hypothesized that these behavioural characteristics of wild sheep help protect the newborn and that much of the reproductive and maternal behaviour of domestic sheep may be traced to comparable behaviour in wild species.
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Baehren, Lucy, and Susana Carvalho. "Yet Another Non-Unique Human Behaviour: Leave-Taking in Wild Chacma Baboons (Papio ursinus)." Animals 12, no. 19 (September 27, 2022): 2577. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12192577.
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Leave taking is a common, possibly universal, feature of human social behaviour that has undergone very little empirical research. Although the importance remains unknown, it has been suggested to play an important role in managing separations, mitigating the risk, and increasing social bonding beyond the interaction itself. In nonhuman species, the literature is virtually absent, but identifying leave taking beyond humans may provide unique insights into the evolutionary history of this behaviour and shed light onto its proximate and ultimate function(s). Methods to study leave taking are not well-established, and the variation in definitions, measures, and control variables presented in past studies poses additional challenges. Baboons are a valuable model for investigating human behavioural evolution: as a flexible, highly adaptable, and social primate whose radiation is, similarly to humans, associated with the emergence of the African savannah biome. Using the framework and definition proposed by Baehren, we investigated the presence of leave taking in a wild, generalist primate and tested a range of candidate behaviours on prerecorded video footage: (1) self-scratching, (2) eye gaze, and (3) orientation in the direction of parting. Using multivariate analysis, controlling for interaction duration and individual variation, our results show that orientation in the direction of parting occurs predominantly before social separation events. These results indicate evidence of leave taking in a wild nonhuman population and contrast with previous ideas that this is a uniquely human behaviour. The presence of leave taking in baboons suggests a deep evolutionary history of this behaviour, warranting further investigation into its function and presence across other nonhuman primate species.
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Zhou, Jiang, Fuwen Wei, Ming Li, Chan Bosco Pui Lok, and Deli Wang. "Reproductive Characters and Mating Behaviour of Wild Nomascus hainanus." International Journal of Primatology 29, no. 4 (July 24, 2008): 1037–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10764-008-9272-7.
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BOAKE, CHRISTINE R. B., and ANNELI HOIKKALA. "Courtship behaviour and mating success of wild-caughtDrosophila silvestrismales." Animal Behaviour 49, no. 5 (May 1995): 1303–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1995.0162.
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Zuberbühler, Klaus. "Causal knowledge of predators' behaviour in wild Diana monkeys." Animal Behaviour 59, no. 1 (January 2000): 209–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1999.1296.
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Mitani, John C., and David P. Watts. "Correlates of territorial boundary patrol behaviour in wild chimpanzees." Animal Behaviour 70, no. 5 (November 2005): 1079–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.02.012.
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Sandel, Aaron A., and Rachna B. Reddy. "Sociosexual behaviour in wild chimpanzees occurs in variable contexts and is frequent between same-sex partners." Behaviour 158, no. 3-4 (February 2, 2021): 249–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-bja10062.
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Abstract Many animals engage in sociosexual behaviour, including that between same-sex pairs. Bonobos (Pan paniscus) are famous for their sociosexual behaviour, but chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) apparently do not engage in sociosexual behaviour frequently. However, sociosexual behaviour in chimpanzees may have been overlooked. We observed 584 instances of sociosexual behaviour in chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda during three years of study. All ages and sexes engaged in sociosexual behaviour, which included mounting, touching of genitals, and pressing genitals together. Most sociosexual behaviour was between adult males. Sociosexual behaviour was often during tense contexts, such as subgroup reunions and during territorial behaviour. Among males, grooming and dominance rank relationships do not explain patterns of sociosexual behaviour. Although sociosexual behaviour may be less frequent in chimpanzees than in bonobos, and bonobos remain distinct in their genito-genital rubbing, our findings suggest that sociosexual behaviour is a regular part of chimpanzee behaviour.