Academic literature on the topic 'Ancient raw materials economies'

This study, focusing on the China's Yao minority community, investigates the feasibility to create a generative computational method to replicate the diversity of the existing Yao traditional wood buildings, addressing the critical issues currently facing computational design methods, in the attempt to adapt genetic-generative algorithms to the study of local ancient architecture. The project develops a computational tool to generate a network of three-dimensional prototypes, or building structures, derived from traditional wood frame village houses. It studies possible housing structures that illustrate some of the key working methods available in digital systems such as ‘generating' and ‘compositing' taking as a starting point computational strategies oriented towards geometry and where a set of local variables play a decisive role: available local technologies, use of raw materials, and the dimensioning of timber components based on data collected from Yao architecture.

The COVID-19 pandemic worldwide is halting every economic activity—no exception for the industry that related or originated from crude palm oil (CPO). Planting, harvesting, processing, and even industries that require oil palm as the main or supporting raw material have been delayed or choked up due to this pandemic. Many health problems originate from the destruction of nature due to the excessive extraction of natural resources. This over-extraction causes alarming natural degradation. Many things, from pandemics to global warming, pose challenges due to this ancient economic pattern. Furthermore, environmental degradation gave birth directly or indirectly to COVID-19. Many scholars said the CPO planting and harvesting is affecting the natural environment badly. Hence, a new pandemic could be born out of this. Korea, as one of the rising manufacturing economies in Asia, also needs CPO for some of its industries to some extent, like food and cosmetics. Due to the growing demand for K-Pop byproducts, food and cosmetic industries in Korea need to catch up on the market even during and post the pandemic. Thus, with the growing concern of the natural environment in the post-pandemic world, then how it will impact the Korean food and cosmetic industry, which may need a lot of CPO as one of the sources or raw materials for production? In this paper, we argue that the economic interdependence of the global supply chain remains persistent despite adjustments and shifts due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This research was conducted in a descriptive qualitative manner with the economic interdependence paradigm as the main basis for presenting the arguments for this case's analysis. Keywords: CPO, Korea, Economic Interdependence, Post-Pandemic, COVID-19

Camels from ancient times as early as 1200 BC were used as military vehicle and have been associated with the Near East and the Arabian Peninsula. In modern times they remain an important element of Bedouin life and culture (animal protein, dairy products and raw materials, an effective desert vehicle of transport and an indication of wealth). As such, camels are an integral component of heritage and society, essential to the development of Bedouin economies in many regions in the Middle East, North Africa, and Asian regions. Here it is investigated the viability of addressing the topic of the impact on camels by the blockade that has affected Qatar since 5th June 2017 as a theme of historical memory in the Qatari heritage in the National Museum of Qatar (NMoQ). The topic addresses the value and significance of camels in the Qatar peninsula p until the 21st century, and the tragic impact of the blockade on camels and their owners and herders, particularly these which were herding camels across Qatar-Saudi borders. It provides another dimension of history, and archaeology, linked to heritage and society and discusses the way camels have been typically represented in museums in the region due to their cultural significance. Society interviews and media reports are used to support the discussion, which argues for the importance of documenting the historical and culture memory of camels in the new NMoQ.

The Yuan Dynasty was the real beginning of Shanghai, which was also one of the important hub areas of cotton planting and cotton textile spreading from the frontier to the inland in ancient China, but its specific situation and historical position were rarely studied. On the basis of carding the cotton textile technology, cotton output and the development of cotton commodity economy in this period, this paper reveals that the cotton textile industry in Shanghai played an important role in improving people's clothing and raw materials, improving local people's material living standards and promoting the economic development of Jiangnan areas and even the whole country in the Yuan Dynasty. It also laid a good foundation for the later development of Shanghai China's great historical development process, especially in economic development, has an indelible and non-negligible historical position.

Introduction. In early nomadic societies of Central Asia, gender was the major factor in the division of labor. However, the written sources and archaeological evidence in the field do not provide enough detail to describe this division, hence the solution to the problem may be sought in the ethnographical data of the peoples, nomadic in their recent past. The article aims to analyze the household responsibilities of men and women in the nomadic societies in Central Eurasia in the 18th – early 20th centuries to use this data for a reconstruction of the gender labor division of the early nomadic societies in the region. Materials and methods. The study makes use of published sources on the recent nomads. Notably, the present authors proceed from the fact that, granted the largely conservative character of nomadic economy and the regional environment that remained unchanged in the period in question, the forms of regional nomadic economies were largely of a similar type. Hence, it may be possible to use the data on recently nomadic peoples for the reconstruction of the economy, culture, and socio-economic structures of the ancient nomads of the Eurasian steppes. Results. The undertaken analysis of the sources indicates a clear gender division of economic activities in the Eurasian nomadic societies in the 18th – early 20th cc. Tradition prescribed the division of household duties into strictly male and female, and any violation of the gender roles was discouraged. Conclusions. The range of economic responsibilities of men and women was clearly circumscribed in the nomadic societies of Central Eurasia, their ethnic affiliation and religion playing no part in the existent labor division structures. Men took care of the herds, keeping them safe and enlarging their number; crafts were also largely men’s field; men’s duties included maintenance and protection of caravans, as well as protection of the family and aul, property and livestock from enemy raids and baranta. Women were involved in childcare and domestic chores, including processing of animal raw materials, looking after livestock in the aul, cooking food, and collecting fuel for winter seasons. Thus, the data on labor division between men and women characteristic of the recent nomads makes it possible to reconstruct the gender labor division in the societies of the early nomads in the Eurasian steppe.

Learning outcomes At the end of the case study discussion, students will able to state the importance of outsourcing with comparing pros and cons in business decision-making; review the value bestowed to the community in using sustainable raw material while at the same time conserving the ancient style of artwork particular to the area; discuss the utility of the products manufactured by “Flying Colours,” especially for the lockdown period which was because of the pandemic; and demonstrate and interpret the use of shark and mosquito bite matrix. Case overview/synopsis Arun Kumar Patni, 47, and his wife Neelima Patni, 43, are co-founders of Flying Colours, a start-up company based in Jaipur, in the state of Rajasthan, India. Their enterprise was engaged in the manufacturing and marketing of bird products and accessories, including bird feeders, bird houses, earthen water bowls, etc. In July 2020, post-lockdown, they were desperate to hire carpenters to restart their factory. However, COVID-19 posed a serious challenge, making it very difficult to replace their skilled carpenters, who had returned to their native places and had not come back. This disrupted production and order fulfilment. Keeping this situation in perspective in anticipation of the continuing pandemic crisis, Neelima was in favour of outsourcing basic production and designing the birdfeed decoration and artwork in-house. Meanwhile, Arun instead favoured continuing full in-house production as before, by hiring replacement carpenters. Yet for an in-house full-scale production, procuring raw material was a difficult task because of the lockdown. The situation had earlier taken a turn for the worse when Arun had advertised an exchange marketing policy to let customers return their old bird feeders for a 20% discount on a new one. This campaign was a huge success and resulted in a sales spike but unfortunately it caused a huge stock of returned products in their warehouse. Arun initially planned to repair and resell them as refurbished products. It now seemed impossible, because local carpenters demanded higher labour charges than the regular carpenters did. Flying Colours had provided skills workshops and hired external trainers to train unskilled carpenters prior to lockdown, so now all the training investment was in vain. Cash liquidity, sales, marketing, etc. were almost at a standstill. Complexity academic level This case particularly focuses on undergraduate-level students pursuing business or commerce programs, especially those studying core course: Entrepreneurial Strategic Management. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available for educators only. Subject code CSS 3: Entrepreneurship.

The article summarizes the results of many years geological and petrographic studies of lithic artifacts and raw materials sources for its production in the main Paleolithic complexes in the Altai Mountains. The work is based on the representative archaeological collections of the multi-layer sites of Karama, Ust-Karakol, Kara-Bom and caves Denisova, Kaminnaya, Okladnikova, Chagyrskaya, Strashnaya, as well as other Paleolithic sites. The geological characteristics of the study area are given, the factors that influenced the quality of raw materials are considered. Particular attention is paid to the criteria that could guide the ancient human in the selection of raw materials from pebble sources. The problem of the relationship between the petrophysical properties of one or another type of raw material and the technical and typological appearance of lithic industries is discussed. We concluded that the ancient population of Altai, starting from the Early Paleolithic, manufactured the tools using good knowledge of the raw materials specifc features and the skills of its selection.

The article deals with the imbalances and contradictions emerging in the context of the export of raw materials specifics of the national economy. A relationship between a high proportion of resource exports and negativities of socio-economic impacts for its development is detected. The article deals with the imbalances and contradictions emerging in the context of the export of raw materials specifics of the national economy. A relationship between a high proportion of resource exports and negativities of socio-economic impacts for its development is detected.

Purpose. The aim of the article is generalization of theoretical concepts of research of raw materials economies, which explain the interdependence of countries’ resource ownership and economic growth, and substantiation of the role of resources for commodity economies in the process of global integration. Methodology of research. The theoretical and methodological basis of the article is the fundamental provisions of modern economics. In the process of research the following methods were used: theoretical generalization and scientific abstraction – in substantiating the categorical and conceptual apparatus of research; method of system analysis – in the formation of the theoretical and methodological basis of the study and the structural structure of the study; method of comparative analysis – in identifying patterns and spatial differences of raw material economies in the context of global integration; methods of descriptive statistics and visual analysis – to visualize the main provisions of the study; methods of econometric modelling – to test hypotheses, identify relationships between key characteristics and formulate appropriate conclusions of the study. Findings. It is established that in modern conditions of strengthening the processes of integration of countries the role of resources in raw material economies is growing. The impact of the “Dutch disease” and the “resource curse” on the behaviour of countries with raw material economies and their participation in the process of global integration is considered. The distribution of countries by the share of land rent of natural resources in GDP is analysed. It is proved that the ownership of resources and the high share of the total rent of natural resources in GDP are not the cause of high competitiveness of countries. Originality. Conceptual bases of understanding the role of resources in the behaviour of countries with raw material economies are deepened. Scientific and methodological approaches to understanding the behaviour of countries with raw material economies and their participation in the process of global integration have been improved. Practical value. The results of the conducted study can be used to determine the potential opportunities for the export potential of the country, taking into account the specifics of the functioning of commodity economies in the process of global integration. Key words: global integration; raw material economies; resources; “Dutch disease”; “resource curse”; competitiveness; national economies; economic growth.

Ce travail de doctorat se fonde sur une constatation faite lors des recherches que nous avons menées pour le mémoire de Master, à savoir : les archéologues éprouvent des difficultés à intégrer des approches économiques à leurs données. En effet, les sciences économiques ne font pas partie des ressources mobilisées par les archéologues qui se tournent habituellement vers les sciences sociales, l’ethnologie, ou la géographie. Les matières premières nous ont paru être un bon angle d’approche car elles permettent d’aborder les circuits économiques internes à un espace chrono-culturel. C’est pour cette raison que nous avons choisi d’étudier le sel et le fer dans une région qui englobe la Lorraine et le Bade-Wurtemberg aux premier et second âges du Fer (6e-1er siècles av. J.-C.). Le sel et le fer sont deux ressources cruciales, chacune à leur manière, avec des mécanismes d’offre et de demande précis débouchant sur des marchés déterminés. Nous avons cherché à savoir ce que les données sur la production et la consommation peuvent révéler des économies protohistoriques
The subject of the present doctoral work is based on the observation made during the research we carried out for the Master’s degree, namely that archaeologists find it difficult to integrate economic approaches into their data. Indeed, they prefer to turn to social science, ethnography and geography than to economics which is not part of the resources they mobilise. Raw materials seemed to us to be a pertinent angle to start with because they make it possible to come to grips with the internal economic circuits of a chrono-cultural space. That is why we chose to study salt and iron in the geographical area encompassing Lorraine and Baden-Württemberg in the first and second Iron Ages (6th-1st centuries BC). Salt and iron are both crucial resources, each in their own way, with precise supply and demand mechanisms which lead to specific markets. We investigated what production and consumption data can reveal about protohistoric economies

Les sociétés Mochica ou Moché (IIe-IXe s. apr. J.-C.) ont laissé un nombre important de sites archéologiques sur la côte nord du Pérou qui conservent des objets céramiques d’un caractère exceptionnel d’un point de vue morphologique, décoratif et technique. Ces dernières années, les céramiques Mochica ont été étudiées d’un point de vue archéologique et ethnoarchéologique. Notre étude vise à les étudier en employant les méthodes et les techniques de l’archéométrie. Nous proposons ainsi une étude croisée de sciences appliquées, d'archéologie et d’ethnoarchéologie pour tenter de répondre à des problématiques archéologiques parfaitement définies dans le temps (VIIIe-Xe s. apr. J.-C.) et dans l’espace (site archéologique Mochica San José de Moro dans la partie basse de la vallée de Jequetepeque). Nous nous interrogeons sur l’exploitation des ressources naturelles, la production et la consommation de céramiques rituelles. L’objectif de notre recherche est de discuter et de définir des choix techniques céramiques (locaux et régionaux) en définissant leurs spécificités: technologies, matières premières, importations ou productions locales. Cet apport permet de participer à la connaissance de l'histoire de cette civilisation et des civilisations contemporaines et voisines, notamment Cajamarca et Huari. Pour y parvenir, les principaux sujets de recherche qui ont été développés concernent l’étude des typo-chronologies Moché, l’étude archéologique des productions Mochica et Cajamarca, l’étude archéologique de l’exploitation des ressources en matières premières à l’échelle locale ou régionale, l’étude des procédés techniques employés dans la fabrication de céramiques découvertes à San José de Moro. Une discussion théorique est également menée sur les styles techniques des céramiques de ce site. Les résultats de nos recherches ont permis d’établir que les céramiques Mochica sont issues de processus productifs homogènes, d’affirmer que les objets à décoration polychrome ont été produits avec les mêmes matières employées pour la production des objets Mochica bichrome, et de définir que les potiers Mochica et Cajamarca n'ont pas échangé de matières premières pour la fabrication des pâtes céramiques. Enfin, l’existence des parallèles technologiques concernant les décors des céramiques entre ces deux sociétés, a été démontrée
Mochica or Moche societies (2nd-9th c. A.D.) left a significant number of archaeological sites on the north coast of Peru which preserve ceramic objects of an exceptional character of a morphological, ornamental and technical point of view. In recent years, the Mochica ceramics have been studied by archaeological and ethnoarchaeological approaches. The first aim of our research is to study them thanks to the methods and the techniques of the archaeological sciences. In this context, we developed a crossed study of applied sciences (physico-chemical analyses of materials), archaeology and ethnoarchaeology approaches to try to answer archaeological problems perfectly defined in time (8th-10th c. A.D.) and space (archeological Mochica site of San José de Moro). The questions deal with the exploitation of raw material resources, the production, and in particular, the consumption of ritual ceramics. The major aim of our research is to discuss and define ceramic technical styles by defining technologies, raw materials, imports or local productions, in order to characterize and understand the history of this civilization and the history of contemporary and nearby civilizations (Cajamarca and Huari). The main subject in this research concerns the study of typo chronologies Moche, the archaeological study of the Mochica and Cajamarca productions, the archaeological study of the exploitation of the resources in raw materials at a local or a regional level, the study of the technical processes of ceramic productions discovered at San José of Moro. Then a theoretical discussion is carried out about the technical styles of ceramics preserved on the site. To conclude, our studies allowed, for example, to establish that Mochica ceramics were elaborated on homogeneous productive processes, to assert that Moche objects with poly-chrome decoration were produced with the same raw materials used for the production of Moche objects with bi-chrome decoration, and to define that Mochica and Cajamarca potters did not exchange raw materials for manufacturing ceramic bodies. Finally, the existence of technological parallels between these two societies, particularly as regards the decorations of ceramics, has been demostrated

Water was a source of wealth which facilitated, fostered or brutally halted economic development in the Ancien Regime. Lack of hygiene meant that water was used less for drinking than other drinks, but as a raw material, source of energy, cooling, rinsing and cleansing agent, water was unequalled. It played a role in public and private relaxation and in health. Water also proved to be an ideal, safe and cheap means of transporting goods and ideas. Urban historians have long pointed to the enormous comparative advantage enjoyed by towns and regions whose favourable maritime or riverine location gave them access to cheap water-borne transport. But water just as often posed a threat to economic development and prosperity, whether due to its absence or its specific composition or level of pollution or to uncontrollable abundance. This duality is still present today in our modern, globalised society. While huge quantities of fresh, potable water are wasted in the West, free or cheap access to fresh and abundant water supplies remains a major challenge for millions of individuals on the planet. Major floods in different parts of the world regularly cause economic damage and endless human suffering. With a Settimana devoted to the management of the water supply, excluding related topics as water consumption, water transport and the use of water in agriculture and industry, the Istituto Datini is seeking to draw attention.

Globally, raw materials play a central role and are a key factor in determining the economic power and growth of modern states, confederations and coalitions. The extraction and supply of raw materials is a main driving force in global trade today, but has also profoundly influenced human economic and cultural history. In order to elucidate the importance of mineral ores in pre-modern societies, PhD students and staff at the Leibniz graduate school “Raw Materials, Innovation and Technology of Ancient Cultures” [RITaK] – a co-operation between the German Mining Museum [Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, DBM] and the Ruhr-University Bochum [RUB] – were involved in interdisciplinary research. This publication contains the results of the international RITaK end-of-project conference, held from the 27th-29th of September, as well as contributions to the RITaK workshop “Perspectives for an Economic Archaeology”, held on the 22nd and 23rd of November 2013. At a theoretical and model-building level, the first seven articles provide archaeological, sociological and economic perspectives on the diverse economic, cognitive, cultural and social feedback processes set in motion by the appropriation and use of raw materials. The following contributions focus on different archaeological and historical cultures in Europe, Central Asia and the Mediterranean area from the Neolithic to the Middle Ages. Raw material processing and preparation, metal recycling, prehistoric and historic mining, the exchange mechanisms involving raw materials and their products, as well as technology and knowledge transfer, are all covered. Together, the 23 contributions to this volume offer the possibility for intensive engagement with the theme of resources and their influence on and entanglement with human behaviour, mentalities, knowledge acquisition, technological and social developments and even the relationship between people and their environments and the human appropriation of space.

Alaska’s central gulf coast encompasses four environmentally diverse regions stretching from Prince William Sound to the Pacific coast of the Alaska Peninsula. Despite their unique geographic and biological settings, these regions have a distinct and cohesive cultural history. Here, the historic distribution of Alutiiq or Sugpiaq peoples reflects the distribution of prehistoric cultures, illustrating a broadly unified evolutionary trajectory. Archaeological data from the past 4,000 years suggest the development of prosperous, permanent villages from smaller, more fluid foraging communities through human ingenuity—the ability to harvest resources with increasing efficiency and to manage inevitable fluctuations in the availability of foods and raw materials in a productive but dynamic environment. Together, changes in climate, population growth, technological innovation, and interaction with other peoples shaped the central gulf’s ancient societies into the powerful corporate groups recorded historically.

The role of emerging markets is changing in the twenty-first century, from the traditional provider of low-cost, labor-intensive goods to a global growth engine. These emerging economies are growing at double the rate of advanced economies because of technology and global connectivity. Traditionally they have been big exporters of commodities and raw materials to the rest of the world. The export of commodities has contributed significantly to the development of industrial and physical infrastructure in many countries around the world. However, emerging markets are also lucrative markets and an important source of growth for many international companies as they export their products or increase their presence in these markets by opening subsidiaries or through joint venture mechanisms. Today these markets are coming into their own, moving from sole source exporters feeding the world’s growth to becoming increasingly significant normative economic members of the global family.

At a basic level, the lowland Classic Maya economy was a complex web of prestige exchange, centralized distribution, and local market economies. While it is important not to consider the lowland Classic Maya economic system as monolithic, it is also as critical to understand how it articulated with the different levels of social hierarchy. In this chapter, we address the distribution of utilitarian goods in the ancient Maya economy through comparisons of lithic resources, particularly chert, in northwestern Petén and western Belize. We find that access to locally available raw materials affects the involvement of actors of differing sociopolitical status in lithic production and distribution.

Abstract The economy of the ancient Mesopotamian city was not restricted to the primary activities of food production and processing. The manufacture of goods, both common utensils and luxury items, found in abundance in the archaeological and textual records, was also a major economic enterprise. Craft production was not limited to cities: village craftsmen produced a variety of goods for the local market as well. But manufacture in cities, or administered by urban institutions, was clearly more extensive, more complex, and of greater importance to the Mesopotamian economy. In this chapter I will investigate how crafts in Mesopotamia depended on the city, and especially how they were intrinsically connected to international trade. Their reliance on cities was threefold: first, the producers could only be supported in an urban economy where a food surplus was available; second, the variety of raw materials needed for manufacture was only available in cities where both local supplies, such as reed and wool, and foreign ones, such as metal ores, were collected; third, the clientele was an urban one, which either used the finished products locally or exported them.

The proposed section of the collective monograph is devoted to the industrial development analysis of the Right-Bank Ukraine three provinces’ (Kyiv, Podillia, Volyn) with a total area of 154643 sq. km and a population of 4683860 in the mid-1840s. That was the time when the first clear signs of commodity industrial production appeared in a large number of local landowners’ estates, took place the spread of manufacturing, focused mainly on local raw materials and the local market. It was in the mid-1840s that not only descriptive but also statistical sources of historical and economic orientation became widespread, which is greatly expanding the researcher’s ability to create reconstructive models of ancient times economic processes. The purpose of our study is to identify the nature and degree of industrial specialization of the Right-Bank Ukraine’ 36 districts in various industries, marketability of production through its volume, fixed in monetary terms. The research methodology is determined by the features of the information base, which combines descriptive and statistical sources. Accordingly, first we give a general description of the local industry, its raw material base, organization and technology, the approximate range of consumers. In the second stage, based on the statistical data presented in the relevant tables, we use multidimensional statistical cluster analysis to make a meaningful classification of 36 districts by the nature and direction of their industrial specialization. As a result, we obtain a model which elements are grouped by common qualitative characteristics, the distance (degree of similarity or difference) between objects and groups can be measured by multidimensional scaling (in our case – the distance in Euclidean space). Macrogroup A from 7 districts of the northern part of the region with a population nearby 799600 was received 85,8% of industrial revenues from the processing of livestock products. Macrogroup E united 14 districts, mainly in the southern zone of the Dnieper Right-Bank, with a population of 1616370. It was characterized by in-depth specialization in the plant origin products processing, from which 96,7% of industrial profits were received. Macrogroup C represented by one district of Kyiv with the central regional city and a total population of 176280. Only here 76,5% of industrial profits came from the processing raw materials of mineral origin. Macrogroup D includes 8 districts in the south of the Right Bank with a population of 1090600 people and natural conditions equally suitable for crop and livestock production. Hence the balance of the processing industry and revenues from it – 48,5% of processing of crop products and 44,5% of processing of livestock products. Macrogroup B included 6 districts with a population of 816350, whose farms did not have a narrow production specialization: 26,1% of industrial profits came from processing of plant products, 33,6% from processing of livestock products, 40,3% of industrial profits from processing of minerals. The practical significance of our study is that the results obtained can be used in the construction of broader paleoeconomic reconstructions, in the educational process, in writing scientific articles and monographs. The originality and scientific novelty of the work lies in the formulation of the problem, the methodology used, the results obtained. Such a study for the Right-Bank Ukraine region of the mid-1840s is conducted for the first time.

A concern for the growth and utilization of sheep is raised since ancient times in Romania. The development of livestock sector is determined by the climate and the geographical configuration with the availability of grasslands maintained by transhumants. The pastoralism founded a domestic processing of milk, wool and leather products with positive socio-economic implications on material and spiritual life of local people. The sheep breeds prevailed until the 20th century were ‘Tucana’ and ‘Stogose’ and, to a lesser extent, ‘Tisigai’. These breeds, generally unimproved, have a profound fitness and resistance to harsh weather conditions. These breeds were also fit for traveling long routes in search of food. The utilization of a sheep breed is determined by the national economic demand, productivity potential of the breed, available, technology, improvement and utilization methods of the breed. The said sheep breeds were appreciated because they produce a diversity of products having superior nutritional or economic values. It is known especially for its white wool, which is used in domestic industry for making clothes and other products including artifacts, textiles, Persian carpets, etc. Considering the local natural conditions and the national economic demands, the sheep husbandry was assisted continuously to support intensive and multilateral development producing the necessary raw materials for the textile, fur, leather and food industry. Both research and the technical developments have contributed to the zootechnical field geared to resolve the problems appeared in the development of sheep. The scientific knowledge and expertise need to be combined with application skills leading to the development and modernization of complex technologies helping growth of sheep products.

This book aims to establish knowledge of the infrastructure and organization of the excavated cities in Late Bronze Age (LBA), or New Kingdom Egypt (c.1550–1069 BC), and provide an understanding of the accessibility and control of the high-status products and the raw materials and tools used for their manufacture. This is done by analysing the distribution of the artefactual and structural evidence of the manufacture of high-status goods from three sites used as case-studies, namely Amarna, in Middle Egypt, Gurob, in the Faiyum region, and Malqata, in ancient Thebes (Chapters 2–5). It attempts to achieve some knowledge of the control and distribution of the finished goods, highlighting buildings and areas in the settlements that were involved in the production, and others that would be the consumers of high-status goods. By detecting some mutual patterns between the sites analysed, it has been possible to achieve an understanding of urban high-status manufacture throughout the New Kingdom and its influence on the internal organization and status of settlements. Moving inwards, the study then focuses on workshops, their layouts and functionality (Chapters 6 and 7). A number of research questions will be answered, which address the issues of settlement status, craft production and its social context, the character of workshops as well as their influence on LBA settlements. These questions are presented in Sections 1.1–1.6 together with the data and methods used to address them. In the discussion of the status of a larger settlement we have to take into account the work and opinions of previous scholars. Trigger, for instance, differentiates between two approaches to settlement archaeology as a whole: (a) one focusing on the location, size, spacing, material culture, and activities, as opposed to another (b) focusing on the interactions of their environmental, economic, and technological determinants. While much information concerning the first approach existed by this date, he states that at the time of publication (in the early 1970s) there was still a lack of understanding concerning the economic and technological interactions within the settlements.

Various lines of data from two large, Classic-period cities—Tikal and Chunchucmil—support the existence of marketplace exchange. Nevertheless, a multivariate analysis of artifact inventories from lower status households at the two cities showed strongly divergent patterns in access to exotic goods. Though these households at both Tikal and Chunchucmil had ready access to obsidian and other materials, suggesting marketing, wealth significantly affected access to exotic goods in low-status households at Tikal but not at low-status households at Chunchucmil. In other words, at a micro-level, important differences in exchange systems existed even when the two sites appear to have similar forms of exchange at a macro-level. This chapter provides explanations for the divergence.

After 2000 year, there are series workings for solving problem which is the poor people has got very low earning. The micro finance companies importance increased during this period for breaking the beggary, give strong to the women. The reason of giving to micro finance credit is given for react to entrepreneurship capital, buying for raw materials and buying for machinery and equipment. In 1990 after the independence, Kyrgyzstan which is one of the developing countries has created suitable economic conditional for micro finance credits. It has grown up because the financial sector is not developed and populations’ earning is not too much. In this study, there was a research about micro credit application in Kyrgyzstan.

The high demand for energy, food, and raw materials is putting an enormous strain on ecosystems around the planet. Therefore, the indus­trial strategies of many countries rely on the so-called green plan and tran­sition toward climate neutrality. In this sense, the need for new materials greatly exceeds the existing possibilities and capacities. Critical materials are raw materials that have great economic importance and for which there is a probability of shortage. Since the world is facing more and more serious problems, whether it is an economic crisis, a pandemic, or war conflicts, the general character of the present and, one would say, future time, is uncer­tain. Prediction of uncertainty is a task that decision-makers must keep in mind when deciding on the present and the future, not only of economies but of entire ecosystems and populations as a whole. The paper shows how critical materials affect development and growth, and the fulfillment of en­vironmental requirements, using examples from various industries.

The Nabucco Project is a project, which aims to transport rich natural gas resources of the Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East to the European market via Turkey. In this study, the Nabucco Project was evaluated within context of the energy supply security concept and international politics. Firstly, interdependence between national power and energy supply security was investigated. How oil and natural gas became strategic raw materials of world politics beyond being primary energy resources of the global economy was examined. It was found that discovery of rich oil and natural gas resources in the Central Asia and the Caucasus after the Cold War turned the region into a focus of interest of the global and regional actors. In this connection, perspectives of the global and regional actors about the Nabucco Project were examined. As a result of analyses and evaluations, it was concluded that the Nabucco Project is a project that can significantly enhance Turkey’s geopolitical importance and make Turkey one of the key countries of the east-west energy corridor.

Food security is one of the most important aspects of socio-economic development in Kyrgyzstan. Therefore, studies done in this field of research are of significant theoretical and practical interest. Resolutions of food security issues are one of the conditions for the preservation of state sovereignty, economic security and social stability in society, ultimately, national security. Food safety is important, in terms of strategic interests of the country, and its solution requires: to satisfy public demand for food products; providing industry with raw materials of local manufacture; preservation of social, political and social stability in society; to prevent dependency of the national economy on changes; conditions related to the world markets, the development of internal agricultural production, food and processing industry; neutralization of some import to ensure stable employment and income in rural areas; preservation of ethnic - national characteristics of the local population by creating opportunities for 'survival' of the village: prevention of major foreign exchange expenditure on food imports: the neutralization of the negative impact on the local food market crises in foreign countries - exporters and importers of food products.

The growth in world population, global climate change, consumption habits of people, and the excessive use of prime materials, causes natural resources to decline rapidly. We waste more energy during the process of production, operation and transportation of materials than ever. Perhaps one of the most important challenges that our generation faces is to create an economy that prevents waste. Considering limited resources, countries are searching for new methods of recycling and reusing waste material. Recycling is one primary way to reduce the consumption of natural resources. Waste material can go through a reproduction process with various physical and chemical transformation methods. The recycling of petrochemicals used in the automotive industry, electrical appliances, steel and cement industries, and the improvement of the transportation sector can reduce energy consumption and raw material significantly. Investment in recycling facilities can maximize profits by turning waste back into the economy. In Turkey, the improvements on the subject of recycling of materials such as plastics and paper are observed. However, we almost see no recycling in the construction industry, except iron and steel sector. Demolition materials in other countries are included in the reproduction processes through recycling. Thus both the benefits of reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions are at a minimum. Therefore, this study focuses on the recycling in the Turkey construction industry. The research also investigates the impact of recycling of construction materials to the economy and the environment based on the data and knowledge obtained from some European countries.

Today, rapidly industrialization and an accompanying increase of the world population cause diminishing of the limited amount of natural resources. The purpose of this study is to examine the recycling applications in the construction industry and to investigate the contribution of scrapped tires to construction industry and national economy. The construction industry is one of the fields that has the largest raw material consumption. Due to the high demand for the construction materials recycling is often employed and provide a significant economic contribution. Today, scrapped tires both exist abundantly and are currently worthless wastes. This wastes not only pollute the environment but also cause negative effects on the human healthy. Because of this reason, old tires are either reduced to certain dimension or melted in the recycling plants. The new products that therefore emerges is added in to the hot mix asphalt and then used in highway constructions, which are a significant capital expenditure for the national economy. As a result of this study, it is reveal that recycling in the construction industry has very significant positive contribution to natural environment and the existing recycling resources are not well-utilized. Moreover, the applications that have been done so far provided significant contributions to the national economy. Consequently, recycling studies should be speeded up and governmental supports should be put into practice.

The relationships among input, production and market suddenly broke down after the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The reflections of this disintegration are deeply felt in the Central Asian and in the Caucasian economies, which lack the traditions of being a government. The imbalances in the supply and demand, such as shutting down of factories due to breakdown of production relations and the resulting severe rise in the unemployment rate, caused a transition recession. As well-known in the literature, the main reason behind this is the interdependency of the production structures in these newly independent former Soviet countries. Large industrial establishments were left alone due to lack of sufficient raw materials and other inputs, due to lack of new technologies, and/or due to political void resulting from the transition period. In the newly established economic and political system, all of these countries, namely Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, try to realize their economic growth and development by specializing in the production of goods in which they have an economic advantage in terms of competitiveness. In this study, the effects of competitiveness on economic growth is investigated for these 7 countries during the 1995-2010 period using panel data analysis based on the Lafay index. In the light of the results of this research, policy recommendations are attempted in order to determine the sectors in which these countries are more competitive and hence to suggest ways of increasing their economic growth rate.

A high level of a country’s foreign trade is related to the growth of foreign earnings, to the acceleration of investments, to increase employment and contributes significantly to the growth of the country's economy. In this context, SMEs as one of the mile stones of the economy, foreign trade and economic growth are located in the leading roles. Especially SMEs sufficiently developed oppressed against strong opponents abroad, government policies or practices in trade restrictive policies are some of the reasons for this downside. SMEs that exports goods, or the infrastructure needed to produce goods for SMEs who import raw materials as well as the country's foreign trade policies and developments in the world economy is important. SMEs to follow the development, recognizing competitors, new markets, new products is very important in terms of growth both business and the countries. In this study, SMEs engaged in foreign trade in Sivas Province performing an application on in terms of both the business and government policy at the local level status will be examined. Data will be obtained on issues such as ultimately foreign trade potential of existing SMEs while doing foreign trade problems they face, strengths and weaknesses, market policies at national and international levels, the opinions about the state's foreign trade policy. The results obtained from the data on SMEs engaged in foreign trade by making general inferences about the data obtained on a micro scale, will allow making inferences on the macro scale.

The article deals with the content of economic growth as an economic category through determining its type, indicators and factors. It proposed grading factors based on the various existing theoretical approaches. With all the variety of growth factors and options for sorting the basic separation occurs in the direct and indirect factors, internal and external, intensive and extensive, the factors of supply, demand and distribution, controlled and uncontrolled factors, factors of economic and non-economic, interchangeable and supplemented growth factors. The author points out the main trends and features of economic growth, determining the pace and quality of economic growth in Russia at the present stage of development. The methodological basis of the study is the dialectical method of knowledge, which allows to study economic phenomena and processes in their constant interaction and development. Sources of data in the study is an analytical and statistical materials the IMF, the World Bank and the Federal State Statistics Service. Formulate a set of restrictions for sustainable economic growth in Russia, due to the influence of various kinds of factors. As highlighted in its basic elements: the raw structure of Russian exports, weak competitiveness of downstream industries, the economic sanctions imposed in 2014 by the Western countries, reducing the purchasing power of the ruble against the reserve currencies. The results may help to improve the efficiency of stimulating the development and maintenance of high economic growth in the implementation of measures of state regulation both in Russia and in other countries.

In Colombia, as well as in the rest of the world, the Covid-19 pandemic has seriously damaged the health and well-being of the people. In order to limit the damage, local and national authorities have had to order large sectors of the population to be confined at their homes for long periods of time. An inevitable consequence of isolation has been the collapse of economic activity, expenditure, and employment, a phenomenon that has hit many countries of the world affected by the disease. It is an unprecedented crisis in modern times, not so much for its intensity (which is undoubtedly immense), but because its origin is not economic. That is what makes it so unpredictable and difficult to manage. Naturally, its economic consequences are enormous. Governments and central banks from all over the world are struggling to mitigate them, but the final solution is not in the hands of the economic authorities. Only science can provide a way out. In the meantime, the economic indicators in Colombia and in the rest of the world cause concern. The output falls, the massive loss of jobs, and the closure of businesses of all sizes have become daily news. Added to this, there is the deterioration in global financial conditions and the increase in the risk indicators. Financial volatility has increased and stock indexes have fallen. In the face of the lower global demand, export prices of raw materials have fallen, affecting the terms of trade for producing countries. Workers’ remittances have declined due to the increase of unemployment in developed countries. This crisis has also generated a strong reduction of global trade of goods and services, and effects on the global value chains. Central banks around the world have reacted decisively and quickly with strong liquidity injections and significant cuts to their interest rates. By mid-July, such determined response had succeeded to revert much of the initial deterioration in global financial conditions. The stock exchanges stopped their fall, and showed significant recovery in several countries. Risk premia, which at the beginning of the crisis took an unusual leap, recorded substantial corrections. Something similar happened with the volatility indexes of global financial markets, which exhibited significant improvement. Flexibilization of confinement measures in some economies, broad global liquidity, and fiscal policy measures have also contributed to improve global external financial conditions, albeit with indicators that still do not return to their pre-Covid levels.

When considering countries of phenomenal economic development and growth, Korea is among the top tiers. While there are other economies with similar economic growth, including those of Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, the economic growth of Korea is exceptional considering that the country lacked basic economic foundation in the past. R. Lucas Jr. (1993), a Nobel Laureate in economics and also a renowned scholar of the respective field, praised the country's economic success, by stating that "I do not think it is in any way an exaggeration to refer to this continuing transformation of Korean society as a miracle". As an evidence for his argument, he asserted "Never before have the lives of so many people undergone so rapid an improvement over so long a period, nor is there any sign that this progress is near its end". Yet, the history of Korea is more than just its outcome; it is the history of continuous national ordeal, a series of challenges and crisis that required people to toil night and day to overcome the situation. If it were not for today's splendid economic success, it would have been more appropriate to describe the history of Korea as that of wretchedness and misery. The fact that South Korea became one of the leading nations in the world is nothing less than a miracle, considering that it underwent many hardships after its independence such as fratricidal Korean War, a long period of dictatorship, 4.19 revolution as a reactionary to the dictatorship, 5.16 military coup, the engagement in the Vietnam War, two oil crises, another military coup afterwards, civil revolutions, a foreign exchange crisis, and the global economic crisis. Economic growth means value-added increase in a certain period of time. To boost this value-added increase, the elements of production such as labor, capital, and land must be both accumulated and invested. Furthermore, it requires the effective use of these elements by combining them when necessary, so that the best value can be drawn out. In other words, the vital factor in economic growth is raising productivity. Then, given similar situations, how come some countries show different performance in factor accumulation or productivity improvement? The accumulation of resources and increase of productivity depend on economic incentive. Proper institution in an economy that provides incentives for economic agents enables factors to flow and to be accumulated where productivity is high. It also gives motivation for innovation and improvement of productivity. Competition in product markets and acquisition of resources and raw materials with low cost through an open-door policy can induce the accumulation of elements and improvement of technology, where in a broader perspective, open-door policy can also be considered as a part of institution.The growth of the Korean economy is unique since only a few economies could demonstrate compatibly high growth rates for a long period. However, at the same time, Korea's case is never unique as its success story is based on factor accumulation, productivity enhancement and, most of all, a fundamental called institution. Its growth was possible due to the fact that there was a proper functioning of market backed by the establishment of proper institutions. The Korean government indeed worked favorably towards the establishment of institution and running of economy in a market-friendly manner. Some features of its growth pattern are worthwhile to be illustrated as there are still a large number of developing countries and high income countries with unstable institutions worldwide, which could gain from a part of Korea's story, at least, and collect substantial knowledge for their future growth.

Macroeconomic summary Several factors contributed to an increase in projected inflation on the forecast horizon, keeping it above the target rate. These included inflation in December that surpassed expectations (5.62%), indexation to higher inflation rates for various baskets in the consumer price index (CPI), a significant real increase in the legal minimum wage, persistent external and domestic inflationary supply shocks, and heightened exchange rate pressures. The CPI for foods was affected by the persistence of external and domestic supply shocks and was the most significant contributor to unexpectedly high inflation in the fourth quarter. Price adjustments for fuels and certain utilities can explain the acceleration in inflation for regulated items, which was more significant than anticipated. Prices in the CPI for goods excluding food and regulated items also rose more than expected. This was partly due to a smaller effect on prices from the national government’s VAT-free day than anticipated by the technical staff and more persistent external pressures, including via peso depreciation. By contrast, the CPI for services excluding food and regulated items accelerated less than expected, partly reflecting strong competition in the communications sector. This was the only major CPI basket for which prices increased below the target inflation rate. The technical staff revised its inflation forecast upward in response to certain external shocks (prices, costs, and depreciation) and domestic shocks (e.g., on meat products) that were stronger and more persistent than anticipated in the previous report. Observed inflation and a real increase in the legal minimum wage also exceeded expectations, which would boost inflation by affecting price indexation, labor costs, and inflation expectations. The technical staff now expects year-end headline inflation of 4.3% in 2022 and 3.4% in 2023; core inflation is projected to be 4.5% and 3.6%, respectively. These forecasts consider the lapse of certain price relief measures associated with the COVID-19 health emergency, which would contribute to temporarily keeping inflation above the target on the forecast horizon. It is important to note that these estimates continue to contain a significant degree of uncertainty, mainly related to the development of external and domestic supply shocks and their ultimate effects on prices. Other contributing factors include high price volatility and measurement uncertainty related to the extension of Colombia’s health emergency and tax relief measures (such as the VAT-free days) associated with the Social Investment Law (Ley de Inversión Social). The as-yet uncertain magnitude of the effects of a recent real increase in the legal minimum wage (that was high by historical standards) and high observed and expected inflation, are additional factors weighing on the overall uncertainty of the estimates in this report. The size of excess productive capacity remaining in the economy and the degree to which it is closing are also uncertain, as the evolution of the pandemic continues to represent a significant forecast risk. margin, could be less dynamic than expected. And the normalization of monetary policy in the United States could come more quickly than projected in this report, which could negatively affect international financing costs. Finally, there remains a significant degree of uncertainty related to the duration of supply chocks and the degree to which macroeconomic and political conditions could negatively affect the recovery in investment. The technical staff revised its GDP growth projection for 2022 from 4.7% to 4.3% (Graph 1.3). This revision accounts for the likelihood that a larger portion of the recent positive dynamic in private consumption would be transitory than previously expected. This estimate also contemplates less dynamic investment behavior than forecast in the previous report amid less favorable financial conditions and a highly uncertain investment environment. Third-quarter GDP growth (12.9%), which was similar to projections from the October report, and the fourth-quarter growth forecast (8.7%) reflect a positive consumption trend, which has been revised upward. This dynamic has been driven by both public and private spending. Investment growth, meanwhile, has been weaker than forecast. Available fourth-quarter data suggest that consumption spending for the period would have exceeded estimates from October, thanks to three consecutive months that included VAT-free days, a relatively low COVID-19 caseload, and mobility indicators similar to their pre-pandemic levels. By contrast, the most recently available figures on new housing developments and machinery and equipment imports suggest that investment, while continuing to rise, is growing at a slower rate than anticipated in the previous report. The trade deficit is expected to have widened, as imports would have grown at a high level and outpaced exports. Given the above, the technical staff now expects fourth-quarter economic growth of 8.7%, with overall growth for 2021 of 9.9%. Several factors should continue to contribute to output recovery in 2022, though some of these may be less significant than previously forecast. International financial conditions are expected to be less favorable, though external demand should continue to recover and terms of trade continue to increase amid higher projected oil prices. Lower unemployment rates and subsequent positive effects on household income, despite increased inflation, would also boost output recovery, as would progress in the national vaccination campaign. The technical staff expects that the conditions that have favored recent high levels of consumption would be, in large part, transitory. Consumption spending is expected to grow at a slower rate in 2022. Gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) would continue to recover, approaching its pre-pandemic level, though at a slower rate than anticipated in the previous report. This would be due to lower observed GFCF levels and the potential impact of political and fiscal uncertainty. Meanwhile, the policy interest rate would be less expansionary as the process of monetary policy normalization continues. Given the above, growth in 2022 is forecast to decelerate to 4.3% (previously 4.7%). In 2023, that figure (3.1%) is projected to converge to levels closer to the potential growth rate. In this case, excess productive capacity would be expected to tighten at a similar rate as projected in the previous report. The trade deficit would tighten more than previously projected on the forecast horizon, due to expectations of an improved export dynamic and moderation in imports. The growth forecast for 2022 considers a low basis of comparison from the first half of 2021. However, there remain significant downside risks to this forecast. The current projection does not, for example, account for any additional effects on economic activity resulting from further waves of COVID-19. High private consumption levels, which have already surpassed pre-pandemic levels by a large margin, could be less dynamic than expected. And the normalization of monetary policy in the United States could come more quickly than projected in this report, which could negatively affect international financing costs. Finally, there remains a significant degree of uncertainty related to the duration of supply chocks and the degree to which macroeconomic and political conditions could negatively affect the recovery in investment. External demand for Colombian goods and services should continue to recover amid significant global inflation pressures, high oil prices, and less favorable international financial conditions than those estimated in October. Economic activity among Colombia’s major trade partners recovered in 2021 amid countries reopening and ample international liquidity. However, that growth has been somewhat restricted by global supply chain disruptions and new outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff has revised its growth forecast for Colombia’s main trade partners from 6.3% to 6.9% for 2021, and from 3.4% to 3.3% for 2022; trade partner economies are expected to grow 2.6% in 2023. Colombia’s annual terms of trade increased in 2021, largely on higher oil, coffee, and coal prices. This improvement came despite increased prices for goods and services imports. The expected oil price trajectory has been revised upward, partly to supply restrictions and lagging investment in the sector that would offset reduced growth forecasts in some major economies. Elevated freight and raw materials costs and supply chain disruptions continue to affect global goods production, and have led to increases in global prices. Coupled with the recovery in global demand, this has put upward pressure on external inflation. Several emerging market economies have continued to normalize monetary policy in this context. Meanwhile, in the United States, the Federal Reserve has anticipated an end to its asset buying program. U.S. inflation in December (7.0%) was again surprisingly high and market average inflation forecasts for 2022 have increased. The Fed is expected to increase its policy rate during the first quarter of 2022, with quarterly increases anticipated over the rest of the year. For its part, Colombia’s sovereign risk premium has increased and is forecast to remain on a higher path, to levels above the 15-year-average, on the forecast horizon. This would be partly due to the effects of a less expansionary monetary policy in the United States and the accumulation of macroeconomic imbalances in Colombia. Given the above, international financial conditions are projected to be less favorable than anticipated in the October report. The increase in Colombia’s external financing costs could be more significant if upward pressures on inflation in the United States persist and monetary policy is normalized more quickly than contemplated in this report. As detailed in Section 2.3, uncertainty surrounding international financial conditions continues to be unusually high. Along with other considerations, recent concerns over the potential effects of new COVID-19 variants, the persistence of global supply chain disruptions, energy crises in certain countries, growing geopolitical tensions, and a more significant deceleration in China are all factors underlying this uncertainty. The changing macroeconomic environment toward greater inflation and unanchoring risks on inflation expectations imply a reduction in the space available for monetary policy stimulus. Recovery in domestic demand and a reduction in excess productive capacity have come in line with the technical staff’s expectations from the October report. Some upside risks to inflation have materialized, while medium-term inflation expectations have increased and are above the 3% target. Monetary policy remains expansionary. Significant global inflationary pressures and the unexpected increase in the CPI in December point to more persistent effects from recent supply shocks. Core inflation is trending upward, but remains below the 3% target. Headline and core inflation projections have increased on the forecast horizon and are above the target rate through the end of 2023. Meanwhile, the expected dynamism of domestic demand would be in line with low levels of excess productive capacity. An accumulation of macroeconomic imbalances in Colombia and the increased likelihood of a faster normalization of monetary policy in the United States would put upward pressure on sovereign risk perceptions in a more persistent manner, with implications for the exchange rate and the natural rate of interest. Persistent disruptions to international supply chains, a high real increase in the legal minimum wage, and the indexation of various baskets in the CPI to higher inflation rates could affect price expectations and push inflation above the target more persistently. These factors suggest that the space to maintain monetary stimulus has continued to diminish, though monetary policy remains expansionary. 1.2 Monetary policy decision Banco de la República’s board of directors (BDBR) in its meetings in December 2021 and January 2022 voted to continue normalizing monetary policy. The BDBR voted by a majority in these two meetings to increase the benchmark interest rate by 50 and 100 basis points, respectively, bringing the policy rate to 4.0%.