Journal articles: 'Anatomy of tongue'

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Spielman, Andrew I., Joseph G. Brand, Yvonne Buischi, and Walter A. Bretz. "Resemblance of Tongue Anatomy in Twins." Twin Research and Human Genetics 14, no. 3 (June 1, 2011): 277–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.14.3.277.

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This study compared the anatomical features of the tongue in nine pairs of twins — six monozygotic and three dizygotic. The aim of the project was to determine if tongues, like any other anatomical structure, could be used to reliably predict relatedness given that tongue shape, presentation and surface can be influenced by environment. Using the method of forced choice, 30 subjects were asked to match the photographs of tongues from twins. Our data indicate that, based on visual assessment, monozygotic twins have highly similar tongues (60% matches); similarly, dizygotic twins were matched 31% of the time, which is a higher probability than would be expected from random selection. This study should help identify baseline and control data in future behavioral studies of taste, which has a genetic basis.

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Kleinteich, Thomas, and Stanislav N. Gorb. "Frog tongue acts as muscle-powered adhesive tape." Royal Society Open Science 2, no. 9 (September 2015): 150333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150333.

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Frogs are well known to capture fast-moving prey by flicking their sticky tongues out of the mouth. This tongue projection behaviour happens extremely fast which makes frog tongues a biological high-speed adhesive system. The processes at the interface between tongue and prey, and thus the mechanism of adhesion, however, are completely unknown. Here, we captured the contact mechanics of frog tongues by filming tongue adhesion at 2000 frames per second through an illuminated glass. We found that the tongue rolls over the target during attachment. However, during the pulling phase, the tongue retractor muscle acts perpendicular to the target surface and thus prevents peeling during tongue retraction. When the tongue detaches, mucus fibrils form between the tongue and the target. Fibrils commonly occur in pressure-sensitive adhesives, and thus frog tongues might be a biological analogue to these engineered materials. The fibrils in frog tongues are related to the presence of microscopic papillae on the surface. Together with a layer of nanoscale fibres underneath the tongue epithelium, these surface papillae will make the tongue adaptable to asperities. For the first time, to the best of our knowledge, we are able to integrate anatomy and function to explain the processes during adhesion in frog tongues.

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Delong, Liu, Liu Qingfeng, and Qin Wenfei. "R462 – Anatomic Characteristics of Tongue Coblation." Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery 139, no. 2_suppl (August 2008): P199—P200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.otohns.2008.05.622.

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Problem We investigated the topographic anatomic characteristics of the human tongue in order to determine the safest location for Coblation® (ArthroCare Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) tongue treatment in patients with obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) and to provide detailed anatomic data to facilitate the surgery. Methods We dissected 16 lateral tongues from human cadavers and studied the distribution of the hypoglossal nerve and lingual artery and their respective distances. The ratios of those distances to the length and width of the tongue were calculated to establish the safest locations for Coblation tongue treatment. Results The vertical distance from the hypoglossal nerve and lingual artery to the surface of the tongue was invariant near the foramen caecum. The ratio of the horizontal distance from the hypoglossal nerve and lingual artery to the midline of the tongue to its length and the vertical distance to the surface at the foramen caecum and at 10 mm and 25 mm from the apex was obtained. Analysis of the data using ANOVA (analysis of variance) revealed statistically significant differences (p<0.05). Conclusion Low-temperature radiofrequency tongue treatment (Coblation) offers a safe and effective treatment for patients with retroglossal OSAHS. Recognizing the topographic anatomic characteristics of the tongue and applying the concepts of ratio and individualization, in which consideration is given to each patient's unique anatomy, promotes greater safety and optimal patient outcomes. Significance The data could extend the area of surgery in tongue from before or after caecum to the whole tongue. It could facilitate the coblation tongue treatment which is different from those surgeries in the base of tongue. And coblation tongue channeling (CTC) is very useful to treat hypertrophic tongue in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). We have performed many CTC on the patients with OSAS and give the relative area by proportional view in the tongue based on the data.

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Rodriguez, Selena, Ruri Galvan, and Deepak Ganta. "Modelling and simulation of soft robotic human tongue with improved motion." Engineering Research Express 3, no. 4 (November 22, 2021): 045027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/ac396f.

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Abstract There is a huge demand for electronic tongues in the food and pharmaceutical industries for chemical detection and flavor analysis. The lack of availability of robots with electronic tongues has motivated us to investigate, design, and simulate a human tongue’s complex motions. Human anatomy was studied in detail to modify the standard design of the human tongue, with the addition of 32 embedded chambers at strategic locations, to replicate various 3D motions (rolling, groove, twist, and elongation) of the human tongue necessary for improving the biochemical sensing capabilities. The FEM (Finite element method) simulations showed the relation between pressure and deformation range for various kinds of motions in a human tongue, including the mechanical properties from the stress versus strain response.

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Lobprise, Heidi B., and Robert B. Wiggs. "Anatomy, Diagnosis and Management of Disorders of the Tongue." Journal of Veterinary Dentistry 10, no. 1 (March 1993): 16–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/089875649301000102.

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The tongue is an integral and functional part of the oral cavity. This article reviews and describes various disorders of the tongue. A comprehensive description of diagnosis and management of tongue problems is included. A review of the anatomy related to the tongue is described.

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Meacham, Ryan K., John D. Boughter, and Merry E. Sebelik. "Ultrasound-Guided Fine-Needle Aspiration of the Tongue Base." Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery 147, no. 5 (May 2, 2012): 864–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0194599812446677.

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Objective The authors hypothesize that floor-of-mouth and tongue base anatomy can be visualized with ultrasound and that ultrasound can be used to accurately guide needle placement and dye injection into the tongue base, serving as a surrogate for fine-needle aspiration. Study Design Observation of experimental intervention. Setting Medical school cadaver anatomy laboratory. Subjects and Methods Ultrasound imaging was performed on human cadaveric specimens to visualize the anatomy of the floor of mouth and base of tongue in a midline transcervical approach. Methylene blue dye was injected under ultrasound guidance into the base of tongue. Specimens were dissected, and results were counted and analyzed. Results Twenty-five of 32 (78%) cadaver specimens were found to have correct placement of dye within the posterior genioglossus and intrinsic tongue musculature. Seven cadavers did not have correct placement of dye. Of these, 3 had dye staining the walls of the oropharynx and epiglottis. Two specimens had dye injected erroneously into the geniohyoid muscles. One patient was found to have had a partial glossectomy. Difference in neck circumference was not significant between those with correct (mean, 37.9 cm) and incorrect (mean, 37.4 cm) dye placement ( P = .75). Conclusion Anatomy of the floor of mouth and tongue base can be readily depicted with ultrasonography. After reasonable success of injecting dye into cadaver tongue bases, the authors conclude that there appears to be a future clinical role for ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration of the tongue base for tongue base lesions.

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Silva, A., M. Cavalcante, M. Ferraz, M. Rizzo, E. Fortes, B. Cunha, M. Carvalho, and A. Conde Júnior. "Papilar topografy and morphology of the tongue in the E. sexcinctus." Journal of Morphological Sciences 32, no. 03 (July 2015): 182–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.4322/jms.087115.

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Abstract Introduction: The Six-banded armadillo (Euphractussexcintus) belongs to Cigunlata order, has diverse feeding habits and masticatory apparatus developed. The tongue, one of the major components of this equipment, has the mucosa papillae, taste buds and tongue glands. Materials and Methods: Six-banded armadillo were submitted to an anesthetic protocol with Tiletamine and zolazepan (Telazol®, Fortdotge, Brazil) and Sodium Thiopental (Thiopentax®, Cristália, Brazil), we proceeded to euthanasia using Potassium Chloride 19.1%, to then fix them in a 10% formaldehyde solution. The tongues were dissected and identified structures. For microscopic processing, segments from different parts of the tongue were subjected to histological routine and stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson. Results: The tongue of the six-banded armadillo presents three types of papillae: filiform, fungiform and vallate, with no conical buds and foliate. Still in the tongue mucosa, was observed mucous glands and various taste corpuscles. Some data differ from those same found in other wild animals that have been studied, but are similar to those of the same phylogenetic. Conclusion: The morphological characteristics of the six-banded armadillo's tongue are adapted to the difficulties faced by him during chewing, requiring the tongue, structures that provide you mobility, strength and sensitivity.

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Chakraborty, Parijat, Richa Dhingra, Pratik Chandra, Ragni Tandon, and Aftab Azam. "Tongue: Anatomy, functions and orthodontic implications." IP Indian Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Research 6, no. 1 (April 15, 2020): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.18231/j.ijodr.2020.001.

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Pastor, Juan Francisco, Magdalena Natalia Muchlinski, Josep Maria Potau, Aroa Casado, Yolanda García-Mesa, Jose Antonio Vega, and Roberto Cabo. "The Tongue in Three Species of Lemurs: Flower and Nectar Feeding Adaptations." Animals 11, no. 10 (September 27, 2021): 2811. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11102811.

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The mobility of the primate tongue allows for the manipulation of food, but, in addition, houses both general sensory afferents and special sensory end organs. Taste buds can be found across the tongue, but the ones found within the fungiform papillae on the anterior two thirds of the tongue are the first gustatory structures to come into contact with food, and are critical in making food ingestion decisions. Comparative studies of both the macro and micro anatomy in primates are sparse and incomplete, yet there is evidence that gustatory adaptation exists in several primate taxa. One is the distally feathered tongues observed in non-destructive nectar feeders, such as Eulemur rubriventer. We compare both the macro and micro anatomy of three lemurid species who died of natural causes in captivity. We included the following two non-destructive nectar feeders: Varecia variegata and Eulemur macaco, and the following destructive flower feeder: Lemur catta. Strepsirrhines and tarsiers are unique among primates, because they possess a sublingua, which is an anatomical structure that is located below the tongue. We include a microanatomical description of both the tongue and sublingua, which were accomplished using hematoxylin–eosin and Masson trichrome stains, and scanning electron microscopy. We found differences in the size, shape, and distribution of fungiform papillae, and differences in the morphology of conical papillae surrounding the circumvallate ones in all three species. Most notably, large distinct papillae were present at the tip of the tongue in nectar-feeding species. In addition, histological images of the ventro-apical portion of the tongue displayed that it houses an encapsulated structure, but only in Lemur catta case such structure presents cartilage inside. The presence of an encapsulated structure, coupled with the shared morphological traits associated with the sublingua and the tongue tip in Varecia variegata and Eulemur macaco, point to possible feeding adaptations that facilitate non-destructive flower feeding in these two lemurids.

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Rico-Guevara, Alejandro. "Relating form to function in the hummingbird feeding apparatus." PeerJ 5 (June 8, 2017): e3449. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3449.

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A complete understanding of the feeding structures is fundamental in order to study how animals survive. Some birds use long and protrusible tongues as the main tool to collect their central caloric source (e.g., woodpeckers and nectarivores). Hummingbirds are the oldest and most diverse clade of nectarivorous vertebrates, being a perfect subject to study tongue specializations. Their tongue functions to intraorally transport arthropods through their long bills and enables them to exploit the nectarivorous niche by collecting small amounts of liquid, therefore it is of vital importance to study its anatomy and structure at various scales. I focused on the portions of the hummingbird tongue that have been shown to be key for understanding their feeding mechanisms. I used histology, transmission and scanning electron microscopy, microCT, andex-vivoexperiments in order to advance the comprehension of the morphology and functioning of the hummingbird feeding apparatus. I found that hummingbird tongues are composed mainly of thin cornified epithelium, lack papillae, and completely fill the internal cast of the rostral oropharyngeal cavity. Understanding this puzzle-piece match between bill and tongue will be essential for the study of intraoral transport of nectar. Likewise, I found that the structural composition and tissue architecture of the tongue groove walls provide the rostral portion of the tongue with elastic properties that are central to the study of tongue-nectar interactions during the feeding process. Detailed studies on hummingbirds set the basis for comparisons with other nectar-feeding birds and contribute to comprehend the natural solutions to collecting liquids in the most efficient way possible.

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Sawaf, M. H., J. P. Ouhayoun, A. H. M. Shabana, and N. Forest. "Cytokeratin expression in human tongue epithelium." American Journal of Anatomy 189, no. 2 (October 1990): 155–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aja.1001890206.

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Goździewska-Harłajczuk, Karolina, Pavla Hamouzová, Joanna Klećkowska-Nawrot, Karolina Barszcz, and Petr Čížek. "Microstructure of the Surface of the Tongue and Histochemical Study of the Lingual Glands of the Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758) (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae)." Animals 10, no. 12 (December 4, 2020): 2297. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10122297.

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Although the anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract has been characterized in the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), the exact anatomy of its tongue has not been studied. Samples of the lingual papillae and lingual glands were collected from the tongue of an adult female lowland tapir. The microscopic analysis of the structure of the lingual papillae and the histochemical analysis of the secretion of the lingual glands were analyzed. The tongue of the tapir is divided into the apex, body with a distinct lingual prominence, and the root. Its ventral surface is smooth. The most numerous of the mechanical papillae were the filiform papillae, while numerous conical papillae with a sharp apex or more rounded papillae were present in the root of the tongue. There were also nine vallate papillae and pair of foliate papillae. The foliate papillae contained several folds parted by 12–14 grooves. The mucous secretion produced by the lingual glands was more obvious than the serous secretion. The features of the dorsal surface of the tongue as well as the shape and number of the lingual papillae on the surface of the tongue of the examined female tapir differ compared to Equidae or Rhinocerotidae, the other two representatives of Perissodactyla. However, further study is necessary for the synapomorpy of the tapir’s tongue.

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Stone, Maureen, Jonghye Woo, Junghoon Lee, Tera Poole, Amy Seagraves, Michael Chung, Eric Kim, Emi Z. Murano, Jerry L. Prince, and Silvia S. Blemker. "Structure and variability in human tongue muscle anatomy." Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering: Imaging & Visualization 6, no. 5 (April 8, 2016): 499–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21681163.2016.1162752.

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Yu, J. F., Y. S. Chen, and H. Y. Li. "The Characteristics of Snoring at Pharyngeal Anatomy in Natural Sleep: Snoring Duration." Journal of Mechanics 28, no. 1 (March 2012): 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jmech.2012.9.

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ABSTRACTThe present study utilized audio recordings of snoring during natural sleep to analyze characteristics related to the snoring duration at the soft palate, epiglottis, and tongue base. 10 subjects were recruited for the study, with an average age of 23.7 years. These audio files were then used to analyze the characteristics of snoring duration at the soft palate, epiglottis, and tongue base responsible for sound generation. Findings indicated that snoring duration was 3.7 seconds at the soft palate, 2.2 seconds at the epiglottis and 1.29 seconds at the tongue. Since the soft palate is the softest structure of the three, snoring sound by vibration was most easily induced at this structure, leading to the longest snoring duration. This was followed by the epiglottis and the tongue base respectively. Of the 10 subjects, 6 had BMI in the overweight range, and snoring durations for these individuals were seen to be lengthened by 0.13 seconds, with the tongue base snoring duration lengthened by 0.11 seconds but unchanged for the epiglottis. Prior studies from this laboratory have established a non-invasive system for measuring snoring. This can be used to analyze the sound frequency, amplitude and duration of snoring. Snoring duration was found to be the longest at the soft palate, followed by the epiglottis and tongue base in the present investigation. Clinically, this finding has implications in snoring assessments prior to uvula-palato-pharyngoplasty procedures. Snoring duration may also be used as a parameter in post-operative monitoring.

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Iskander, Andrew, and Ira Sanders. "Morphological Comparison between Neonatal and Adult Human Tongues." Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology 112, no. 9 (September 2003): 768–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000348940311200905.

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There are currently no descriptions of neonatal tongue anatomy. Therefore, there have been no reports on the morphological differences between it and the adult tongue that would suggest its suitability for suckling. Serial coronal sections of a neonatal tongue were used to create a 3-dimensional model that was compared to that of the adult tongue. Compared to the adult human tongue, the neonatal tongue was found to contain 1) considerably less fat and soft tissue; 2) a thinner mucosa; 3) relatively enlarged extrinsic musculature; 4) a less-developed superior longitudinal muscle, resulting in a flat dorsal surface; and 5) attachments between the extrinsic muscles and the transverse muscle group that have not been identified in the adult tongue. The particular structure of the neonatal tongue suggests how the neonatal tongue is specialized for suckling.

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Stone, Maureen, Ghaddy AlSaty, Lisa C. Honig, Joshua Lubek, Jiachen Zhuo, and Jerry L. Prince. "Does asymmetry in tongue anatomy affect asymmetry in tongue position? Glossectomy and control subjects." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 148, no. 4 (October 2020): 2583. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.5147174.

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Gilbert, Richard J., Timothy G. Reese, Shrenik J. Daftary, R. Neal Smith, Robert M. Weisskoff, and Van J. Wedeen. "Determination of lingual myoarchitecture in whole tissue by NMR imaging of anisotropic water diffusion." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 275, no. 2 (August 1, 1998): G363—G369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1998.275.2.g363.

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The muscular anatomy of the tongue consists of a complex three-dimensional array of fibers, which together produce the variations of shape and position necessary for deglutition. To define the myoarchitecture of the intact mammalian tongue, we have utilized NMR techniques to assess the location and orientation of muscle fiber bundles through measurement of the direction-specific diffusional properties of water molecules. Whole sheep tongues were excised and imaged with a slice-selective stimulated-echo diffusion sequence in the midline sagittal plane, and three-dimensional diffusion tensors were determined for each voxel. The derived diffusion tensors were depicted graphically as octahedra whose long axes indicate local muscle fiber orientation. Two distinct groups of midline fibers were identified: 1) in-plane sagittal fibers originating in the posteroinferior region of the tongue, radiating with a fanlike projection anteriorly and superiorly and merging with vertically oriented fibers, and 2) cross-plane (transverse) fibers, oriented at right angles to the vertically aligned fibers, predominantly in the anterior and superior regions of the tongue. Regional comparison of diffusion anisotropy revealed uniform and parallel alignment (high anisotropy) in the posteroinferior region of the tongue, corresponding to the base of the genioglossus, and less uniform, orthogonally aligned fibers (low anisotropy) in the anterosuperior region of the tongue, corresponding to the core intrinsic muscles. These data indicate that lingual myoarchitecture, determined through direction-dependent mobility of water molecules, can be depicted as discrete regions of muscle fibers, whose orientation and extent of diffusion anisotropy predict local contractility.

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Lin, C., C. Chang, J. Hsiao, J. Wu, and H. Tsai. "0659 A Safe and Precise Tongue Base Surgery for Obstructive Sleep Apnea: Real-Time Intraoperative Ultrasound-Assisted Transoral Robotic Surgery." Sleep 43, Supplement_1 (April 2020): A251—A252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa056.655.

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Abstract Introduction Lingual artery (LA) injury is a devastating complication of tongue base surgery. Compared with the anatomic findings of computed tomography angiography (CTA), intraoperative blade of mouth gag might change the thickness of base of tongue (BOT) and anatomy of LA. We aimed to investigate the position of LA in the BOT with intraoperative ultrasound (IOU) imaging during transoral robotic surgery (TORS), and evaluate the bleeding complications when assisted with / without IOU. Methods Adult obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) patients who received TORS in BOT resection were recruited since 2016. Assessment tools were pre-op over-night hospital polysomnography (PSG) and anatomy-based Friedman Staging System. Ultrasound imaging was utilized to identify anatomic parameters of LA in BOT, including distance to midline, arterial depth and diameter. Results Ninety-three OSA patients (82 male, 88.2%) were analyzed. The mean age was 42.2±10.0 years old and body mass index was 29.2±4.5 kg/m2. The average apnea hypopnea index (AHI) was 58.1±21.4 events/hour. There were 66 (71.0%), 24 (25.8%) and 3 (3.2%) patients in Friedman stages II, III and IV, respectively. Seventy patients underwent TORS with IOU had shorter operation time (191.7±3.8 minutes) than 23 patients without IOU (220.1±6.6 minutes), less total blood loss (11.3±10.8 versus 19.6±26.7 ml), and more BOT tissue reduction volume (7.1±2.5 versus 3.9±1.6 ml). Significant predictors of arterial depth were higher AHI level during rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep stage (p=0.038), bigger tonsil size (p=0.034) and more elevated Friedman tongue position (p=0.012). Postoperative complication associated with LA injury was not found in the patients with use of IOU. Conclusion When tongue retracted with blade, the distance to midline and depth of LA were altered in BOT. With IOU assisted, surgeon could identify LA position confidently. It is expectable to maximize efficiency and minimize catastrophic bleeding complications when OSA patients received TORS in BOT resection. Support nil

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Elhendi Halawa, Wasim, and Antonio Rodríguez Fernández-Freire. "ANATOMÍA DE LA LENGUA EN AL-QANUN DE AVICENA. Anatomy of the tongue in Al-Qanun of Avicenna." Revista Argentina de Anatomía Clínica 4, no. 3 (March 28, 2016): 92–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.31051/1852.8023.v4.n3.14033.

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Objetivo: En esta revisión pretendemos resumir las aportaciones más destacadas de Avicena, incluidas en Al-Qanun, al campo de la anatomía lingual. Material y Metódos: Se realiza una revisión de varias ediciones en árabe y en persa del primer y segundo volumen de Al-Qanun, centrándonos en los capítulos correspon-dientes al estudio de la anatomía de la lengua e intentando relacionar los conceptos incluidos con los conocimientos actuales. Resultados: Al-Qanun de Avicena ofrece un claro ejemplo del avanzado nivel de comprensión de la anatomía de la lengua, como fueron percibidos hace más de mil años y de lo cual muchos conceptos siguen vigentes hasta la actualidad. Conclusión: El campo de la anatomía lingual es un claro ejemplo de la participación de la Medicina Islámica y de la contribución de los médicos musulmanes al desarrollo de la Anatomía. Las contribuciones científicas de los grandes maestros como Avicena a este campo no deben ser ignoradas. Objective: The aim of this review is to summarize the most important contributions of Avicenna, included in Al-Qanun, to the study of the anatomy of the tongue. Material and methods: We made a review of several editions in Arabic and Persian of the first and the second volume of Al-Qanun, focusing on the chapters which study the anatomy of the tongue and trying to relate the concepts involved with the current knowledge. Results: Al-Qanun of Avicenna offers a clear example of the advanced level of understanding of anatomy of the tongue, as they were perceived since more than a thousand years, and which many concepts still apply to the present. Conclusion: The field of anatomy of the tongue is a clear example of the involvement of Islamic Medicine and the contribution of Muslim physicians in the evolution of Anatomy. The scientific contributions of the great masters, like Avicenna, in this field should not be ignored.

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De Souza Jr., Paulo Sérgio. "The Sexual Throughout the Body of the Tongue." Language and Psychoanalysis 9, no. 1 (May 4, 2020): 46–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.7565/landp.v9i1.1703.

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In Fragment 19 of the Harvard Manuscripts, Saussure claims that difference, since it admits degrees, is an uncomfortable term. If anatomy as destiny (Freud, 1912, 1924) is more nuanced than one would like, since it also admits degrees, and anatomical difference does not mitigate the ultimate impossibility of conjugation between speaking beings (Lacan, 1991), how to think of the transit/translation between bodies and where to situate the differences that belong to them? In order to propose an answer, this paper starts from this hypothesis that it is advisable to develop this reflection about sexual difference a couple of feet above the waistline, foregrounding another organ (the tongue), what allows us to critically rethink the entanglement between gender and anatomy in psychoanalysis, in favor of the notion of style.

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Gritzmann, N., and F. Frühwald. "Sonographic anatomy of tongue and floor of the mouth." Dysphagia 2, no. 4 (December 1988): 196–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02414426.

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SONNTAQ, C. F. "10. The Oornparative Anatomy of the Tongues of the Mamiiialia.-I. General Descriptionof the Tongue." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 90, no. 1-2 (May 7, 2010): 117–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1920.tb07638.x.

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McGee, Sasha, Vartan Mardirossian, Alphi Elackattu, Jelena Mirkovic, Robert Pistey, George Gallagher, Sadru Kabani, et al. "Anatomy-Based Algorithms for Detecting Oral Cancer Using Reflectance and Fluorescence Spectroscopy." Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology 119, no. 11 (November 2010): 817–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000348941011901112.

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Objectives: We used reflectance and fluorescence spectroscopy to noninvasively and quantitatively distinguish benign from dysplastic/malignant oral lesions. We designed diagnostic algorithms to account for differences in the spectral properties among anatomic sites (gingiva, buccal mucosa, etc). Methods: In vivo reflectance and fluorescence spectra were collected from 71 patients with oral lesions. The tissue was then biopsied and the specimen evaluated by histopathology. Quantitative parameters related to tissue morphology and biochemistry were extracted from the spectra. Diagnostic algorithms specific for combinations of sites with similar spectral properties were developed. Results: Discrimination of benign from dysplastic/malignant lesions was most successful when algorithms were designed for individual sites (area under the receiver operator characteristic curve [ROC-AUC], 0.75 for the lateral surface of the tongue) and was least accurate when all sites were combined (ROC-AUC, 0.60). The combination of sites with similar spectral properties (floor of mouth and lateral surface of the tongue) yielded an ROC-AUC of 0.71. Conclusions: Accurate spectroscopic detection of oral disease must account for spectral variations among anatomic sites. Anatomy-based algorithms for single sites or combinations of sites demonstrated good diagnostic performance in distinguishing benign lesions from dysplastic/malignant lesions and consistently performed better than algorithms developed for all sites combined.

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Alhayu, Yurina, Febrina Rahmayanti, and Ambar Kusuma Astuti. "Multiple Clinical Findings on The Tongue: Variants of Normal or Pathologic Condition? (A Case Report)." Dentika: Dental Journal 24, no. 2 (December 29, 2021): 55–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.32734/dentika.v24i2.7220.

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Various normal and pathologic findings might occasionally be found on the tongue and might confuse some patients and clinician due to its atypical presentation. This case report aimed to present a case report of multiple oral findings related to variants of normal and pathological findings on the tongue: geographic tongue, fissured tongue, and central papillary atrophy. A 53-year-old male patient came to Universitas Indonesia Dental Hospital for a dental check-up. Objective examination in the tongue showed depapilated areas surrounded by keratinized lining in the ventral and lateral left and right area of the tongue, multiple fissures in all over the dorsum of the tongue, and an ovoid redness area in the middle of 2/3 posterior dorsum part of the tongue. All those findings were asymptomatic. Those clinical findings were diagnosed as geographic tongue, fissured tongue, and central papillary atrophy. This case presents unique multiple variants of normal and pathological findings in the tongue. It is important to an oral health professional to have knowledge and ability to determine normal anatomy, variants of normal and pathological lesions. Patients should be informed and educated about oral mucosa normal variations and related clinical findings so they would not develop unnecessary anxiety. Keywords: central papillary atrophy, fissured tongue, geographic tongue, normal variations

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Baba, Akira, Hiroya Ojiri, Koshi Ikeda, Hideomi Yamauchi, Nobuhiro Ogino, Yuki Seto, Yuko Kobashi, Shinji Yamazoe, and Takuji Mogami. "Essentials on Oncological Imaging: Postoperative Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Oral Tongue Cancer." Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal 69, no. 4 (November 2018): 458–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carj.2018.08.001.

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The contribution of diagnostic imaging in evaluating the pre- and postoperative status of tongue cancer is essential. Interpretation of postoperative images is made difficult by deformation; therefore, it is necessary to know how surgical technique, biological reaction, postoperative anatomy, and local recurrence are reflected on the images. This study explains the postoperative imaging features of tongue cancer to help in the early detection of local recurrence and avoid inappropriate treatment. We review schematic drawings of representative surgical procedures for tongue carcinoma, variable radiological features in postoperative conditions with or without complications, and typical features of local failures and their mimics. This article clarifies the important tasks of radiologists and clinicians in the postoperative evaluation of tongue carcinoma.

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Alekseeva, Tatyana A., and Elena D. Lutsay. "Current data on the development of tongue in prenatal period of human ontogenesis." Science and Innovations in Medicine 7, no. 3 (September 4, 2022): 148–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.35693/2500-1388-2022-7-3-148-154.

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The timely diagnosis and treatment of maxillofacial pathologies where the tongue plays an important role requires an accurate description of the organs structure and development. The paper presents a review of the current research data on the features of embryonic development, macro- and microanatomy, morphometry and ultrasound anatomy of the human tongue during the prenatal development. The selected papers, published in the Russian and English languages, cover the period of the last decade. We generalized the obtained data using the empirical and theoretical approaches. The macroscopic study of the external structure of the tongue was underrepresented in the current studies, usually performed in combination with morphometry. The studies of histotopograms in combination with histochemical methods were numerous, contributing to the more detailed classification of the tongue development stages. The selected papers focused on the period of human embryonic development and the correlating histological characteristics of the tongue. The morphometric characteristics and the blood supply of the tongue in the prenatal period require further research.

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Meier, Andrea R., Ute Schmuck, Carlo Meloro, Marcus Clauss, and Reinhold R. Hofmann. "Convergence of macroscopic tongue anatomy in ruminants and scaling relationships with body mass or tongue length." Journal of Morphology 277, no. 3 (December 9, 2015): 351–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20501.

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Bout, Ron, Herman Berkhoudt, Angélique van der Leeuw, Karin Kurk, and Peter Snelderwaard. "Conflicting demands on the trophic system of Anseriformes and their evolutionary implications." Animal Biology 53, no. 3 (2003): 259–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157075603322539453.

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AbstractWithin the Anseriformes, the Anatinae (ducks) shows a wide variation in diet and feeding mechanisms, in contrast to the Anserinae (geese and swans). While grazing is common in the Anserinae, only few species within the Anatinae use terrestrial grazing as their main feeding mechanism (e.g., wigeons). This may be explained by conflicting functional demands of grazing and filter-feeding on the trophic system. In this study, the feeding performance, feeding mechanisms and oropharyngeal anatomy is compared between geese, wigeon and a general filter-feeder/pecker, the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). The results show that the functional demands of filter-feeding and grazing are conflicting: filter-feeding requires a bald palatal surface and under-tongue transport for optimal functioning of the lingual cushion as a piston, whereas the transport mechanism of grazing requires large maxillary spines and over-tongue transport to retain grass during tongue protraction. The oropharyngeal anatomy of the wigeon shows a compromise in the small size of the maxillary spines that enable a sliding mechanism for the transport of a limited amount of grass. Filter-feeding is sometimes considered as a key adaptation that led to radiation in the anseriforms (Olson and Feduccia, 1980; Lack, 1974). We suggest, as an alternative hypothesis, that feeding on water plants may have led to the evolution of ridge-like structures in the bills, a sliding mandibular joint and the use of a water flow through the oropharynx (tongue pro- and retractions) for food transport in early anseriforms (cf. geese). A selection pressure on filter-feeding resulted in a large increase in efficiency of this system by the introduction of under-tongue transport of food and water (repatterning of bill and tongue movements) that enables the simultaneous intake and transport of a suspension of food particles (cf. Anatinae, a.o. Aythya and Anas). Terrestrial grazing later evolved by the development of maxillary spines, and in the case of the wigeon, a secondary change from the under tongue transport mechanism to over tongue transport for the grazing and pecking mechanisms only.

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Doyle, Brendan M., Michele L. Singer, Thomaz Fleury-Curado, Sabhya Rana, Ethan S. Benevides, Barry J. Byrne, Vsevolod Y. Polotsky, and David D. Fuller. "Gene delivery to the hypoglossal motor system: preclinical studies and translational potential." Gene Therapy 28, no. 7-8 (February 11, 2021): 402–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41434-021-00225-1.

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AbstractDysfunction and/or reduced activity in the tongue muscles contributes to conditions such as dysphagia, dysarthria, and sleep disordered breathing. Current treatments are often inadequate, and the tongue is a readily accessible target for therapeutic gene delivery. In this regard, gene therapy specifically targeting the tongue motor system offers two general strategies for treating lingual disorders. First, correcting tongue myofiber and/or hypoglossal (XII) motoneuron pathology in genetic neuromuscular disorders may be readily achieved by intralingual delivery of viral vectors. The retrograde movement of viral vectors such as adeno-associated virus (AAV) enables targeted distribution to XII motoneurons via intralingual viral delivery. Second, conditions with impaired or reduced tongue muscle activation can potentially be treated using viral-driven chemo- or optogenetic approaches to activate or inhibit XII motoneurons and/or tongue myofibers. Further considerations that are highly relevant to lingual gene therapy include (1) the diversity of the motoneurons which control the tongue, (2) the patterns of XII nerve branching, and (3) the complexity of tongue muscle anatomy and biomechanics. Preclinical studies show considerable promise for lingual directed gene therapy in neuromuscular disease, but the potential of such approaches is largely untapped.

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Eubanks, Diana L. "Anatomy and Clinical Examination of the Tongue in the Dog." Journal of Veterinary Dentistry 24, no. 4 (December 2007): 271–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/089875640702400413.

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Maniere-Ezvan, A., J.-M. Duval, and P. Darnault. "Ultrasonic assessment of the anatomy and function of the tongue." Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy 15, no. 1 (March 1993): 55–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01629863.

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Parvez, MNH, and MT Rahaman. "ANATOMICAL STUDY OF THE TONGUE OF INDIGENOUS COW (BOS INDICUS) IN BANGLADESH WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON PAPILLAE DISTRIBUTION." Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine 3, no. 2 (July 23, 2012): 130–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjvm.v3i2.11379.

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The present study was conducted on the tongue of six apparently healthy indigenous (Bos indicus) cows of different age and sex and they were collected from local market at Dinajpur district and this research work was conducted in the Department of Anatomy and Histology, Dinajpur Government Veterinary College, Dinajpur during the research period from the month of July 2003 to April 2004. After proper euthanasia, the animals were killed and then the tongues of these animals were dissected out from the carcasses and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin solution. In the present study it was observed that the tongue of indigenous cow (Bos indicus) of Bangladesh has three parts: the root, body and an apex. The dorsum linguae was specially more pronounced in its centre and was occupied by numerous types of masticatory and gustatory papillae. The fine rasp-like filiform papillae were more numerous and directed caudally throughout the dorsum and packed closely in front of the fossa linguae throughout the tip, whereas, the club shaped fungi form papillae were irregularly distributed all over the dorsum among the filiform papillae. The broad headed lentil shaped lenticular papillae was also found in the rostral two-thirds of the dorsum but better developed along the mid-line of the tongue. The large conical papillae of the tongue of Bos indicus occurred in the rostral two-thirds of the dorsum with a higher concentration in the middle portion of the tongue, however, the small ones occurred through out the torus. The vallate papillae of the tongue of Bos indicus were 12-20 in number on either side and dispersed in two irregular rows (25-40) in total along the caudolateral two-thirds of the dorsum. The mucosa of the root of the tongue of Bos indicus did not show any specific papillae but it was rather smooth due to diffused lymphoid tissue distribution (lingual tonsil).

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Kullaa-Mikkonen, A., M. Hynynen, and P. Hyvönen. "Filiform Papillae of Human, Rat and Swine Tongue." Cells Tissues Organs 130, no. 3 (1987): 280–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000146457.

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Shangkuan, H., W. Xinghai, W. Zengxing, Zh Shizhen, J. Shiying, and C. Yishi. "Anatomic bases of tongue flaps." Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy 20, no. 2 (March 1998): 83–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01628906.

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Ritter, D., and K. Nishikawa. "The kinematics and mechanism of prey capture in the African pig-nosed frog (Hemisus marmoratum): description of a radically divergent anuran tongue." Journal of Experimental Biology 198, no. 9 (September 1, 1995): 2025–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.198.9.2025.

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High-speed videography and muscle denervation experiments were used to quantify the feeding kinematics of Hemisus marmoratum and to test hypotheses of muscle function. The feeding behavior of H. marmoratum, which feeds on ants and termites, differs radically from that of other frogs that have been studied. During feeding in H. marmoratum, the tongue 'telescopes' straight out of the mouth, as opposed to the 'flipping' tongue trajectory observed in most other frogs. At the time of prey contact, two lateral lobes of tissue at the tongue tip envelop the prey. These lateral lobes are capable of applying significant pulling forces to the prey and the tongue is, therefore, described as prehensile. The trajectory of the tongue can be adjusted throughout protraction so that the frog can 'aim' its tongue in all three dimensions; distance, azimuth and elevation. Bilateral denervation of the genioglossus muscles results in a complete lack of tongue protraction, indicating that the genioglossus muscle is the main tongue protractor in H. marmoratum, as in other frogs. Thus, H. marmoratum provides strong evidence of functional conservatism of the genioglossus muscle within anurans. Bilateral denervation of the hyoglossus muscle indicates that although the hyoglossus is involved in several aspects of normal tongue retraction, including the prehensile capability of the tongue tip, it is not necessary for tongue retraction. Unilateral denervation of the genioglossus muscle causes significant deviation of the tongue towards the denervated side, providing evidence for a mechanism of lateral tongue aiming. On the basis of the kinematics of prey capture, the anatomy of the tongue and the results of the denervation experiments, we propose that H. marmoratum uses a hydraulic mechanism to protract its tongue.

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Calabrese, Luca, Maria Eleonora Bizzoca, Roberto Grigolato, Fausto Antonio Maffini, Marta Tagliabue, Rosa Negro, Stefania Leuci, Michele Davide Mignogna, and Lorenzo Lo Muzio. "From Bench to Bedside in Tongue Muscle Cancer Invasion and Back again: Gross Anatomy, Microanatomy, Surgical Treatments and Basic Research." Life 10, no. 9 (September 12, 2020): 197. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life10090197.

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Tongue squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignancy in the oral cavity. Despite advances in diagnosis and treatment, the prognosis of advanced states has not significantly improved. Depth of invasion, pattern of invasion such as tumor budding grade, lingual lymph node metastasis in early stages, collective cell migration and circulating tumor cells in peripheral blood are some examples of the mechanisms that are currently receiving increasing attention in the evaluation of the prognosis of tongue cancers. Anatomic-based surgery showed that it is possible to improve loco-regional control of tongue cancer. In patients with a “T-N tract involvement”, there is significantly more distant recurrence (40%) in patients undergoing a compartmental tongue surgery. In general, the neoplastic infiltration of the lingual muscles is traced back to the finding of neoplastic tissue along the course of a muscle; however, the muscle fibers, due to their spatial conformation and the organization of the extracellular matrix, could influence the movement of tumor cells through the muscle, leaving its three-dimensional structure unchanged. We need to exclude the possibility that tongue muscle fibers represent a mechanism for the diffusion of cancer cells without muscle invasion.

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Mazengenya, Pedzisai, and Rashid Bhikha. "A critique on Avicennas (980 1037 A.D) studies on anatomy of the upper respiratory system and some otorhinolaryngologic concepts." Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science 16, no. 2 (March 23, 2017): 188–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjms.v16i2.29422.

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Background: Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina) was arguably one of the outstanding medical scientists and physicians of the time. He made significant contributions in the development of various medical fields in the golden age of Islamic medicine (9-12th century AD) and in Europe. Ibn Sina contributed immensely to human anatomy, physiology, pathology and management of most disorders of the human body. Of paramount importance was the systemic description of the anatomy of various organs and surgical interventions associated with the problems. Although neither formal dissection nor surgical training was recorded during his time, the anatomic and surgical information presented in the Canon of Medicine is congruent with modern advancement. The current study was undertaken to compare Avicennas anatomy of the ear, nose, oral cavity, throat and larynx to modern anatomical texts.Methods: The current work analysed the anatomy information on the ear, nose, oral cavity, throat and the larynx as presented in volumes one and three of the Canon of Medicine. The information was compared to modern anatomic descriptions.Results: Avicenna described correctly the anatomy and functions of the external and internal ear, nose, oral cavity, parts of the throat and larynx. He described voice production in the larynx and subsequent contributions on the nose, uvula and tongue in shaping the syllables. The functional aspects, disorders and their management associated with the ear and the upper respiratory system were also described.Conclusions: The findings show that Ibn Sinas contributions had a major influence on the development and advancement of medical practise. His anatomic explanations are comparable to modern knowledge on the subject. They also show that the Canon of Medicine is still a valuable book in the study of the history of medicine.Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol.16(2) 2017 p.188-193

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Abdel-Megeid, Nazema S., Safwat Ali, Mohamed Abdo, and Samy F. Mahmoud. "Histo-Morphological Comparison of the Tongue between Grainivorous and Insectivorous Birds." International Journal of Morphology 39, no. 2 (April 2021): 592–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0717-95022021000200592.

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39

Boling, Warren, David C. Reutens, and André Olivier. "Functional topography of the low postcentral area." Journal of Neurosurgery 97, no. 2 (August 2002): 388–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/jns.2002.97.2.0388.

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Object. The goal of this study was to establish a reliable method for identification of face and tongue sensory function in the lower central area. Methods. All positron emission tomography (PET) clinical activation studies performed over a 3-year period at the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital were evaluated by coregistering the PET images with three-dimensional reconstructions of magnetic resonance images obtained in the same patients. In addition to stereotactic coordinates and measurements based on distance from the sylvian fissure, gyral and sulcal landmarks were analyzed to determine their reliability in localizing the sensory areas of the tongue and lower face. The convolutional anatomy of the central area is an important guide to the identification of function. The sensory area of the tongue is recognized as a triangular region at the base of the postcentral gyrus; the sensory area of the lower face resides in the narrowed portion of the postcentral gyrus, immediately above the tongue area. Conclusions. Cortical landmarks such as the substrata of tongue and face sensory impressions are more reliable guides than stereotactic coordinates or measurements for localizing function.

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Stutley, J., J. Cooke, and C. Parsons. "Normal CT anatomy of the tongue, floor of mouth and oropharynx." Clinical Radiology 40, no. 3 (May 1989): 248–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-9260(89)80184-9.

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Kreiger, Portia A., Linda M. Ernst, Lisa M. Elden, Ken Kazahaya, Faizan Alawi, and Pierre A. Russo. "Hamartomatous Tongue Lesions in Children." American Journal of Surgical Pathology 31, no. 8 (August 2007): 1186–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/pas.0b013e3180674dd7.

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SHINDO, Junji, Tadasu K. YAMADA, Ken YOSHIMURA, and Ikuo KAGEYAMA. "Morphology of the Tongue in a Newborn Stejneger's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon stejnegeri)." Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica 84, no. 4 (2008): 121–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2535/ofaj.84.121.

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Iwasaki, Shin-ichi, Ken Yoshimura, Junji Shindo, and Ikuo Kageyama. "Comparative morphology of the primate tongue." Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger 223 (May 2019): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aanat.2019.01.008.

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Heymann, Eckhard W., and Foelke von der Lage. "Brief communication: Noninvasive measuring of operational tongue length in callitrichids." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139, no. 3 (April 6, 2009): 430–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21038.

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della Vella, Fedora, Dorina Lauritano, Carlo Lajolo, Alberta Lucchese, Dario Di Stasio, Maria Contaldo, Rosario Serpico, and Massimo Petruzzi. "The Pseudolesions of the Oral Mucosa: Differential Diagnosis and Related Systemic Conditions." Applied Sciences 9, no. 12 (June 13, 2019): 2412. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9122412.

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Pseudolesions are defined as physiological or paraphysiological changes of the oral normal anatomy that can easily be misdiagnosed for pathological conditions such as potentially malignant lesions, infective and immune diseases, or neoplasms. Pseudolesions do not require treatment and a surgical or pharmacological approach can constitute an overtreatment indeed. This review aims to describe the most common pseudolesions of oral soft tissues, their possible differential diagnosis and eventual related systemic diseases or syndromes. The pseudolesions frequently observed in clinical practice and reported in literature include Fordyce granules, leukoedema, geographic tongue, fissured tongue, sublingual varices, lingual fimbriae, vallate papillae, white and black hairy tongue, Steno’s duct hypertrophy, lingual tonsil, white sponge nevus, racial gingival pigmentation, lingual thyroid, and eruptive cyst. They could be misdiagnosed as oral potential malignant disorders, candidiasis, Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)-related affections, oral autoimmune diseases, or benign and malignant tumors. In some cases, pseudolesions feature in a syndromic panel, for example, fissured tongue in Melkersson–Rosenthal syndrome. It is strictly fundamental for dentists to know and to distinguish oral pseudolesions from pathological conditions, in order to avoid overtreatment.

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Kutia, S. A., N. G. Nikolaeva, D. S. Avabde, G. S. Farkhutdinova, and A. V. Yeryomin. "Etymology of terms in anatomy of digestive system." Experimental and Clinical Gastroenterology 183, no. 11 (November 14, 2020): 151–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.31146/1682-8658-ecg-183-11-151-155.

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The article describes the historical and linguistic origins of the main anatomical terms associated with the digestive system: mouth, lip, tongue, parotid gland, tooth, palate, fauces, uvula, pharynx, esophagus, intestine and parts of small and large intestine, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, duct. Not only their morphemic structure and derivational (including from the point of view of etymology) characteristics, but also the historical context of the appearance of certain terms are considered. The names of the anatomical formations are given in sequential order, that is, from the initial sections of the digestive system to the ﬁnal. Preference is given to anatomical terms in Latin, but the most important Greekisms are also considered.

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Sanders, Ira, Liancai Mu, Asif Amirali, Hungxi Su, and Stanislaw Sobotka. "The Human Tongue Slows Down to Speak: Muscle Fibers of the Human Tongue." Anatomical Record 296, no. 10 (August 9, 2013): 1615–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.22755.

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EMURA, Shoichi, Toshihiko OKUMURA, and Huayue CHEN. "Scanning electron microscopic study on the tongue in the scarlet macaw (Ara macao)." Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica 89, no. 3 (2012): 57–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2535/ofaj.89.57.

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He, Lianying, and Lynnette Phillips McCluskey. "Regression of Lingual Lymphatic Vessels in Sodium-restricted Mice." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 66, no. 5 (December 21, 2017): 377–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1369/0022155417749173.

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Lymphatic vessel networks can expand and regress, with consequences for interstitial fluid drainage and nutrient supply to tissues, inflammation, and tumor spread. A diet high in sodium stimulates hyperplasia of cutaneous lymphatic capillaries. We hypothesized that dietary sodium restriction would have the opposite effect, shrinking lymphatic capillaries in the tongue. Lingual lymphatic capillary density and size was significantly reduced in mice fed a low-sodium diet (0.03%) for 3 weeks compared with control-fed mice. Blood vessel density was unchanged. Despite lymphatic capillary shrinkage, lingual edema was not observed. The effect on lymphatic capillaries was reversible, as lymphatic density and size in the tongue were restored by 3 weeks on a control diet. Lymphatic hyperplasia induced by a high-sodium diet is dependent on infiltrating macrophages. However, lingual CD68+ macrophage density was unchanged by sodium deficiency, indicating that distinct mechanisms may mediate lymphatic regression. Further studies are needed to test whether dietary sodium restriction is an effective, non-invasive co-therapy for oral cancer.

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Oakley, Bruce, and Martin Witt. "Building sensory receptors on the tongue." Journal of Neurocytology 33, no. 6 (December 2004): 631–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11068-005-3332-0.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Anatomy of tongue'

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