Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Analogical Model'

Ever since artifacts have been produced, improving them has been a common human activity. Improving an artifact refers to modifying it such that it will be either easier to produce, or easier to use, or easier to fix, or easier to maintain, and so on. In all of these cases, "easier" means fewer resources are required for those processes. While 'resources' is a general measure, which can ultimately be expressed by some measure of cost (such as time or money), we believe that at the core of many improvements is the notion of reduction of complexity, or in other words, simplification. This talk presents our research on performing design simplification using analogical reasoning. We first define the simplification problem as the problem of reducing the complexity of an artefact from a given point of view. We propose that a point of view from which the complexity of an artefact can be measured consists of a context, an aspect and a measure. Next, we describe an approach to solving simplification problems by goal-directed analogical reasoning, as our implementation of this approach. Finally, we present some experimental results obtained with the system. The research presented in this dissertation is significant as it focuses on the intersection of a number of important, active research areas - analogical reasoning, functional representation, functional reasoning, simplification, and the general area of AI in Design.

Analogy is ubiquitous in human cognition. One of the important questions related to understanding the situated nature of analogy-making is how people retrieve source analogues via their interactions with external environments. This dissertation studies interactive analogical retrieval in the context of biologically inspired design (BID). BID involves creative use of analogies to biological systems to develop solutions for complex design problems (e.g., designing a device for acquiring water in desert environments based on the analogous fog-harvesting abilities of the Namibian Beetle). Finding the right biological analogues is one of the critical first steps in BID. Designers routinely search online in order to find their biological sources of inspiration. But this task of online bio-inspiration seeking represents an instance of interactive analogical retrieval that is extremely time consuming and challenging to accomplish. This dissertation focuses on understanding and supporting the task of online bio-inspiration seeking. Through a series of field studies, this dissertation uncovered the salient characteristics and challenges of online bio-inspiration seeking. An information-processing model of interactive analogical retrieval was developed in order to explain those challenges and to identify the underlying causes. A set of measures were put forth to ameliorate those challenges by targeting the identified causes. These measures were then implemented in an online information-seeking technology designed to specifically support the task of online bio-inspiration seeking. Finally, the validity of the proposed measures was investigated through a series of experimental studies and a deployment study. The trends are encouraging and suggest that the proposed measures has the potential to change the dynamics of online bio-inspiration seeking in favor of ameliorating the identified challenges of online bio-inspiration seeking.

In two studies, the author attempts to develop a general symbol theoretical approach to knowledge representation. The first study, Modeling change - the frame problem, critically examines the - so far unsuccessful - attempts to solve the notorious frame problem. By discussing and analyzing a number of related problems - the prediction problem, the revision problem, the qualification problem, and the book-keeping problem - the frame problem is distinguished as the problem of finding a representational form permitting a changing, complex world to be efficiently and adequately represented. This form, it is argued, is dictated by the metaphysics of the problem world, the fundamental form of the symbol system we humans use in rightly characterizing the world. In the second study, Pictures and words, the symbol theoretical approach is made more explicit. The subject Is the distinction between pictorial (non-linguistic, non-propositional, analogical, "direct") representation and verbal (linguistic, propositional) representation, and the further implications of this distinction. The study focuses on pictorial representation, which has received little attention compared to verbal representation. Observations, ideas, and theories in AI, cognitive psychology, and philosophy are critically examined. The general conclusion is that there is as yet no cogent and mature theory of pictorial representation that gives good support to computer applications. The philosophical symbol theory of Nelson Goodman is found to be the most thoroughly developed and most congenial with the aims and methods of AI. Goodman's theory of pictorial representation, however, in effect excludes computers from the use of pictures. In the final chapter, an attempt is made to develop Goodman's analysis of pictures further turning it into a theory useful to AI. The theory outlined builds on Goodman's concept of exemplification. The key idea is that a picture is a model of a description that has the depicted object as its standard model. One consequence Is that pictorial and verbal forms of representation are seen less as competing alternatives than as complementary forms of representation mutually supporting and depending on each other.
digitalisering@umu

Introduction: There remains a lack of theoretical models which can adequately account for the key features of bipolar disorders (Power, 2005). Objectives: Firstly, to test the predictions made by the SPAARS model that mania is predominantly characterised by the coupling of happiness with anger, while depression (unipolar and bipolar) primarily comprises of a coupling between sadness and disgust. Secondly, to investigate and compare the coping strategies employed to regulate positive and negative emotion between bipolar, unipolar and control groups. Design: A cross sectional design was employed to examine the differences within and between the bipolar, unipolar and control groups in the emotions experienced and the strategies used to regulate emotion. Data were analysed using ANOVAs. Method: Psychiatric diagnoses in the clinical groups were confirmed using the SCID. Current mood state was measured using the BDI-II, STAI and the MAS. The Basic Emotion Scale was used to explore the emotional profiles and the Regulation of Emotion Questionnaire was used to measure coping strategies. Results: The results confirmed the predictions made by the SPAARS model about the emotions in mania and depression. Elevated levels of disgust were also found in the bipolar group generally. The clinical groups used internal dysfunctional strategies more often than the controls for negative emotion. The bipolar group used external dysfunctional strategies more frequently than the controls for positive emotion. Conclusion: The results support the predictions made by the SPAARS model and suggest that disgust plays a key role in bipolar disorder. Strengths and limitations are discussed and suggestions for future research are explored.

Creative thinking is a popular and ambiguous ability but so far we have limited knowledge about how creativity work within history education. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate how individual creativity and a historical thinking with a focus on continuity and change relate to each other within history education. Data was collected with the help of an authentic history assignment and analyzed with qualitative content analysis and statistical correlations. A constructivist framework with a specific focus on the The Geneplore Model of Creativity and Historical thinking was chosen to guide the analysis. Results point to several similarities between creativity and historical thinking on continuity and change, with both concepts focusing on constructing new and meaningful knowledge. Here, the strongest correlation was found between creative thinking and reflections about change through history. The analysis also pointed to cognitive processes with a particularly promising potential to develop both creative and historical thinking, namely divergent thinking with the purpose to generate several alternative answers, and janusian thinking with the purpose to generate contradictory perspectives. Further, the analysis also revealed some differences between creativity and historical thinking on continuity and change. Here, thinking creatively with help of distant analogical thinking was particularly difficult since those conclusions seldom were rooted in historical facts. In fact, many of the creative conclusion identified in this study showed a potential to develop students understanding of the past, but were still in an undeveloped stage. These results indicate a need for a continued critical exploration of creative answers after initially being generated. In sum, the identified similarities and differences between creative and historical thinking on continuity and change demonstrate that creativity could play a role in the development of students historical understanding and points to a promising direction for future research interested in creative comparisons over time.

This exploratory case study was undertaken to obtain a greater understanding of the difficulties that physics students face when solving image-object projections in optics problems. This was carried out by studying the students’ reasoning when facing new kinds of problem settings using the refraction of light and the position of the virtual image and the real object as the frame for the research. The results show that there is more than one reasoning possibility that is feasible for students to use when dealing with the same problem. The results also illustrate how several different ways of reasoning may be simultaneously needed to solve a refraction problem. The different kinds of reasoning have been referred to as reasoning categories in this study. The analysis illustrates how the categories complement each other, and the use of many reasoning categories is shown to be fruitful. However, the vast majority of the participants made contradicting answer selections when solving similar problems by using contradicting reasoning approaches. This lack of consistency in the participants’ reasoning could indicate that they have a fragmentary understanding of optics in general. Both the capability to link reasoning approaches together, as well as the affordances that different modes of representations offer, are needed for the construction of a better conceptual understanding. Only mastering a few ways of reasoning and a few modes of representation could lead to fragmented knowledge, which, in turn leads to making problem solving really challenging. One purpose of this study was to find out if reasoning categories and modes of representations are essentially linked. If so, then the reasoning categories would be determined by the representation of the problem. The analysis shows that there is a connection, but that there are also other factors at play.

Chemistry textbooks and teachers frequently use a variety of metaphors, analogies and models to describe atomic and molecular structures and processes. While it is widely believed that multiple analogical models encourage students to construct appropriate mental models of chemical phenomena, uncritical use of multiple analogical models may actually be responsible for a number of alternative conceptions in chemistry. Students hear and read about electron clouds and shells, atoms that are like miniature solar systems and balls, and molecules that are simultaneously represented by balls-and-sticks, joined spheres, electron-dot and structural diagrams. A strong case has been made that students try to integrate these diverse analogical models resulting in the generation of unscientific synthetic models. Conceptual change research programs also propose that carefully designed teaching and learning activities can stimulate students to exchange their intuitive and synthetic conceptions for more scientific conceptions.This thesis investigates the occurrence of students' intuitive and synthetic mental models of atoms and molecules at both a general and specific level. The investigations consisted in the first phase of semi-structured interviews with 48 Year 8-10 science students. While the data were predominantly qualitative the interviews also generated simple quantitative data. The second phase was wholly qualitative and involved the researcher as teacher' in the Year 11 class. Portfolios were compiled for each student in the class and six portfolios were interpreted to produce a set of case studies describing the students' learning about atoms, molecules and bonds. These data were derived from transcripts of class discussions and individual interviews; pre-tests, formative tests and post-tests; student essays and worksheets and analogical teaching events. The data were interpreted from a constructivist viewpoint with attention given to credibility, viability and transferability, and dependability. The desire to collect every piece of useful data was constrained by the ethical need to minimise the disruptive effect of the research on the students' normal learning.The first or general phase of this study investigated the question: With what models of atoms and molecules are lower secondary science students familiar? The interviews about atomic and molecular conceptions held by the Year 8-10 students found, for example, that some students confused atoms with cells because both have a nucleus, while others believed that electron shells enclose and protect the atom. All but two students visualised atoms with large nuclei and close static electrons. A majority of this student sample were confused by ball-and- stick molecular models and had a strong preference for space-filling molecular models because they were more 'real'.The second or specific phase of this study consisted of an in-depth study of the development of mental models of atoms, molecules and bonds by six Year 11 chemistry students over 40 weeks of instruction. This study investigated the question: Do systematically presented multiple analogical models help students change their conceptions of atoms, molecules and bonds in favour of the scientific view? The students' prior mental models of an atom were dominated by a solar system model with the electrons in simple shells. A variety of metaphors, analogical models and explanations emphasising the diffuse spaciousness of atoms helped three students restructure their conceptions in favour of the scientific concept. Students also were encouraged to identify the shared and unshared attributes of familiar molecular models and, in time, three students became competent multiple modellers. It is claimed that these three students changed their conceptions of atoms and molecules in the sense that they realised that models are thinking and communicative tools, not reality itself. The significant change in these students' thinking was their recognition that atomic and molecular analogical models are context-dependent.The phase two study's pre-occupation with conceptual change or knowledge restructuring raised an important methodological question: Is a multi-dimensional approach a better way to interpret conceptual change learning? or, are the various theoretical perspectives on conceptual change complementary? The study's theoretical framework found that conceptual change learning can be interpreted from epistemological, ontological, motivational, holistic explanatory and developmental perspectives. The collection and analysis of the data showed that student modelling ability and Perry's model of intellectual development were powerful interpretive tools when data needed to be examined from multiple perspectives. The six case studies support the assertion that multi-dimensional interpretive frameworks have superior credibility and viability compared to uni-dimensional studies.Finally, the research raised several questions requiring further investigation. No direct support was found for the claim that dissatisfaction is central to conceptual change. This issue needs much more study due to the popularity of discrepant event teaching. While a multi-dimensional conceptual change model has been synthesised, this model needs further refinement as does the issue of how to monitor the status of students' conceptions. A most promising line of pedagogical research is the value of teaching scientific modelling through the use of multiple systematic analogical models.

Chemistry textbooks and teachers frequently use a variety of metaphors, analogies and models to describe atomic and molecular structures and processes. While it is widely believed that multiple analogical models encourage students to construct appropriate mental models of chemical phenomena, uncritical use of multiple analogical models may actually be responsible for a number of alternative conceptions in chemistry. Students hear and read about electron clouds and shells, atoms that are like miniature solar systems and balls, and molecules that are simultaneously represented by balls-and-sticks, joined spheres, electron-dot and structural diagrams. A strong case has been made that students try to integrate these diverse analogical models resulting in the generation of unscientific synthetic models. Conceptual change research programs also propose that carefully designed teaching and learning activities can stimulate students to exchange their intuitive and synthetic conceptions for more scientific conceptions.This thesis investigates the occurrence of students' intuitive and synthetic mental models of atoms and molecules at both a general and specific level. The investigations consisted in the first phase of semi-structured interviews with 48 Year 8-10 science students. While the data were predominantly qualitative the interviews also generated simple quantitative data. The second phase was wholly qualitative and involved the researcher as teacher' in the Year 11 class. Portfolios were compiled for each student in the class and six portfolios were interpreted to produce a set of case studies describing the students' learning about atoms, molecules and bonds. These data were derived from transcripts of class discussions and individual interviews; pre-tests, formative tests and post-tests; student essays and worksheets and analogical teaching events. The data were ++
interpreted from a constructivist viewpoint with attention given to credibility, viability and transferability, and dependability. The desire to collect every piece of useful data was constrained by the ethical need to minimise the disruptive effect of the research on the students' normal learning.The first or general phase of this study investigated the question: With what models of atoms and molecules are lower secondary science students familiar? The interviews about atomic and molecular conceptions held by the Year 8-10 students found, for example, that some students confused atoms with cells because both have a nucleus, while others believed that electron shells enclose and protect the atom. All but two students visualised atoms with large nuclei and close static electrons. A majority of this student sample were confused by ball-and- stick molecular models and had a strong preference for space-filling molecular models because they were more 'real'.The second or specific phase of this study consisted of an in-depth study of the development of mental models of atoms, molecules and bonds by six Year 11 chemistry students over 40 weeks of instruction. This study investigated the question: Do systematically presented multiple analogical models help students change their conceptions of atoms, molecules and bonds in favour of the scientific view? The students' prior mental models of an atom were dominated by a solar system model with the electrons in simple shells. A variety of metaphors, analogical models and explanations emphasising the diffuse spaciousness of atoms helped three students restructure their conceptions in favour of the scientific concept. Students also were encouraged to identify the shared and unshared attributes of familiar molecular models and, in time, three students became competent multiple modellers. It is claimed that these three students ++
changed their conceptions of atoms and molecules in the sense that they realised that models are thinking and communicative tools, not reality itself. The significant change in these students' thinking was their recognition that atomic and molecular analogical models are context-dependent.The phase two study's pre-occupation with conceptual change or knowledge restructuring raised an important methodological question: Is a multi-dimensional approach a better way to interpret conceptual change learning? or, are the various theoretical perspectives on conceptual change complementary? The study's theoretical framework found that conceptual change learning can be interpreted from epistemological, ontological, motivational, holistic explanatory and developmental perspectives. The collection and analysis of the data showed that student modelling ability and Perry's model of intellectual development were powerful interpretive tools when data needed to be examined from multiple perspectives. The six case studies support the assertion that multi-dimensional interpretive frameworks have superior credibility and viability compared to uni-dimensional studies.Finally, the research raised several questions requiring further investigation. No direct support was found for the claim that dissatisfaction is central to conceptual change. This issue needs much more study due to the popularity of discrepant event teaching. While a multi-dimensional conceptual change model has been synthesised, this model needs further refinement as does the issue of how to monitor the status of students' conceptions. A most promising line of pedagogical research is the value of teaching scientific modelling through the use of multiple systematic analogical models.

La triade de Vitruve revisitée à travers l’exemple de l’architecture d’Hervé Tordjman. La place de l’art et de la technique dans le processus de conception. Aujourd’hui, la conception de l’architecture demeure comme à son origine, dépendante de l’interaction des trois qualités indissociables de Vitruve : firmitas, utilitas et venustas, considérées autrefois indispensables à l’acte de concevoir. L’incarnation de cette triade dans le processus créatif des concepteurs contemporains que nous avons étudiés dans le cadre de cette thèse, qu’ils soient architectes-ingénieurs-artistes, architectes-artistes ou architectes-ingénieurs, est assujettie d’une part, aux mécanismes cognitifs : le modèle et la pensée analogique ; et d’autre part aux compétences et postures de chacun.Toutefois, en dépit de ce caractère personnel du processus conceptuel, ces trois qualités qui jadis devaient être articulées par une seule personne (l’architecte), se trouvent aujourd’hui menées à l’unisson selon un processus collectif.En effet, grâce aux nouvelles technologies numériques actuelles, l’architecte et les ingénieurs sont mobilisés dans un processus dit collaboratif abolissant ainsi les frontières entre « parti » architectural et « idée constructive », architecture et construction. A travers l’analyse de l’œuvre de l’architecte parisien Hervé Tordjman (1975), il faut souligner l’importance qu’acquiert la « firmitas » dans le processus de création en s’intégrant harmonieusement avec les autres composantes (utilitas et venustas). Ainsi, le point de vue de l’auteur et de chaque acteur de la chaine de conception devient partie intégrante dans le processus. Une telle articulation collective de la trinité vitruvienne dans la pratique contemporaine du projet marque une évolution dans la façon de concevoir l’acte architectural et non une rupture
Vitruvian triad revisited through the example of the architecture of Hervé Tordjman. The place of art and technique in the design process. Today, the design of architecture remains as to its origin, dependent on the interaction of three inseparable qualities stated by Vitruvius: firmitas, utilitas and venustas, once considered essential to the act of conceiving. The embodiment of this triad in the creative process of contemporary designers that is the concern of this thesis, both artists-architects-engineers, architects or artists-architects-engineers, is subject on the one hand, to cognitive mechanisms: the model and analogical thinking; and secondly to individual skills and postures.However, despite this personal character of the design process, these three qualities which once had to be articulated by one person (i.e. the architect), are now conducted in unison as a collective process.Indeed, thanks to new existing digital technologies, the architect and engineers are mobilized in a process said collaborative that abolishes the boundaries between the architectural part and the constructive system that is architecture and construction. Through the analysis of the work of the Parisian architect Hervé Tordjman (1975), we must emphasize the importance acquired by the "firmitas" in the creation process by being harmoniously integrated with other components (utilitas and venustas). Thus, the author’s view as well as that of each player in the design chain becomes part in the process. Such a collective articulation of the Vitruvian trinity in the contemporary practice project marks an evolution in how to design the architectural act, not a rupture

Le modèle du triple code a été proposé par Dehaene (1992 ; Dehaene & Cohen, 2000)sur la base d'arguments neuro-anatomiques et neuropsychologiques pour rendre compte du traitement des nombres et des quantités. Le modèle postule l'existence de trois types de représentations correspondant chacune à un format de l'information numérique : une représentation analogique approximative préverbale, et deux représentations symboliques,l'une verbale, l'autre arabe. Si des études ont pu être mettre en évidence les caractéristiques de la dimension analogique tant chez le nouveau-né que chez l'adulte, la question de la" greffe " chez l'enfant des représentations symboliques sur la représentation analogique reste posée. L'objectif de cette thèse est de rechercher en suivant le développement comment s'effectue cette mise en relation. Nous avons élaboré un ensemble d'épreuves de comparaisons testant chacune une des représentations du modèle du triple code afin de déterminer chez des enfants dès 4 ans des indices de cette mise en relation. Si le lien entre dimensions analogique et symbolique est présent, un effet de rapport, " signature " de ce lien est attendu tant avec les comparaisons analogiques que symboliques. Cinq expérimentations ont été menées : avec des adultes, des enfants de 4 et 5 ans tout-venant, des enfants prématurés et des enfants atteints du syndrome de Down. Les résultats montrent que, dans toutes les populations, l'effet de rapport est présent avec la dimension analogique. Ensuite,entre 4 et 5 ans, avec l'acquisition du code verbal et indo-arabe la représentation symbolique change de nature. Enfin, les populations qui présentent des troubles du traitement du nombre sont affectées essentiellement sur la dimension verbale. Ces résultats sont discutés en regard de deux conceptions alternatives.

L'adhésion cellulaire est un phénomène important en biologie. Le but de ce travail est le développement d'un modèle mécanique décrivant des phénomènes d'adhésion cellulaire à différentes échelles. La première échelle, microscopique, a pour objet la description des phénomènes cinétiques moléculaires durant le rolling. La seconde échelle, mésoscopique, est relative à la modélisation des déformations actives de la cellule durant la motilité. La troisième échelle, dite macroscopique, concerne la description de l'évolution dans le temps de l'adhésion d'une population de cellules. Les simulations réalisées mettent en évidence le rolling, et la déformation active de la cellule
Cell adhesion is an important phenomenon in biology, especially in the immune defence and tissue growth.We focus in this work on the development of a mechanical model for the description of the cell adhesion in a multiscal context. The first one is microscopic scale, which describes the molecular rupture and adhesion kinetics.At the mesoscopic scale, we model the active deformation of the cell during the motility phenomenon. At the macroscopic scale, we model the time evolution of the adhesion of cell population, under the action of the fluid. Numerical simulations emphasize the rolling phenomenon and the active deformation of a cell

La présence de défauts sur les surfaces des failles tectoniques peut modifier le comportement de la rupture sur ces interfaces. Cependant, le rôle de ces hétérogénéités reste difficile à quantifier du fait de la résolution limitée de l’imagerie des failles en profondeur. Une approche analogique permettant de préciser l’impact des hétérogénéités dans la propagation de la fracture est présentée ici. Cette analyse repose, tout d’abord, sur l’utilisation d’un montage expérimental assurant le suivi de la propagation d’une fracture sous contrainte de traction normale au plan de rupture (mode I). Le dispositif utilisé, mettant en jeu un suivi acoustique et optique de l’avancée du front de fracture, nous amène à déterminer l’impact des aspérités sur le partitionnement de l’énergie entre processus sismiques et asismiques. Nous faisons le lien entre efficacité de radiation et vitesse de rupture, localement perturbée par la présence de microstructures le long de l’interface. Afin d’étendre nos résultats à d’autres modes de rupture, plus fréquemment observés lors de ruptures le long de failles tectoniques, nous nous intéressons à l’adaptation de notre montage expérimental pour l’observation d’une fracture se propageant en mode de cisaillement (mode III). L’analyse des propriétés morphologiques et dynamiques de l’avancée d’un front de rupture en mode III révèle des résultats semblables à ceux obtenus en mode I. Cela suggère que les résultats obtenus en mode I peuvent être étendus aux autres modes de ruptures
The presence of defaults on the surface of tectonic faults can affect the behaviour of the rupture along those interfaces. However, because of the limited resolution of the faults imaging at depth, the implication of these heterogeneities remains hard to quantify. We present here an analogic approach enabling the precision of the impact of the heterogeneities on the fracture propagation. On one hand, this analysis lays on the use of an experimental setup ensuring the monitoring of a fracture propagating under an imposed stress, normal to the rupture interface (mode I). The used model, implying an acoustic and an optical monitoring of the fracture front advance, leads us to the determination of the impact of asperities on the energy partitioning between seismic and aseismic processes. We make the link between radiation efficiency and rupture velocity, locally affected by the presence of microstructures along the interface. On another hand, to extend our results to other rupture modes, which are observed more often during rupture on tectonic faults, we get interested in the adaptation of our experimental setup for the observation of a fracture propagating under shear stress (mode III). The analysis of morphologic and dynamic properties of the mode III crack advance shows results similar to those obtained for mode I. This suggests eventually that the results observed in mode I can be extended to other rupture modes

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This research was carried out in order to examine how a group of three chemistry teachers of a federal educational institution experienced in the classroom at work a rather abstract content called the stereoisomerism or isomerism (3D), a term used in the research, aiming to contribute to the formation of this teachers class. This content involves geometrical isomerism and optical isomerism. This analysis involved the determination of educational models through the use of analogies used by teachers and the determination of knowledge mobilized by them during their classes or at least the knowledge that should be mobilized. Theteachers have given two lessons each on the isomerism (3D). These lessons were observed and shooted by a third agent and then the speeches of teachers were transcribed, and some observations were made about their ways of doing things in the classroom and the way theyexplained the contents. Preliminary analysis of the transcribed speech was carried out by an association between the steps taken by teachers in their classes using analogies and a rational use of methodology of analogies, the TWA (Teaching With Analogies). After an initial analysis of the teachers’ speeches a supplementary questionnaire was drawn up so that the teachers could answer itbased on these lines in the classroom and aiming to bring relations between the knowledge mobilized by teachers and analog models used in classes on the isomerism (3D). The results showed, in general, that teachers have used three types of analog models for their explanation of the isomerism (3D), concrete, operational and the model with multiple analogies. The teachers have used such models without rigor spontaneously and they have used analogies without worrying about the students' prior knowledge, for example, if they know the difference between the analogy used and the subject of the lesson. It was determined also that knowledge of the content, according to Shulman, presented by teachers is very significant; however, the curriculum knowledge and teaching are at lower levels than one would expect for such teachers who are experienced. Finally, we found some shortcomings regarding the training of these teachers, through the fault pointing the pedagogical reasoning that should have developed over the years, according to Shulman, as some steps you should follow and which relate to assessment during the process of reflection and teaching to resume the process, present in the pedagogical reasoning.
Esta pesquisa foi realizada com o objetivo de analisar o modo como um grupo de três professores de Química de uma instituição federal de ensino vivencia em sala de aula, em ação, portanto, um conteúdo de caráter bastante abstrato, denominado de estereoisomeria ou isomeria (3D), termo utilizado na pesquisa, objetivando-se contribuir para a formação dessa classe de professores. Esse conteúdo envolve a isomeria geométrica e a isomeria ótica. A análise envolveu a determinação dos modelos de ensino através da utilização de analogias, usada pelos professores, e a determinação dos saberes mobilizados por esses durante suas aulas ou, pelo menos, os saberes que deveriam ser mobilizados. Os professores ministraram duas aulas, cada um, sobre a isomeria (3D). Essas aulas foram observadas através da filmagem por um agente terceiro e depois foram transcritas as falas dos professores. Além disso, foram realizadas algumas observações sobre o modo de atuação dos professores em sala, bem como de suas explicações sobre o conteúdo. A análise preliminar das falas transcritas foi realizada fazendo uma associação entre os passos dados pelos professores em suas aulas, utilizando as analogias, e uma metodologia de uso racional das analogias, a TWA (Teaching With Analogies). Após uma primeira análise das falas dos professores, elaborou-se um questionário complementar para que os professores respondessem, baseando-se nessas falas em sala de aula e objetivando trazer as relações entre os saberes mobilizados pelos professores e os modelos analógicos utilizados nas aulas sobre a isomeria (3D). Os resultados indicaram, em linhas gerais, que os professores fazem uso de três tipos de modelos analógicos para suas explicações sobre a isomeria (3D): o concreto, o operacional e o modelo com múltiplas analogias. Os dados também mostram que os professores utilizam tais modelos desprovidos de rigor, de uma forma espontânea e que fazem uso das analogias sem se preocupar com o conhecimento prévio dos alunos, ou seja, se os estudantes sabem diferenciar a analogia que foi feita pelo professor do assunto alvo. Determinou-se também que o saber do conteúdo, segundo Shulman, apresentado pelos professores é bastante expressivo, todavia, os saberes do currículo e pedagógico estão aquém do que se esperaria para tais professores, que são experientes. Por fim, foram encontradas algumas deficiências com relação à formação desses professores, através do registro de problemas no raciocínio pedagógico. Esse procedimento pedagógico deveria ter sido desenvolvido ao longo dos anos, conforme Shulman, com alguns passos que deveriam ser seguidos. Esses passos estão relacionados à avaliação durante o processo de ensino e também à reflexão para retomar o processo, presentes no raciocínio pedagógico.

Within the paradigm of sustainability, this thesis aims to provide complementary views to the conventional engineering in order to put forward tools that facilitate, on the one hand the search of solutions to improve the design of high-voltage power lines , and on the other hand to optimize their networks. As per the improving of a high-voltage line design, Scaling Laws and Gravity Models are used to provide new variables to estimate calculation of the electricity demand of a certain area. This article proposes modifications to the vector diagram of a transmission line operation, known as a Perrine-Baum Diagram to incorporate the new variables proposed with the objective to use this diagram as an application tool in real projects. Regarding the electric power networks, this work applies the analysis tools provided by the theories of Complex Networks to study its topology and spatial features in order to suggest more optimal designs.
Dins del paradigma de la sostenibilitat, aquesta tesi pretén aportar punts de vista complementaris als de l’enginyeria convencional amb l’objectiu de proposar eines que facilitin per una banda, trobar solucions per millorar el disseny de les línies elèctriques d’alta tensió, i per una altra optimitzar les xarxes constituïdes per aquestes. Pel que fa a la millora del disseny d’una línia d’alta tensió, s’han utilitzat les teories de les Lleis d’Escala i els Models Gravitacionals per aportar noves variables als càlculs de previsió de demanda elèctrica d’una regió. S’han proposat modificacions al diagrama vectorial de funcionament d’una línia elèctrica, conegut com a Diagrama Perrine-Baum, per incorporar les noves variables proposades amb l’objectiu que aquest diagrama pugui ser una eina d’aplicació en projectes reals. Pel que fa a les xarxes elèctriques s’han aplicat les eines d’anàlisi aportades per les teories de Xarxes Complexes per estudiar la seva topologia i les característiques espacials, amb l’objectiu de proposar dissenys més òptims.

Neste trabalho é enfocada a análise estrutural de lajes pré-moldadas formadas por vigotas treliçadas. Esta análise foi realizada mediante o modelo de grelha, considerando a não-linearidade do concreto armado utilizando-se a relação momento x curvatura e carregamento incremental. O modelo da não-linearidade do concreto armado foi avaliado com resultados experimentais de vigas bi-apoiadas e painéis de laje contínua. O trabalho inclui uma análise teórico-experimental de uma laje pré-moldada bidirecional isolada e simulações numéricas de casos representativos de arranjos estruturais das lajes treliçadas. As principais conclusões do trabalho foram: a) o modelo de grelha é bastante adequado para a análise de lajes nervuradas pré-moldadas; b) os resultados da análise teórico-experimental da laje pré-moldada indicam que os deslocamentos foram fortemente influenciados pela rigidez à torção e c) a redistribuição de momentos fletores nas lajes contínuas é relativamente pequena.
This work aims the structural analysis in precast slabs made by lattice joist. The scheme was carried out by using the grillage model considering the non-linear of the reinforced concrete through the relationship moment x curvature and incremental loads. The non-linear model of the reinforced concrete was appraised with experimental of simply supported beams and panels of continuos slabs. The work includes a theoretical-experimental analysis of a isolated bidirectional precast slabs and numeric simulations of representative cases of structural arrangements of the slabs witch lattice joist. The main conclusions of the work were: a) the grillage model is quite appropriate for precast ribbed slabs; b) the results of theoretical-experimental analysis of the precast slabs point out the relevance the torsional in the deflections and c) the bending moments redistribution in the continuous slabs are quite small.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
Esta é uma pesquisa sobre o uso de metáforas na construção de modelos por parte do físico escocês James Clerk Maxwell. O objetivo da pesquisa foi buscar compreender de que maneira o uso de metáforas e modelos é legítimo na ciência e em que medida contribui para seu sucesso. Além disso, busca compreender em que medida o uso de artifícios como modelos e analogias entre ramos distintos da ciência são impulsionadores de sucesso explicativo e preditivo da teoria do físico estudado. Explora as crenças teológicas e filosóficas do autor, que vê o mundo como unidade, permitindo a analogia entre ramos distintos da física. Seus desenvolvimentos em torno de teorias como calor, cores, óptica, magnetismo e eletricidade permitem evidenciar essa visão em todo o seu trabalho. Maxwell é considerado inaugurador de nova metodologia com o uso de modelos e metáforas. Explora o desenvolvimento da teoria das cores, da descrição matemática da estabilidade dos anéis de Saturno e o desenvolvimento da teoria dos gases como preâmbulo à discussão da teoria do eletromagnetismo. Descreve o desenvolvimento teórico do eletromagnetismo em seus diversos momentos. A construção da teoria do eletromagnetismo evidencia paulatino abandono do mecanicismo, uso intenso de modelos e metáforas temporários e ênfase na quantificação e no uso de experimentos. Discute o relacionamento de Maxwell com as discussões filosóficas, sociais e teológicas de sua época, seu engajamento em atividades práticas nesse sentido e suas influências científicas e filosóficas. Descreve e discute os textos filosóficos do cientista, em que se evidenciam sua ontologia, suas crenças teológicas e sua concepção de analogias. Discute a questão do uso de analogias em ciência e compara diversos autores que abordam o tema. A metodologia utilizada foi a de levantamento bibliográfico com análise crítica da literatura do autor e de seus comentadores, além de comentário crítico sobre os textos primários e secundários. Conclui que o sucesso científico de Maxwell deve-se à sua aposta numa unidade do mundo garantida por Deus, bem como na unidade entre o mundo e a mente humana, posturas que mostraram ser bem-sucedidas quando aplicadas à metodologia científica. Conclui também pela legitimidade e necessidade do uso de metáforas e modelos no empreendimento científico.
This is a research about the use of metaphors in the construction of models by the Scotish Physician James Clerk Maxwell. The aim of the research was to comprehend in which way the use of metaphors and models is legitimate in Science, and in what measure it contributes to its success. Also, tries to comprehend in which measure the use of artifices like models and analogies between different branches of Science forward the explicative and predictive success of the physicians theory that is studied here. It explores the theological and philosophycal beliefs of the author, who sees the world as a unity, allowing for the analogy between distinct branches of Physics. His developments with theories like heat, colour, optics, magnetism, and electricity enable to highlight this vision in the whole of his work. Maxwell is considered the starter of a new methodology with the use of models and metaphors. It explores the development of the theory of colours, the mathematical description of the stability of the rings of Saturn, and the development of the theory of gases as an introduction to the discussion of the theory of electromagnetism. It describes the theoretical development of electromagnetism in its several different moments. The theoretical construction of electromagnetism highlights the gradual abandonment of mecanicism, the intense use of temporary models and metaphors, and the enphasis in the quantification and use of experiments. It discusses the relationship between Maxwell and the philosophical, social and theological discussions of his time, his engagement in practical activities in this sense, and his cientific and philosophical influences. It describes and discusses the philosophical texts of the scientist, in which his ontology, his theological beliefs, and his analogy conceptions are highlighted. It discusses the issue of the use of analogies in Science, comparing several authors who deal with the subject. The methodology used was that of bibliographic survey with critical analysis of the authors literature, and of his commentators, and also a critical commentary on the primary and secondary texts. It concludes that the scientific success of Maxwell is due to his wager on the unity of the world guaranteed by God, as well as the unity between the world and the human mind, positions that showed to be well-succeeded when applied to the scientific methodology. It concludes also for the legitimacy and necessity of the use of metaphors and models in the scientific enterprise.

Le mémoire vise à proposer une épistémologie pragmatique de la science scolaire à l’école primaire. Un défaut de compréhension de la nature de la science pourrait en effet justifier en partie les difficultés de l'enseignement des sciences par démarche d'investigation. Une étude des représentations de la science chez les enseignants et futurs enseignants confirme qu’ils n‘en ont pour la plupart qu‘une vision assez floue, relevant majoritairement d'une forme d'empirisme naïf. Un jeu opératoire de critères de scientificité adapté au contexte de l’école est développé dans une approche "bottom-up" partant des pratiques de classe effectives. Sa capacité à discriminer pratiques scientifiques et non scientifiques est discutée, de même que les implications didactiques et épistémologiques de son utilisation. Il est en particulier possible d‘en déduire des définitions évolutives d‘une science scolaire normative mais subsidiaire par rapport à la “science des scientifiques”. Cet outil épistémologique s’avère bien reçu par les enseignants auxquels il a été présenté. Le test en situation de différentes stratégies pédagogiques fait apparaître que les plus efficaces pour l'appropriation de critères de scientificité ajoutent à la démarche d’investigation une composante épistémologique explicite. Certains éléments de méthode scientifique peuvent être travaillés dès la Grande Section de maternelle (5-6 ans) : des élèves ayant vécu des démarches d’investigation s’avèrent capables de revendiquer la primauté de l’expérience, mais aussi de mettre en œuvre des tests relatifs à plusieurs critères de scientificité et de s‘approprier les rudiments de la modélisation scientifique
The purpose of this thesis is to propose a pragmatic epistemology of school science in primary school. Indeed, some of the difficulties encountered by inquiry-based science education may be attributed to a lack of understanding of the very nature of science. A survey on the perception of science by incumbent teachers and teachers in training confirms that most of them have a relatively vague vision grounded in a form of naive empiricism. A practical set of criteria of scientificity adapted to the school context is developed through a “bottom-up” approach based on actual classroom practices. Its efficiency at discriminating scientific and non-scientific practices is discussed, as well as the didactical and epistemological implications of its use. It is thus possible to deduce evolutive definitions of a school science that is normative yet subordinated to the “science of scientists”. Teachers responded positively to this epistemological tool when it was presented to them. Among the different teaching strategies tested in a classroom, the most efficient for the acquisition of criteria of scientificity were those which supplemented the inquiry process with an explicit epistemological component. Some elements of scientific method can be introduced as early as kindergarten (5-6 y.o) : after experimenting with inquiry processes, pupils have proved able not only to claim the primacy of experiment but also to run tests related to different criteria of scientificity and acquire the basics of scientific modeling

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
科學教育研究所
89
Abstract The research mainly serves three purposes: first, to understand the factors that influence analogical learning of concepts of heat and temperature analyzing by students with different cognitive thinking abilities in learning from these different analogical materials ; second, to understand students'''' alternative concepts and mental models on heat and temperature ; third, to make use of Vosniadou''''s framework theory and Chi''''s theory of ontological coceptual change to understand students'''' epistemological and ontological presuppositions of heat and temperature . Seventy eight 8 th graders are involved in this study. Three teaching materials:(1) standard analogical materials, i.e. water analogy mentioned in scientific literature, (2) student-directed analogical materials, i.e. self-generated analogies which are generally designed for the 9 th grader who have learned the concept of heat and temperature, and (3) the materials for the control group. This research is implemented through pretest, teaching, post-post, interviewing and deferring test. The results of the research are as follows. 1. The whole teaching effect on the standard analogical group designed specifically for the research is superior to that on the control group, however, the teaching effect on the student-directed analogical group is worse than that on the control group. Formal operational students could benefit from analogy, but for transitional operational students and concrete operational students, teaching effects are of no significant differences. Further analysis on the learning effects on the concepts of heat and temperature reveals that the focused concept in each analogical material is beneficial, but analogical constraints and students'''' misunderstandings also lead to alternative concepts, which influences the effect on analogical instruction. 2. Different cognitive thinking abilities affect students'''' abilities of analogical mapping. Nevertheless, analogical understanding and transfer generate influences of different degrees due to divergent analogical materials. 3. Students of different cognitive abilities hold varied attitudes towards different analogies, which shows that different cognitive-thinking-ability students'''' attitudes towards analogical material are related to analogical materials. Even though analogy is easier for students to understand, it does not guarantee the success of analogy transfer and learning, which manifests that in designing analogy, other factors should be taken into consideration besides student''''s familiar experiences and cognitive thinking abilities. 4. When students learn heat and temperature, teachers should take into account epistemological and ontological presuppositions. Under the different-degree influences between perceptual experience and teaching context, students use different ontological concept properties of heat and temperature to form all types of mental models. When inferring the relationship between heat and temperature, we should regard heat as process-oriented concept properties, however, students mistakenly use matter-oriented concept properties to account for relationship. We should put the concept of specific heat in ''''the process of changes of heat and temperature'''', while students mistakenly put it in considering ''''the process of absorption of heat.'''' We should consider the temperature change of the object in heat equilibrium and think of it as CBI-oriented concept properties, but students mistakenly think of it as process-oriented concept properties. Students can not understand that the feeling of being hot and cold occurs in process-oriented concept properties among objects; they mistakenly think it occurs in matter-oriented concept properties of objects. In summary, the analogical materials will be influenced not only by the diversities of students'''' cognitive thinking abilities and the design of analogical materials, but also by students'''' conceptual learning of heat and temperature under epistemological and ontological presuppositions. 第一章 緒論…………………………………………..…...1 第一節 研究動機與研究背景…………………………. …………..1 第二節 研究目的與研究問題……………………………………... 2 第三節 名詞釋義……………………………………….……….…..4 第四節 研究範圍與限制……………………………………………5 第二章 文獻探討………………………………………… 6 第一節 類比…………………………………………………..…. …6 第二節 類比在科學教育的運用……………………………..……13 第三節 概念改變…………………………………………..………29 第四節 學生溫度與熱概念的相關研究…………………………..39 第三章 研究方法………………………………………...46 第一節 研究設計…………………………………………………..46 第二節 研究對象…………………………………………………..46 第三節 研究工具…………………………………………………..47 第四節 研究流程…………………………………………………..61 第五節 資料處理與分析………………………………………..…63 第四章 研究結果與討論………………………………...68 第一節 教學前學生另有概念之分析……………………………..68 第二節 類比教學成效之比較……………………………………..73 第三節 類比對各概念主題學習的成效分析………………….….77 第四節 學生溫度與熱的心智模式…………………………….….84 第五節 溫度與熱概念改變的模式………………………………115 第六節 類比學習態度的相關分析………………………..……..122 第七節 類比與概念學習………………………………….……...133 第五章 結論與建議…………………………………….145 第一節 結論………………………………………………….…...145 第二節 建議………………………………………………. ……..148 參考文獻 ………………………………………………...…152 附錄一 學生自發類比問卷………………………………………………...160 附錄二 典型類比組－熱量單元教材……………………………………...163 典型類比組－比熱單元教材………………………………….…..169 典型類比組－熱的傳播單元教材………………………………...175 學生類比組－熱量單元教材……………………………………...178 學生類比組－比熱單元教材……………………………………...184 典型類比組－熱的傳播單元教材………………………………...190 對照組－熱量單元教材……………………………..…………….193 對照組－比熱單元教材…………………………………………...196 對照組－熱的傳播單元教材……………………………………...200 附錄三 邏輯思考測驗 …………………………………………………….202 附錄四 溫度與熱概念理解評量測驗(前測、後測和延宕測驗) …………214 附錄五 典型類比組－類比學習態度問卷(一) …………………………...221 典型類比組－類比學習態度問卷(二) …………………………...223 學生類比組－類比學習態度問卷(一) …………………………...226 學生典型類比組－類比學習態度問卷(二) ……………………...229 表 次 表2-1.1 相似性的種類……………………………………………………...7 表2-2.1 GMAT類比教學模式…………………………………………….20 表2-2.2 類比教學與學習的FAR導引……………………………………21 表2-3.1 Thagard概念改變的層次………………………………………..37 表2-3.2 物件在因果關係上角色的改變………………………………….38 表3-2.1 研究樣本基本資料……………………………………………….46 表3-3.1 學生自發性類比種類…………………………………………….48 表3-3.2 水流類比－熱量單元的對應情形……………………………….49 表3-3.3 水流類比－比熱單元的對應情形……………………………….51 表3-3.4 水流類比－熱的傳播單元的對應情形………………………….52 表3-3.5 「搬木塊上樓梯」和「喝咖啡加糖」類比－熱量的對應情形…..53 表3-3.6 「搬木塊上樓梯」和「喝咖啡加糖」類比－比熱的對應情形…..54 表3-3.7 『喝咖啡太甜，兩杯混合』類比－熱的傳播單元的對應情形…...55 表3-3.8 溫度與熱概念理解測驗之雙向細目表………………………….59 表4-1-1 前測成績分析……………………………………………………68 表4-1.2 教學前學生的另有概念及分佈的百分比……………………….69 表4-2.1 教學後成績變數分析摘要表…………………………………….73 表4-2.2 教學後測成績之比較…………………………………………….73 表4-2.3 各組中不同思考能力學生的成就測驗分析…………………….74 表4-2.4 典型類比組內成就測驗事後比較……………………………….74 表4-2.5 學生類比組內成就測驗事後比較……………………………….74 表4-2.6 形式思考能力學生後測成績分析……………………………….75 表4-2.7 過渡思考能力學生後測成績分析……………………………….75 表4-2.8 具體思考能力學生後測成績分析……………………………….76 表4-3.1 熱平衡時的溫度變化和熱量的關係答題統計表……………….78 表4-3.2 熱的意義與多寡之答題統計表………………………………….79 表4-3.3 區別熱和溫度概念性質之答對率……………………………….80 表4-3.4 熱的傳播概念答對率…………………………………………….81 表4-3.5 比熱概念答題選項人數分佈表………………………………….83 表4-3.6 熱對物質影響概念答對率……………………………………….83 表4-4.1 水加熱系統的心智模式人數分佈表…….………………………90 表4-4.2 簡單比熱的心智模式人數分佈表……………………………… 98 表4-4.3 熱平衡下的溫度與熱的變化之心智模式人數分佈表………...106 表4-4.4 冷熱感覺之心智模式人數分佈表……………………………. .114 表4-6.1 典型類比組教材對應分數相關分析…………………………...122 表4-6.2 爬樓梯類比教材對應相關分析………………………………..123 表4-6.3 喝咖啡類比教材對應之相關分析……………………………..123 表4-6.4 學生類比組類比教材對應之相關分析………………………...124 表4-6.5 對應高、低分組的後測分數差異分析…………………………125 表4-6.6 典型類比組態度之相關分析…………………………………...126 表4-6.7 典型類比組類比態度對後測分數的差異分析………………...126 表4-6.8 不同認知思考能力學生的類比態度之差異分析……………...127 表4-6.9 爬樓梯類比教材類比態度與後測成績之相關分析…………...128 表4-6.10 爬樓梯類比教材之類比態度對後測分數之差異分析………...129 表4-6.11 喝咖啡類比教材類比態度與後測成績之相關分析………….. 129 表4-6.12 喝咖啡類比教材之類比態度對後測分數的差異分析………...129 圖 次 圖2-1.1 類比的抽象表徵…………………………………………………...6 圖2-1.2 各種相似性的分布圖……………………………………………...8 圖2-1.3 學生水流的知識表徵…………………………………………….10 圖2-1.4 學生熱流的知識表徵…………………………………………….11 圖2-2.1 類比建構理論模式……………………………………………….14 圖2-2.2a 從原理產生的類比機制………………………………………….15 圖2-2.2b 經由轉換而產生的類比機制…………………………………….15 圖2-2.2c 經由聯想而產生的類比機制…………………………………….15 圖2-3.1 Vosniadou（1994）的架構理論…………………………………..31 圖2-3.2 本體樹…………………………………………………………….33 圖2-3.3 根本概念改變與概念改變示意圖……………………………….34 圖2-3.4 典範改變、理論改變與概念改變示意圖……………………….36 圖2-3.5 概念改變的三元架構…………………………………………….38 圖2-4.1 孩童對熱的起始心智模式的概念架構………………………….43 圖2-4.2 孩童對熱的心智模式…………………………………………….44 圖2-4.3 熱與溫度的科學概念模式……………………………………….45 圖3-3.1 水流類比－熱量單元的類比圖………………………………….50 圖3-3.2 水流類比－比熱單元的類比圖………………………………….50 圖3-3.3 水流類比－熱的傳播單元的類比圖…………………………….51 圖3-3.4 「搬木塊上樓梯」類比－熱量單元的類比圖……………………52 圖3-3.5 「喝咖啡加糖」類比－熱量單元的類比圖……………………….52 圖3-3.6 「搬木塊上樓梯」類比－比熱單元的類比圖…………………….53 圖3-3.7 『喝咖啡太甜，兩杯混合』類比－熱的傳播單元的類比圖……55 圖3-3.8 FAR導引教學模式………………………………………………56 圖3-4.1 研究流程圖……………………………………………………….62 圖3-5.1 心智模式的分析架構…………………………………………….64 圖3-5.2 心智模式範例…………………………………………………….67 圖4-2.1 各組不同認知思考能力學生的後測成績比較………………….76 圖4-4.1 類型H-1 溫度與熱概念模糊的模式……………………………85 圖4-4.2 類型H-2 吸熱與溫度變化概念矛盾的模式……………………86 圖4-4.3 類型H-3 吸熱與溫度變化概念分離的模式……………………88 圖4-4.4 類型H-4科學概念的模式……………………………………….89 圖4-4.5 水加熱系統之學習概念架構…………………………………….89 圖4-4.6 類型S-1無關比熱的模式………………………………………..92 圖4-4.7 類型S-2忽略吸熱多寡，吸熱速率和溫度變化相關的模式……93 圖4-4.8 類型S-3比熱誤解模式………………………………………….95 圖4-4.9 類型S-4科學概念的模式………………………………………..96 圖4-4.10 簡單比熱系統之學習概念架構………………………………….97 圖4-4.11 SB-1未考慮熱平衡下，溫度與熱量模糊的心智模式…………100 圖4-4.12 SB-2未考慮熱平衡限制下之比熱影響吸、放熱的心智模式…101 圖4-4.13 SB-3考慮熱平衡限制下之溫度與熱模糊的模式……………..103 圖4-4.14 SB-4考慮熱平衡的科學概念心智模式………………………..105 圖4-4.15 複雜比熱系統之學習概念架構………………………………...106 圖4-4.16 F-1 物體吸冷（熱）與放冷（熱）的心智模式………………108 圖4-4.17 F-2吸熱、散熱的心智模式…………………………………….110 圖4-4.18 F-3物體升溫、降溫快慢不同的心智模式……………………...111 圖4-4.19 F-4科學概念的模式…………………………………………….113 圖4-4.20 冷熱感覺之學習概念架構……………………………………...114 圖4-5.1 典型類比組水對加熱系統的概念改變類型…………………...115 圖4-5.2 對照組對水加熱系統之概念改變類型………………………...117 圖4-5.3 比熱之概念改變的類型………………………………………...118 圖4-5.4 未衝擊本體預設和認識預設的之概念改變類型……………...119 圖4-5.5 衝擊本體預設和認識預設的之概念改變類型………………...120 圖4-6.1 典型類比組中不同認知思考能力學生之類比態度分析……...128 圖4-6.2 學生類比組之類比問卷態度分數比較………………………...132 圖4-7.1 類比物與目標物對應遺失和錯誤……………………………...142 圖4-7.2 類比物和目標物重疊示意圖…………………………………...143

Topologies and design methodologies for high precision analog processing blocks in short-channel technologies. With the explosive growth of battery-powered portable devices, power reduction in integrated circuits has become a major problem. In many of these portable systems the signal is processed in the digital domain by limiting the role of the analog part to interface circuits between analogous physical quantities and digital processing. Having analog circuits operating at the same voltage as the digital ones means that I can integrate on the same chip front-end and digital processing functions without the need for additional interface circuits, reducing the overall cost of the system. Another reason that pushes to low supply voltages is given by technological considerations, for sub micrometric channel lengths the thickness of gate oxide becomes so slim that it has been forced to reduce the supply voltage to avoid effects like breakdown of the oxide of gate. With the reduction of the supply voltage there is a consequent reduction in the dynamic of the input signal. To maintain the same dynamic range with a lower power supply voltage, the thermal noise in the circuit must also be proportionally reduced. Therefore capacitors used in the circuit must be increased to lower the KT/C noise. Therefore, for operational amplifiers that have the task of driving larger loads and for high resolution applications, doing it becomes even more difficult. There is, however, a compromise between noise and energy consumption. Because of this strong compromise, under certain conditions, energy consumption will actually increase in proportion to the decrease in power supply [1]. Another aspect that poses a significant problem to the reduction of consumption is the fact that battery technology is currently progressing at a much slower pace than that of electronic circuits. Nowadays, many electronic systems work with the power supplied by batteries alone, in some cases this problem is the most critical feature of the device, just think of networks of wireless sensors or implantable devices in the human body. There are also many switched-capacitor applications that require fast signal transitions and certain performance in given times. If I use a class A amplifier it would always be on even in the times when it is not necessary, which leads to considerable consumption. In this context, a possible solution can be represented by class AB transconductance amplifiers (OTA), which have the advantage of consuming a small current in quiescent condition and providing a large peak current when a large signal is applied. This peculiarity can be exploited to achieve fast settling times with low average power consumption. In many applications, such as active filters, Sample and Hold Amplifiers (SHA), pipeline ADCs, the use of fully differential amplifiers is required to exploit the advantages offered by differential signals, such as doubled dynamic range compared with that provided by a given voltage generator, low sensitivity to common mode disturbances and even order harmonics suppression. Various ways of achieving class AB OTAs are proposed in the literature. In all fully differential type implementations, there is a need for auxiliary circuits for controlling common mode output voltage (CMFB). These additional circuits introduce into the project additional constraints and static power consumption compared to the basic topologies of class AB amplifiers. This line of research has driven me to focus on two main topics, closely related to the aforementioned issues: 1- Low-voltage and Very-low-voltage design of Class AB OTAs blocks for S/H; 2- Study of a behavioral modeling of Class AB OTAs; This work is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 is an introduction to the state of the art of Class-AB OTAs. From the assessment of the state of the art there will emerge various ways to realize class-AB "OTAs" but only those that comply with certain constraints will be taken into consideration. The topologies chosen and on which the studies will be conducted will be those that will show the best performance in terms of power consumption, and that are implemented in according to the symmetrical current mirror OTAs. Chapter 2 is an introduction to figures of merit (FOMs) that will be used to characterize OTAs from a performance point of view. Also in chapter 2 the study and comparison of four topologies emerged from the state of the art evaluation will be conducted. These topologies will be compared from the point of view of consumption and performance of both small and large signal using the FOMs. From the comparison the one will be selected that has the best performances from the point of view of power consumption, bandwidth and large signal behavior. This topology that is preferred over the other choices will be shown to have a performance limit linked to the low value of the CMRR. Chapter 3 regards the improvement of the performance of the topology chosen to make it the most performing of the state of the art. Three possible methods will be proposed to increase the CMRR of the structure with little impact on consumption but without altering the low signal performance. The first two will be based on open loop techniques while the latter on a closed loop technique. Chapter 4 regards the design of other topologies with the aim of improving their performance. Chapter 5 regards behavioral modeling of a class AB OTA. Given that there are no guidelines in the literature on how to design class AB OTAs, a model will be proposed in this chapter, in its alpha phase, with the intent to understand how some parameters are linked to the settling time in similar way as to how is done for class A amplifier.

Avery Dulles é autor de uma das reflexões mais completas sobre a teologia da catolicidade, além de toda a reflexão a respeito da aplicação da teoria dos modelos científicos aos temas teológicos. Na presente investigação procura-se aplicar à teoria dos modelos os princípios metafísicos e epistemológicos da analogia entis de Erich Przywara, de forma a sustentar teoricamente a possibilidade do uso dos modelos. Enquadra-se tal abordagem no âmbito da teologia da catolicidade, mostrando como há a necessidade da existência de várias abordagens para uma compreensão aprofundada dos temas teológicos em geral e da catolicidade em particular. Neste sentido, procura-se isolar a noção de tensão e mostrar como esta noção é fundamental para o desenvolvimento da teologia. A catolicidade entendida como dom e como tarefa mostra de forma particular que é a tensão ínsita à reflexão teológica o dinamismo próprio que permite o desenvolvimento da própria reflexão.
Avery Dulles is the author of one of the most complete reflections on the theology of catholicity, in addition to all the reflection on the application of scientific models’ theory to theological themes. In the present investigation we seek to apply to the theory of models the metaphysical and epistemological principles of the analogia entis of Erich Przywara, in order to theoretically support the possibility of using the models. Such an approach is framed within the scope of catholicity theology, showing how there is a need for the existence of several approaches for a thorough understanding of theological themes in general and particularly catholicity. In this sense, we seek to isolate the notion of tension and show how this notion is fundamental to the development of theology. Catholicism understood as a gift and as a task shows in a particular way that it is the tension inherent in theological reflection or in its own dynamism that allows the development of its own reflection.