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Journal articles on the topic 'Amphiphile'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 21 February 2023

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1

Lombardo, Domenico, Mikhail A. Kiselev, Salvatore Magazù, and Pietro Calandra. "Amphiphiles Self-Assembly: Basic Concepts and Future Perspectives of Supramolecular Approaches." Advances in Condensed Matter Physics 2015 (2015): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/151683.

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Amphiphiles are synthetic or natural molecules with the ability to self-assemble into a wide variety of structures including micelles, vesicles, nanotubes, nanofibers, and lamellae. Self-assembly processes of amphiphiles have been widely used to mimic biological systems, such as assembly of lipids and proteins, while their integrated actions allow the performance of highly specific cellular functions which has paved a way for bottom-up bionanotechnology. While amphiphiles self-assembly has attracted considerable attention for decades due to their extensive applications in material science, drug and gene delivery, recent developments in nanoscience stimulated the combination of the simple approaches of amphiphile assembly with the advanced concept of supramolecular self-assembly for the development of more complex, hierarchical nanostructures. Introduction of stimulus responsive supramolecular amphiphile assembly-disassembly processes provides particularly novel approaches for impacting bionanotechnology applications. Leading examples of these novel self-assembly processes can be found, in fact, in biosystems where assemblies of different amphiphilic macrocomponents and their integrated actions allow the performance of highly specific biological functions. In this perspective, we summarize in this tutorial review the basic concept and recent research on self-assembly of traditional amphiphilic molecules (such as surfactants, amphiphile-like polymers, or lipids) and more recent concepts of supramolecular amphiphiles assembly which have become increasingly important in emerging nanotechnology.

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2

Edwards, D. A., Z. Liu, and R. G. Luthy. "Enhancing Polynuclear Aromatic Uptake into Bulk Solution with Amphiphilic Colloidal Aggregates." Water Science and Technology 26, no. 9-11 (November 1, 1992): 2341–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0732.

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Aggregated amphiphiles in an aqueous or solid/aqueous system can substantially enhance the uptake of polynuclear aromatic (PNA)compound into a bulk solution. The extent of PNA compound incorporated in an amphiphilic aggregate solution in the absence of solids is linearly dependent on the bulk solution concentration of the aggregated form of the amphiphile. In a system in which solids are in contact with a solution, however, the relationship is nonlinear as a result of the adherence of both amphiphile and PNA compound to the solids. The formation of amphiphile aggregates in the bulk solution of a system containing solids occurs only after a much greater amount of amphiphile has been added to the system than would be required for a similar system containing only solution. The partitioning of PNA compound between the solid, the colloidal amphiphilic aggregates in bulk solution, and the rest of the bulk solution can be characterized with two different partition coefficients and a number of other parameters, all of which are obtainable from independent experiments. The total fraction of PNA compound incorporated into bulk solution can be estimated with a mathematical model. Model results for the uptake of pyrene into a C8PE9.5 aggregate solution are shown plotted with experimental data. The effect of amphiphile aggregates on PNA compound transport in porous media may in some cases be substantial.

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3

Brahmachari, Sayanti, Sisir Debnath, Sounak Dutta, and Prasanta Kumar Das. "Pyridinium based amphiphilic hydrogelators as potential antibacterial agents." Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry 6 (September 21, 2010): 859–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjoc.6.101.

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The numerous applications of hydrogelators have led to rapid expansion of this field. In the present work we report the facile synthesis of amphiphilic hydrogelators having a quaternary pyridinium unit coupled to a hydrophobic long alkyl chain through an amide bond. Different amphiphiles with various hydrophobic chain length and polar head groups were rationally designed and synthesized to develop a structure-property relation. A judicious combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments led to the development of pyridinium based amphiphilic hydrogelators having a minimum gelation concentration of 1.7%, w/v. Field emission scanning electronic microscopy (FESEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), photoluminescence, FTIR studies, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and 2D NOESY experiments were carried out to elucidate the different non-covalent interactions responsible for the self-assembled gelation. The formation of three-dimensional supramolecular aggregates originates from the interdigitated bilayer packing of the amphiphile leading to the development of an efficient hydrogel. Interestingly, the presence of the pyridinium scaffold along with the long alkyl chain render these amphiphiles inherently antibacterial. The amphiphilic hydrogelators exhibited high antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values as low as 0.4 μg/mL. Cytotoxicity tests using MTT assay showed 50% NIH3T3 cell viability with hydrogelating amphiphile 2 up to 100 μg/mL.

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4

Cretu, Carmen, Loredana Maiuolo, Domenico Lombardo, Elisabeta I. Szerb, and Pietro Calandra. "Luminescent Supramolecular Nano- or Microstructures Formed in Aqueous Media by Amphiphile-Noble Metal Complexes." Journal of Nanomaterials 2020 (October 13, 2020): 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/5395048.

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The involvement of metal ions within the self-assembly spontaneously occurring in surfactant-based systems gives additional and interesting features. The electronic states of the metal, together with the bonds that can be established with the organic amphiphilic counterpart, are the factors triggering new photophysical properties. Moreover, the availability of stimuli-responsive supramolecular amphiphile assemblies, able to disassemble in a back-process, provides reversible switching particularly useful in novel approaches and applications giving rise to truly smart materials. In particular, small amphiphiles with an inner distribution, within their molecular architecture, of various polar and apolar functional groups, can give a wide variety of interactions and therefore enriched self-assemblies. If it is joined with the opportune presence and localization of noble metals, whose chemical and photophysical properties are undiscussed, then very interesting materials can be obtained. In this minireview, the basic concepts on self-assembly of small amphiphilic molecules with noble metals are shown with particular reference to the photophysical properties aiming at furnishing to the reader a panoramic view of these exciting problematics. In this respect, the following will be shown: (i) the principles of self-assembly of amphiphiles that involve noble metals, (ii) examples of amphiphiles and amphiphile-noble metal systems as representatives of systems with enhanced photophysical properties, and (iii) final comments and perspectives with some examples of modern applications.

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5

Park, Kyeng Min, Moon Young Hur, Suman Kr Ghosh, Deepak Ramdas Boraste, Sungwan Kim, and Kimoon Kim. "Cucurbit[n]uril-based amphiphiles that self-assemble into functional nanomaterials for therapeutics." Chemical Communications 55, no. 72 (2019): 10654–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9cc05567c.

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In this feature article, the two types (molecular amphiphile and supramolecular amphiphile) of CB-based amphiphiles, their self-assemblies and their applications for useful nanotherapeutics and theranostics are presented with future perspectives.

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6

Shida, Claudio S., and Vera B. Henriques. "Monte Carlo Comparative Study of Model Detergent and Lipid Aggregation on a Lattice." International Journal of Modern Physics C 09, no. 06 (September 1998): 801–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129183198000728.

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We have studied the aggregation of model amphiphilic molecules on a square lattice through Monte Carlo simulations via Metropolis. Amphiphilic molecules are modeled with a hydrophilic head represented by a small set of "water-loving" sites whereas the hydrophobic double-tail is represented by a second set of oil-loving sites. We have compared aggregation properties of single-stail (detergents) and double-tail (phospholipids) amphiphiles with equivalent hydrophobicity ratios. Equilibrium quantities such as average particle energy, specific heat, free amphiphile density show similar behavior for both model systems. The transition region associated with aggregation occurs at high temperatures for phospholipids as compared to detergents.

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7

George, M., and I. van de Rijn. "Nutritionally variant streptococcal serotype I antigen. Characterization as a lipid-substituted poly(ribitol phosphate)." Journal of Immunology 140, no. 6 (March 15, 1988): 2008–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.140.6.2008.

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Abstract Initial characterization of the nutritionally variant streptococcal serotype I amphipathic polymer indicated an estimated m.w. of 360,000 for the aggregated form of the molecule, whereas the dissociated form had an estimated m.w. of 38,000 based on dextran m.w. standards. In addition, SDS-PAGE indicated an amphiphile with a stepladder appearance made up of several components with m.w. larger than the major electrophoresis components of LPS or lipoteichoic acid. Chemically, the serotype I amphiphile appeared to be a lipid-substituted poly(ribitol phosphate) with galactose and alanine substitution on the ribitol phosphate backbone. This report represents the first characterization of a bacterial amphiphile with a chemical composition and structure as proposed here. As is the case with other bacterial amphiphiles, the nutritionally variant streptococcal serotype I amphiphile was found both intra- and extracellularly. Finally, immunofluorescence studies demonstrated that the amphiphile was expressed on the cell surface.

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8

Wang, Feng Yan, and Ti Feng Jiao. "Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Using a Bolaform Schiff Base Amphiphile at Liquid-Liquid Interface." Advanced Materials Research 490-495 (March 2012): 3694–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.490-495.3694.

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Gold nanoparticles were synthesized via a bolaform amphiphile with hydrophilic ethyleneamine spacer at a liquid-liquid interface. By stirring the aqueous solution containing AuCl4- ions with the chloroform solution of bolaform amphiphile, AuCl4- ions were transferred into the oil phase and reduced to gold nanoparticles. UV-vis and FT-IR spectral measurements indicated that the bolaform amphiphile could serve as both capping and reducing agents. Crystalline gold nanoparticles were predominantly obtained if the bolaform amphiphile solutions with appropriate concentrations were applied. The generated gold nanoparticles were characterized by UV-vis spectroscopy and atomic force spectroscopy (AFM). It is predicted that gold and other novel metal nanostructures may be produced by bolaform amphiphiles whose properties can be well-controlled by designing different headgroups, spacers or substituted groups.

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9

Białkowska, Katarzyna, Małgorzata Bobrowska-Hägerstrand, and Henry Hägerstrand. "Expansion of Phosphatidylcholine and Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylcholine Monolayers by Differently Charged Amphiphiles." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C 56, no. 9-10 (October 1, 2001): 826–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-2001-9-1024.

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Abstract Monolayer Technique, Nonionic Detergent, Erythrocyte Shape The degree and time-course of expansion of palmitoyloleoylphosphatidylcholine (PC) and bovine brain phosphatidylserine (PS)/PC (75:25, mol/mol) monolayers at 32 mN/m caused by differently charged amphiphiles (detergents) added to the sub-phase buffer (pH 7.4, 22 °C) were followed. Amphiphiles were added to the sub-phase at a concentration/monolayer area corresponding to the concentration/erythrocytes surface area where sphero-echinocytic or sphero-stomatocytic shapes are induced (0.46-14.6 μᴍ). Nonionic, cationic and anionic am phiphiles expanded the PS/PC monolayer significantly more (1.7-4.2 times) than the PC monolayer. A zwitterionic amphiphile expanded both monolayers to a similar extent. The initial rate of monolayer-expansion was higher for all amphiphiles (1.7-20.4 times) in the PS/PC monolayer than in the PC monolayer.It is suggested that hydrophobic interactions govern the intercalation of amphiphiles into monolayers, and that monolayer packing, modulated by phospholipid head group interactions and alkyl chain saturation, strongly influence amphiphile intercalation. A possible relation between the monolayer-expanding effect of amphiphiles and their effect on erythrocyte shape is discussed.

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10

Wu, Zhen Dong. "Preparation of Gold Nanoparticles by Using Cholesteryl Compounds." Applied Mechanics and Materials 368-370 (August 2013): 795–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.368-370.795.

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Gold nanoparticles were synthesized by two bolaform cholesteryl imide derivatives with different lengths of ethyleneamine spacers at a liquid-liquid interface. By stirring the aqueous solution containing AuCl4- ions with the chloroform solution of bolaform amphiphile, AuCl4- ions were transferred into the organic phase and reduced to gold nanoparticles. Spectral and morphological measurements indicated that both bolaform amphiphiles could serve as both capping and reducing agents. Different gold nanostructures could be obtained depending on the different spacers and the molar ratios of amphiphile to AuCl4- ions.

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11

Jiao, Ti Feng, and Jing Xin Zhou. "Research on Interfacial Coordination of Trigonal Schiff Base Compound with Hydrophobic Core and Aromatic Periphery at Air/Water Interface." Materials Science Forum 694 (July 2011): 778–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.694.778.

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Great interest has been given to the Schiff base amphiphiles with special molecular structures because of their unique properties. In this article, we report some interesting properties of the interfacial films formed by a newly designed trigonal amphiphiles Schiff base containing hydrophobic core and aromatic periphery. This novel Schiff base amphiphile could be spread to form stable monolayers and coordinated with Cu(Ac)2 in situ in the monolayer. The coordination with Cu(II) ion has a great effect on the regulation of the properties of the Langmuir monolayers. A larger limiting molecular area was observed for the monolayers of the trigonal amphiphile on Cu(II) ions subphase. Both the monolayers on water and on the aqueous Cu(Ac)2 subphase were transferred onto solid substrates, and different morphologies were observed for films. The present work provided new insight into the design and interfacial assembly of novel Schiff base amphiphiles with special molecular structures and substituted groups.

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12

BRINDLE, D., and C. M. CARE. "Monte Carlo Simulation of Lattice Model of Amphiphile and Solvent Mixture on a Transputer Array." International Journal of Modern Physics C 02, no. 01 (March 1991): 284–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129183191000330.

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A binary mixture of an amphiphilic material and water exhibits a rich phase behaviour as the concentrations of the components or temperature is changed [1]. Similar behaviour is also observed for ternary mixtures of amphiphile, oil and water. Lattice models of ternary systems have been extensively studied [e.g. 2]. However these models usually represent the amphiphilic molecule as a bond or site within the lattice and hence ignore the internal structure of the amphiphile. In this paper we present results for the lattice model of a binary system in which we represent the amphiphilic molecules by extended chains. This allows the nature of the chain packing and its influence on phase behaviour to be investigated. It also allows comparison with mean field calculations of chain order parameters [e.g. 3].

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13

Kim, Inhye, Na-Eun Lee, Yoo-Jeong Jeong, Young-Ho Chung, Byoung-Ki Cho, and Eunji Lee. "Micellar and vesicular nanoassemblies of triazole-based amphiphilic probes triggered by mercury(ii) ions in a 100% aqueous medium." Chem. Commun. 50, no. 90 (2014): 14006–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4cc06742h.

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Selective Hg²⁺-binding of click-derived triazole-based amphiphiles can lead to the formation of nanostructures, even below CMCs, which are determined by the stoichiometry of amphiphile–Hg²⁺ complexes affecting the interfacial curvature.

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14

de Silva, Udaka K., Jennifer L. Brown, and Yakov Lapitsky. "Poly(allylamine)/tripolyphosphate coacervates enable high loading and multiple-month release of weakly amphiphilic anionic drugs: an in vitro study with ibuprofen." RSC Advances 8, no. 35 (2018): 19409–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ra02588f.

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Gel-like coacervates prepared through ionotropic gelation enable very high loading and multiple-month release of weakly amphiphilic small molecules. Conversely, strong amphiphile incorporation disrupts ionic crosslinking and strikingly alters the coacervate properties.

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15

CHANDRA, M. SHARATH, Y. OGATA, J. KAWAMATA, and T. P. RADHAKRISHNAN. "ENHANCED SHG IN POLYELECTROLYTE COMPLEXED HEMICYANINE DYE LANGMUIR–BLODGETT FILMS." Journal of Nonlinear Optical Physics & Materials 13, no. 03n04 (December 2004): 347–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218863504001967.

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Complexation of ionic amphiphiles at the air–water interface by polyelectrolytes in the subphase has a pronounced effect of stabilization and deaggregation on the amphiphiles. We have effectively utilized the latter in the case of a hemicyanine dye based amphiphile. The aggregation of these amphiphiles is influenced by the rate of equilibration of the Langmuir film and the introduction of polyelectrolytes in the subphase is found to be a convenient method to suppress the aggregation. Langmuir–Blodgett films obtained by transfer of the polyelectrolyte complexed amphiphiles show enhanced second harmonic generation.

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16

Pokhrel, Ashish, Wei Zhao, and Ik Jin Kim. "Wet Foam Stabilized by Amphiphiles to Tailor the Microstructure of Porous Ceramics." Key Engineering Materials 512-515 (June 2012): 288–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.512-515.288.

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Wet foams formed through direct foaming were stabilized using various concentrations of amphiphilic particles that could control pore size and porosity. Microstructures and wet foam stability were tailored by amphiphile concentration, particle concentration, contact angle and pH of the suspension to obtain crack-free porous solid after sintering. The influence of these parameters on the porosity was satisfactorily described in terms of combined effects of the contact angle and particle concentration of the initial suspensions, directly affected by amphiphile concentration. Pores were obtained with sizes of c. a 30 - 300 µm and porosities of over 80%.

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17

Oster, Linda M., Jake Shechter, Benjamin Strain, Manisha Shivrayan, Sankaran Thai Thayumanavan, and Jennifer L. Ross. "Controlling Liquid Crystal Configuration and Phase Using Multiple Molecular Triggers." Molecules 27, no. 3 (January 27, 2022): 878. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030878.

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Liquid crystals are able to transform a local molecular interaction into a macroscopic change of state, making them a valuable “smart” material. Here, we investigate a novel polymeric amphiphile as a candidate for molecular triggering of liquid crystal droplets in aqueous background. Using microscopy equipped with crossed polarizers and optical tweezers, we find that the monomeric amphiphile is able to trigger both a fast phase change and then a subsequent transition from nematic to isotropic. We next include sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a standard surfactant, with the novel amphiphilic molecules to test phase transitioning when both were present. As seen previously, we find that the activity of SDS at the surface can result in configuration changes with hysteresis. We find that the presence of the polymeric amphiphile reverses the hysteresis previously observed during such transitions. This work demonstrates a variety of phase and configuration changes of liquid crystals that can be controlled by multiple exogenous chemical triggers.

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18

Gupta, Deeksha, Bivas Sarker, Keith Thadikaran, Vijay John, Charles Maldarelli, and George John. "Sacrificial amphiphiles: Eco-friendly chemical herders as oil spill mitigation chemicals." Science Advances 1, no. 5 (June 2015): e1400265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400265.

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Crude oil spills are a major threat to marine biota and the environment. When light crude oil spills on water, it forms a thin layer that is difficult to clean by any methods of oil spill response. Under these circumstances, a special type of amphiphile termed as “chemical herder” is sprayed onto the water surrounding the spilled oil. The amphiphile forms a monomolecular layer on the water surface, reducing the air–sea surface tension and causing the oil slick to retract into a thick mass that can be burnt in situ. The current best-known chemical herders are chemically stable and nonbiodegradable, and hence remain in the marine ecosystem for years. We architect an eco-friendly, sacrificial, and effective green herder derived from the plant-based small-molecule phytol, which is abundant in the marine environment, as an alternative to the current chemical herders. Phytol consists of a regularly branched chain of isoprene units that form the hydrophobe of the amphiphile; the chain is esterified to cationic groups to form the polar group. The ester linkage is proximal to an allyl bond in phytol, which facilitates the hydrolysis of the amphiphile after adsorption to the sea surface into the phytol hydrophobic tail, which along with the unhydrolyzed herder, remains on the surface to maintain herding action, and the cationic group, which dissolves into the water column. Eventual degradation of the phytol tail and dilution of the cation make these sacrificial amphiphiles eco-friendly. The herding behavior of phytol-based amphiphiles is evaluated as a function of time, temperature, and water salinity to examine their versatility under different conditions, ranging from ice-cold water to hot water. The green chemical herder retracted oil slicks by up to ~500, 700, and 2500% at 5°, 20°, and 35°C, respectively, during the first 10 min of the experiment, which is on a par with the current best chemical herders in practice.

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Isomaa, Boris, Henry Hägerstrand, and Diana Toivola. "Anomalous dose-response relationship due to association colloidal behaviour of soluble amphiphilic compounds." Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 19, no. 2 (April 1991): 194–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026119299101900208.

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Water-soluble amphiphiles may, above a certain concentration, form colloidal aggregates (micelles or liquid crystals). If such aggregates are formed, there may be a competition between the micelles or the liquid crystals and the biological target for the monomelic form of the amphiphile. This may reduce the number of monomers available for the biological target, which in turn may be reflected in concentration-dependent processes. Therefore, caution should be taken when examining dose-response with soluble amphiphiles forming micelles at low concentrations.

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20

Yu, Chunsong, Myunggi An, Meng Li, Charles Manke, and Haipeng Liu. "Structure-Dependent Stability of Lipid-Based Polymer Amphiphiles Inserted on Erythrocytes." Membranes 11, no. 8 (July 29, 2021): 572. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/membranes11080572.

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Cell-based therapies have the potential to transform the treatment of many diseases. One of the key challenges relating to cell therapies is to modify the cell surface with molecules to modulate cell functions such as targeting, adhesion, migration, and cell–cell interactions, or to deliver drug cargos. Noncovalent insertion of lipid-based amphiphilic molecules on the cell surface is a rapid and nontoxic approach for modifying cells with a variety of bioactive molecules without affecting the cellular functions and viability. A wide variety of lipid amphiphiles, including proteins/peptides, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, drugs, and synthetic polymers have been designed to spontaneously anchor on the plasma membranes. These molecules typically contain a functional component, a spacer, and a long chain diacyl lipid. Though these molecular constructs appeared to be stably tethered on cell surfaces both in vitro and in vivo under static situations, their stability under mechanical stress (e.g., in the blood flow) remains unclear. Using diacyl lipid-polyethylene glycol (lipo-PEG) conjugates as model amphiphiles, here we report the effect of molecular structures on the amphiphile stability on cell surface under mechanical stress. We analyzed the retention kinetics of lipo-PEGs on erythrocytes in vitro and in vivo and found that under mechanical stress, both the molecular structures of lipid and the PEG spacer have a profound effect on the membrane retention of membrane-anchored amphiphiles. Our findings highlight the importance of molecular design on the dynamic stability of membrane-anchored amphiphiles.

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21

Moreno, Maria João, Hugo A. L. Filipe, Susana V. P. Cunha, Cristiana V. Ramos, Patrícia A. T. Martins, Biebele Abel, Luís M. S. Loura, and Suresh V. Ambudkar. "Interaction of a Homologous Series of Amphiphiles with P-glycoprotein in a Membrane Environment—Contributions of Polar and Non-Polar Interactions." Pharmaceutics 15, no. 1 (January 3, 2023): 174. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15010174.

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The transport of drugs by efflux transporters in biomembranes limits their bioavailability and is a major determinant of drug resistance development by cancer cells and pathogens. A large number of chemically dissimilar drugs are transported, and despite extensive studies, the molecular determinants of substrate specificity are still not well understood. In this work, we explore the role of polar and non-polar interactions on the interaction of a homologous series of fluorescent amphiphiles with the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein. The interaction of the amphiphiles with P-glycoprotein is evaluated through effects on ATPase activity, efficiency in inhibition of [125I]-IAAP binding, and partition to the whole native membranes containing the transporter. The results were complemented with partition to model membranes with a representative lipid composition, and details on the interactions established were obtained from MD simulations. We show that when the total concentration of amphiphile is considered, the binding parameters obtained are apparent and do not reflect the affinity for P–gp. A new formalism is proposed that includes sequestration of the amphiphiles in the lipid bilayer and the possible binding of several molecules in P–gp’s substrate-binding pocket. The intrinsic binding affinity thus obtained is essentially independent of amphiphile hydrophobicity, highlighting the importance of polar interactions. An increase in the lipophilicity and amphiphilicity led to a more efficient association with the lipid bilayer, which maintains the non-polar groups of the amphiphiles in the bilayer, while the polar groups interact with P–gp’s binding pocket. The presence of several amphiphiles in this orientation is proposed as a mechanism for inhibition of P-pg function.

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Kaser, Samuel J., Andrew J. Lew, Dae-Yoon Kim, Ty Christoff-Tempesta, Yukio Cho, and Julia H. Ortony. "Effects of molecular flexibility and head group repulsion on aramid amphiphile self-assembly." Molecular Systems Design & Engineering 6, no. 12 (2021): 1016–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d1me00120e.

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23

Talmon, Yeshayahu. "Cryo-TEM of amphiphilic polymer and amphiphile/polymer solutions." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 51 (August 1, 1993): 876–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100150216.

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To achieve complete microstructural characterization of self-aggregating systems, one needs direct images in addition to quantitative information from non-imaging, e.g., scattering or Theological measurements, techniques. Cryo-TEM enables us to image fluid microstructures at better than one nanometer resolution, with minimal specimen preparation artifacts. Direct images are used to determine the “building blocks” of the fluid microstructure; these are used to build reliable physical models with which quantitative information from techniques such as small-angle x-ray or neutron scattering can be analyzed.To prepare vitrified specimens of microstructured fluids, we have developed the Controlled Environment Vitrification System (CEVS), that enables us to prepare samples under controlled temperature and humidity conditions, thus minimizing microstructural rearrangement due to volatile evaporation or temperature changes. The CEVS may be used to trigger on-the-grid processes to induce formation of new phases, or to study intermediate, transient structures during change of phase (“time-resolved cryo-TEM”). Recently we have developed a new CEVS, where temperature and humidity are controlled by continuous flow of a mixture of humidified and dry air streams.

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Sarapuk, J., J. Gabrielska, and S. Przestalski. "Anwendungsmöglichkeiten für Ionenpaar-Amphiphile / Potential application of ion-pair amphiphiles." Tenside Surfactants Detergents 34, no. 2 (March 1, 1997): 108–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/tsd-1997-340209.

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Ariga, Katsuhiko, Toshihiro Urakawa, Atsuo Michiue, Yoshihiro Sasaki, and Jun-ichi Kikuchi. "Dendritic Amphiphiles: Dendrimers Having an Amphiphile Structure in Each Unit." Langmuir 16, no. 24 (November 2000): 9147–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la000901l.

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Mihailescu, Florentina Cristina, Marieta Balcan, Monica Elisabeta Maxim, and Dan Florin Anghel. "Combustible Microemulsions with Diesel and Diesel Admixed with Rapeseed Oil." Revista de Chimie 70, no. 9 (October 15, 2019): 3163–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.37358/rc.19.9.7508.

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Novel results on combustible microemulsions prepared with diesel (D), blends of diesel and rapeseed oil (RSO), and mixtures of eco-friendly amphiphiles are presented. Water solubilization in oil/amphiphile systems was estimated by pseudo-ternary diagrams whereas the phase behavior by Winsor (W) diagrams. The extent of single-phase microemulsion (SPM) area depends on the amphiphile and oil phase composition. The presence of cosurfactant in the anionic-nonionic surfactant mixture increases very much the SPM area, but no effect is observed when half of D is replaced by RSO. In the pseudo-ternary phase diagram, the addition of organic electrolyte decreases the SPM areas. The microemulsions were characterized by the oil/water interfacial tension (gow), and the oil and water solubilization parameters (SPo) and (SPw). The results obtained reveal that the W III microemulsions have minimal goow values, whereas SPo and SPw are maximal. The work connects the phase behavior with the interfacial tension and the solubilization parameters of oil and water and is useful for obtaining and developing optimal microemulsions as alternative fuels.

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ZENG, Youchun, Xianlin HAN, and Richard W. GROSS. "Phospholipid-subclass-specific partitioning of lipophilic ions in membrane–water systems." Biochemical Journal 338, no. 3 (March 8, 1999): 651–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj3380651.

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Herein, we systematically investigate phospholipid-subclass-specific alterations in the partitioning of both cationic and anionic amphiphiles to identify the importance of ester, ether and vinyl ether linkages at the sn-1 position of phospholipids in the partitioning of charged amphiphiles. The results demonstrated that the membrane–water partition coefficient of a prototypic cationic amphiphile (i.e. 3,3´-dipropylthiadicarbocyanine iodide) was approximately 2.5 times higher in membranes comprised of plasmenylcholine in comparison with membranes comprised of either phosphatidylcholine or plasmanylcholine. In striking contrast, the membrane–water partition coefficient of a prototypic anionic amphiphile [i.e. bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid)trimethine oxonol] in membranes comprised of plasmenylcholine was ≈ 2.5 times lower than that manifest in membranes comprised of phosphatidylcholine or plasmanylcholine. Utilizing these experimentally determined partition coefficients,the relative membrane dipole potential of membranes comprised of plasmenylcholine was calculated and found to be ≈ 25 mV lower than in membranes comprised of phosphatidylcholine or plasmanylcholine. This lower membrane dipole potential in membranes comprised of plasmenylcholine is equivalent to the membrane potential induced by incorporation of ≈ 25 mol% of anionic phospholipids in membranes comprised of phosphatidylcholine. Collectively, these results demonstrate that phospholipid-subclass-specific differences in the membrane dipole potential contribute to alterations in the partitioning of lipophilic ions in membrane bilayers comprised of distinct phospholipid subclasses. Moreover, they suggest that these physicochemical differences can be exploited to facilitate the targeting of charged lipophilic drugs to specific cells and subcellular membrane compartments.

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Post, J. A., S. Ji, K. S. Leonards, and G. A. Langer. "Effects of charged amphiphiles on cardiac cell contractility are mediated via effects on Ca2+ current." American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology 260, no. 3 (March 1, 1991): H759—H769. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.1991.260.3.h759.

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Exposure of isolated adult rabbit myocytes to the negatively charged amphiphile dodecylsulfate (DDS; 10 microM) increased the contraction amplitude to 185% of control. The positively charged amphiphile dodecyltrimethylammonium (DDTMA; 10 microM) decreased the amplitude to 58%. DDS increased Ca2+ uptake by the same cells, but this uptake was partially prevented by nifedipine. DDTMA had no effect on Ca2+ uptake. Ca2+ binding to isolated sarcolemma of neonatal heart cells was increased by 10 microM DDS and, at higher concentrations, reduced by DDTMA. Single-cell voltage-clamp studies, using isolated rabbit myocytes, showed that DDS enhanced L-type Ca2+ currents (ICa,L), whereas DDTMA depressed ICa,L. DDS shifted current-voltage (I-V) and isochronal inactivation curves of ICa,L in the negative direction, whereas DDTMA shifted them in positive direction. Furthermore, DDS depressed T-type Ca2+ currents (ICa,T), and DDTMA enhanced ICa,T. The inotropic effects of the amphiphiles are therefore mediated to a significant degree by ICa,L. The shifts in the I-V and inactivation curves of ICa,L and the effect on ICa,T can be explained by changes in the actual membrane potential (Em), induced by the insertion of the amphiphiles in the outer monolayer of the sarcolemma. However, the changes in the Em do not explain the effect on the maximal current, indicating effects on the channel per se, possibly by an alteration of the lipid environment.

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29

Carmona-Ribeiro, A. M. "Synthetic amphiphile vesicles." Chemical Society Reviews 21, no. 3 (1992): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/cs9922100209.

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30

Zhou, Yujuan, Kecheng Jie, and Feihe Huang. "A dual redox-responsive supramolecular amphiphile fabricated by selenium-containing pillar[6]arene-based molecular recognition." Chemical Communications 54, no. 91 (2018): 12856–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8cc06406g.

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A dual redox-responsive pillar[6]arene-based supramolecular amphiphile was fabricated in water. The self-assembly behavior of this supramolecular amphiphile in response to dual redox stimuli was investigated.

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Dai, Xiaomei, Jinxia An, Yanan Wang, Zhongming Wu, Yu Zhao, Qianqian Guo, Xinge Zhang, and Chaoxing Li. "Antibacterial amphiphiles based on ε-polylysine: synthesis, mechanism of action, and cytotoxicity." RSC Advances 5, no. 85 (2015): 69325–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ra10393b.

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To combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria, an amphiphile based on ε-polylysine was synthesized via an alkylation reaction. The positively charged amphiphile could adsorb bacterial membranes, disrupt them and subsequently kill the bacteria.

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32

Hua, Bin, Li Shao, Jiong Zhou, and Guocan Yu. "A diols-responsive triple-component supra-amphiphile constructed from pillar[5]arene-based recognition." RSC Advances 6, no. 53 (2016): 47281–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6ra07216j.

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A triple-component supra-amphiphile is constructed from dynamic covalent chemistry and pillar[5]arene-based host–guest recognition. The diol-responsive self-assembly of this ternary supra-amphiphile is investigated in aqueous solution.

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Zhou, Yujuan, Kecheng Jie, and Feihe Huang. "A redox-responsive selenium-containing pillar[5]arene-based macrocyclic amphiphile: synthesis, controllable self-assembly in water, and application in controlled release." Chemical Communications 53, no. 59 (2017): 8364–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7cc04779g.

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A selenium-containing pillar[5]arene-based macrocyclic amphiphile was prepared. This amphiphile self-assembled in water to form vesicles with redox responsiveness. Then, these pillar[5]arene-based vesicles were used in the controlled release of DOX.

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34

Pascual-Izarra, Carlos, Aurelia W. Dong, Steven J. Pas, Ben J. Boyd, C. J. Drummond, and Anita J. Hill. "Advanced Algorithms for PALS Analysis of Self-Assembled Amphiphiles." Materials Science Forum 607 (November 2008): 257–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.607.257.

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Self-assembled amphiphile systems are utilized in a wide variety of applications including drug delivery and energy storage. Nano-scale physical and chemical interactions govern the packing of self-assembled amphiphilic molecules, resulting in thermodynamically stable phases of defined geometries. Possible phases include micellar, hexagonal, cubic, lamellar and sponge phases. The internal nano-structure of the amphiphile self-assembly materials plays an important role in the properties of these systems and their application. To date small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) has been the most common technique used to characterise their structure. We explore positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) as an alternative and/or complementary technique for this purpose, using the phytantriol/water system. While PALS is a well established technique for characterising many materials, the coexistence of aqueous and hydrophobic regions in a soft self-assembled amphiphile material poses a challenge to the analysis and interpretation of the results. In order to alleviate these difficulties we developed a computer program for general-purpose PALS data analysis called PAScual. Amongst the most salient features of this new code are the possibility to perform bounded fits and the option of using advanced algorithms to provide a more robust and unbiased fit: on the one hand, it incorporates a global nonlinear optimisation routine based on the Simulated Annealing algorithm and, on the other hand it gives information on the reliability of the results by means of a Markov Chain Monte-Carlo Bayesian Inference method. In this work we present the newly developed PALS data analysis techniques as well as the results for the phytantriol/water system, comparing them with additional data obtained from complementary techniques.

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Shao, Li, Bin Hua, Jie Yang, and Guocan Yu. "Pillar[7]arene-based host–guest complex in water: dual-responsiveness and application in controllable self-assembly." RSC Advances 6, no. 65 (2016): 60029–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6ra12183g.

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A dual-responsive supra-amphiphile was constructed based on a water-soluble pillar[7]arene and a pyrene-containing guest. The self-assembly morphology of this supra-amphiphile could be adjusted by changing pH or irradiation by UV light.

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36

Ghosh, Prasanjit, Barnali Kar, Soumik Bardhan, Kaushik Kundu, Swapan Kumar Saha, Bidyut K. Paul, and Sajal Das. "Microemulsion Mediated Organic Synthesis and the Possible Reaction Site." Journal of Surface Science and Technology 32, no. 1-2 (July 6, 2016): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.18311/jsst/2016/6596.

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Microemulsions (mEs), being thermodynamically stable, single phasic transparent mixtures of oil, water, surfactant ( either individually or in mixed state) and/or co-surfactant, are exemplary and multi dimensional reaction media in organic synthesis. They can act as an alternative of the phase transfer catalysis and influence the rate of the reaction due to the presence of charged carriers (amphiphiles) at the oil/water interface. The regioselectivity of many organic reactions can also be induced by employing mEs as templates. In particular, organic molecules with different degrees of polarity tend to accumulate at the oil/water interface of mEs. Subsequently, they orient themselves at the interface in such a way that the polar component extends into the water domain and the nonpolar component protrudes towards hydrocarbon domain. In view of this, a water-soluble reagent attacks the polar part of the amphiphile, and a reagent soluble in hydrocarbon reacts at the nonpolar part of the amphiphile. Because of this unique feature, use of mEs (or micro heterogeneous systems) as templates for studying organic reactions, have increased manifolds. In this short review, we mainly exemplify (i) mEs as reaction media, (ii) effect of microstructure of mEs on organic transformations and (iii) the most possible reaction location/site in mEs.

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37

Barrett, David G., and Samuel H. Gellman. "Effects of amphiphile topology on aggregation properties: distinctive behavior of contrafacial amphiphiles." Journal of the American Chemical Society 115, no. 20 (October 1993): 9343–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja00073a082.

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38

Chin, Jonathan, and Peter V. Coveney. "Chirality and domain growth in the gyroid mesophase." Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 462, no. 2076 (June 23, 2006): 3575–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2006.1741.

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We describe the first dynamical simulations of domain growth during the self-assembly of the gyroid mesophase from a ternary amphiphilic mixture, using the lattice Boltzmann method. The gyroid is a chiral structure; we demonstrate that, for a symmetric amphiphile with no innate preference for left- or right-handed morphologies, the self-assembly process may give rise to a racemic mixture of domains. We use measurements of the averaged mean curvature to analyse the behaviour of domain walls, and suggest that diffusive domain growth may be present in this system.

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39

Li, Haiyin, Jiafu Chang, Ting Hou, and Feng Li. "Aggregation induced emission amphiphile with an ultra low critical micelle concentration: fabrication, self assembling, and cell imaging." Journal of Materials Chemistry B 4, no. 2 (2016): 198–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5tb02462e.

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An AIE-active amphiphile containing a tetraphenylethene moiety and a quarternary ammonium salt group, with an ultra low CMC, desirable optical properties, good water dispersibility and excellent biocompatibility, was prepared and investigated, and the as-prepared amphiphile was successfully applied in cell imaging.

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40

Rana, Fazale R., Suci Widayati, Brian W. Gregory, and Richard A. Dluhy. "Metastability in Monolayer Films Transferred onto Solid Substrates by the Langmuir-Blodgett Method: IR Evidence for Transfer-Induced Phase Transitions." Applied Spectroscopy 48, no. 10 (October 1994): 1196–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702944027309.

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The rate at which a monomolecular film is deposited onto a solid substrate in the Langmuir-Blodgett process of preparing supported monolayer films influences the final structure of the transferred film. Attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopic studies of monolayers transferred to germanium substrates show that the speed at which the substrate is drawn through the air/water interface influences the final conformation in the hydrocarbon chains of amphiphilic film molecules. This transfer-induced effect is especially evident when the monolayer is transferred from the expanded region of surface-pressure-molecular-area isotherms at low surface pressures; the effect is minimized when the film molecules are transferred from condensed phases at high surface pressures. This phenomenon has been observed for both a fatty acid and a phospholipid, which suggests that these conformational changes may occur in a variety of hydrocarbon amphiphiles transferred from the air/water interface. This conformational ordering may be due to a kinetically limited phase transition taking place in the meniscus formed between the solid substrate and aqueous subphase. In addition, the results obtained for both the phospholipid and fatty acid suggest that the structure of the amphiphile may help determine the extent and nature of the transfer-speed-induced structural changes taking place in the monomolecular film.

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41

Taraban, Marc B., Li Yu, Yue Feng, Elena V. Jouravleva, Mikhail A. Anisimov, Zhong-Xing Jiang, and Y. Bruce Yu. "Conformational transition of a non-associative fluorinated amphiphile in aqueous solution." RSC Adv. 4, no. 97 (2014): 54565–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ra09752a.

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A non-associative fluorinated amphiphile was synthesized. Instead of self-association at high concentrations, this amphiphile undergoes conformational transition in which the hydrophilic tails wrap around the fluorocarbon core to shield it from water, bearing certain similarity to protein folding in a crowded environment.

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42

Rajdev, Priya, Saptarshi Chakraborty, Marc Schmutz, Philippe Mesini, and Suhrit Ghosh. "Supramolecularly Engineered π-Amphiphile." Langmuir 33, no. 19 (May 4, 2017): 4789–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b00842.

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43

Miguel, M. "DNA–cationic amphiphile interactions." Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 228, no. 1-3 (November 1, 2003): 43–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0927-7757(03)00334-0.

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44

Iscen, Aysenur, and George C. Schatz. "Peptide amphiphile self-assembly." EPL (Europhysics Letters) 119, no. 3 (August 1, 2017): 38002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/119/38002.

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45

Kahlweit, M., and R. Strey. "Phase behavior of quinary systems water-oil-nonionic amphiphile-ionic amphiphile-electrolyte." Journal of Physical Chemistry 90, no. 21 (October 1986): 5239–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/j100412a068.

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46

Persson, B., A. Hugerth, N. Caram-Lelham, and L. O. Sundelöf. "Dextran Sulfate−Amphiphile Interaction; Effect of Polyelectrolyte Charge Density and Amphiphile Hydrophobicity." Langmuir 16, no. 2 (January 2000): 313–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la990708v.

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47

Steinbuck, Martin, Peter DeMuth, and Lochana Seenappa. "723 Lymph node-targeted AMP-vaccine enables tumor-directed mKRAS-specific immune responses with potent polyfunctional and cytolytic activity." Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer 8, Suppl 3 (November 2020): A766. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jitc-2020-sitc2020.0723.

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BackgroundSubunit vaccines targeting tumor antigens have shown limited capacity for expanding cytotoxic T-cells against tumors in the clinic. Especially in the case of KRAS-driven tumors, responses elicited by conventional vaccines have been exceedingly weak. For molecular immunogens including peptides and oligonucleotides, inefficient delivery to immune cells residing in the lymphatics is a significant challenge limiting their ability to induce cancer-directed immune responses of sufficient strength and functionality to impact tumors. Improving the targeting of immunogens to lymph nodes (LN), where resident immune cells potently orchestrate immunity, can substantially amplify their ability to induce effective tumor-directed immunity. Here, we demonstrate such an approach for significantly enhancing mKRAS-directed T-cell responses by precisely targeting antigens and adjuvants directly to the draining LN through a simple one-step conjugation to albumin-binding lipids. These amphiphilic conjugates (‘Amphiphiles’, or AMP) then ‘hitch-hike’ on albumin into the LNs where they elicit strong immune responses. LN accumulation of structurally optimized amphiphiles in mice is greatly improved over soluble equivalents.MethodsC57BL/6J mice received two or more doses of benchmark or amphiphile-modified vaccines, comprised of mKRAS peptide and CpG adjuvant, subcutaneously injected into the tail base in two-week intervals. Immunological readouts were performed 7 days post dosing. For ELISpot analysis of IFNγ and Granzyme B production and flowcytometric bead array analysis of Th1/2 cytokines, splenocytes were harvested and re-stimulated with antigen overnight. In vivo, cytolytic capabilities of antigen-specific T-cells were evaluated by pulsing CFSE-stained splenocytes from naïve mice with mKRAS antigen and injecting these cells intravenously into immunized mice. Recovery of CFSE-labeled target cells from immunized mice was performed 24h later and analyzed flowcytometrically.ResultsWe show robust immune responses that yield strong activation against all common mutations in the mKRAS protein compared to low or undetectable responses generated by soluble or benchmark treatments. Further, this response is composed of CD4+ as well as CD8+ T-cells resulting in the production of high levels of TH1-associated cytokines upon re-stimulation with mKRAS-specific peptides in vitro. In vivo, robust cytolytic function towards mKRAS-presenting targets can be measured in T-cells.ConclusionsBy targeting immunogens directly and precisely to the LNs, the Amphiphile platform can significantly amplify the potency of subunit vaccines. In the case of mKRAS, substantially improved cytolytic immune responses represent a promising therapeutic strategy for targeting mKRAS-driven tumor growth and survival in a large fraction of human tumors. Furthermore, this platform technology is simple, rapid and scalable for broad clinical application.

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48

Shao, Yu, Jia Chen, Xiang-Kui Ren, Xinlin Zhang, Guang-Zhong Yin, Xiaopeng Li, Jing Wang, et al. "Synthesis, Self-Assembly and Characterization of Tandem Triblock BPOSS-PDI-X Shape Amphiphiles." Molecules 24, no. 11 (June 4, 2019): 2114. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24112114.

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In this article, we report the facile synthesis, self-assembly, and characterization of shape amphiphiles (BPOSS-PDI-X) based on isobutyl-functionalized polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (BPOSS), perylene tetracarboxylic diimide (PDI), and (60)fullerene (C60) moieties. Firstly, an asymmetrically functionalized diblock shape amphiphile precursor (BPOSS-PDI-OH) was obtained through the one-pot reaction between perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic dianhydride and two different amines, namely BPOSS-NH2 and 3-amino-1-propanol. It was further conjugated with C60-COOH to give a tri-block shape amphiphile (BPOSS-PDI-C60). Their chemical structures were thoroughly characterized by NMR, IR and MALDI-TOF MS spectrometry. In order to gain insights on the structure-property relationship, their self-assembly in gas phase, in solution, and in solid state were characterized using traveling wave ion mobility mass spectrometry (TWIM-MS), UV/Vis absorption, fluorescence emission spectrophotometer, and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. It was found that BPOSS-PDI-OH formed more complicated dimers than BPOSS-PDI-C60. Both samples showed unique aggregation behaviors in solution with increasing concentration, which could be attributed neither to H- nor to J-type and might be related to the discrete dimers. While BPOSS-PDI-C60 could hardly crystalize into ordered structures, BPOSS-PDI-OH could form nanobelt-shaped single crystals, which may hold potential applications in microelectronics.

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Shao, Li, Jiong Zhou, Bin Hua, and Guocan Yu. "A dual-responsive supra-amphiphile based on a water-soluble pillar[7]arene and a naphthalene diimide-containing guest." Chemical Communications 51, no. 33 (2015): 7215–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5cc00937e.

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A dual-responsive supra-amphiphile was firstly constructed based on a water-soluble pillar[7]arene and a naphthalene diimide-containing guest with a long alkyl chain and a trimethylammonium group. The morphology of the self-assembly formed from this supra-amphiphile could be adjusted by changing the solution pH or adding α-cyclodextrin.

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Panda, Manorama, and Mohammad Kamil. "Polymer-Amphiphile Interactions: An Overview." Eurasian Chemico-Technological Journal 19, no. 2 (June 30, 2017): 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.18321/ectj643.

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Interactions between the polymers and amphiphiles in aqueous solutions have generated considerable interest among researchers because of the widespread applications, relatively complex behavior and improved physicochemical properties of the mixtures. Numerous studies on the surfactant-polymer systems have been carried out in recent years and the number of scientific reports has considerably increased. Various applications of polymers in different areas and many works concerning the amphiphiles are being published every year. Usually, the mixed systems containing polymers and amphiphiles show solution properties different from those of individual solutions due to interaction between the components. The present review article mainly focuses on the behaviour of polymers in aqueous solutions, in the absence or presence of amphiphiles, such as surfactants, drugs, etc. It also summarizes effect of the nature of amphiphiles on aggregation properties of polymers in aqueous solution, and interaction of conventional as well as gemini surfactants with polymers.

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