Relevant bibliographies by topics / Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
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  4. Book chapters
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Academic literature on the topic 'Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)'

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Published: 7 September 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)"

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FU, GUANG-SHENG, YAN-BIN YANG, WEI YU, WAN-BING LU, WEN-GE DING, and LI HAN. "AMORPHOUS SILICON NANO-PARTICLES IN A-SiNx:H PREPARED BY HELICON WAVE PLASMA-ENHANCED CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION." International Journal of Modern Physics B 19, no. 15n17 (July 10, 2005): 2704–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979205031560.

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Amorphous silicon nano-particles embedded in hydrogenated amorphous silicon nitride ( a - SiN x: H ) matrix have been prepared using an approach based on the deposition of Si -rich a - SiN x: H thin films by helicon wave plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (HWP-CVD) technique, which has a characteristic of high plasma density at low working pressure. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis shows that the silicon atom bonds exist in the Si-Si and Si-N configurations and the amorphous silicon regions appear separately in the Si -rich a - SiN x: H films. The existence of amorphous silicon nano-particles without any post annealing in the a - SiN x: H random matrix is confirmed by the image of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. Through infrared absorption analysis, the formation of the separated amorphous silicon nano-particles structure is closely correlated with the deposition parameters such as low working pressure and Ar dilution in the HWP-CVD process.
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Rath, Chandana, J. Farjas, P. Roura, F. Kail, P. Roca i Cabarrocas, and E. Bertran. "Thermally Induced Structural Transformations on Polymorphous Silicon." Journal of Materials Research 20, no. 9 (September 2005): 2562–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2005.0322.

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Polymorphous Si is a nanostructured form of hydrogenated amorphous Si that contains a small fraction of Si nanocrystals or clusters. Its thermally induced transformations such as relaxation, dehydrogenation, and crystallization have been studied by calorimetry and evolved gas analysis as a complementary technique. The observed behavior has been compared to that of conventional hydrogenated amorphous Si and amorphous Si nanoparticles. In the temperature range of our experiments (650–700 °C), crystallization takes place at almost the same temperature in polymorphous and in amorphous Si. In contrast, dehydrogenation processes reflect the presence of different hydrogen states. The calorimetry and evolved gas analysis thermograms clearly show that polymorphous Si shares hydrogen states of both amorphous Si and Si nanoparticles. Finally, the total energy of the main Si–H group present in polymorphous Si has been quantified.
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CHEN, C. Y., W. D. CHEN, S. F. SONG, and C. C. HSU. "CORRELATION BETWEEN Er3+ EMISSION AND THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF A-SiOx:H FILMS." International Journal of Modern Physics B 16, no. 28n29 (November 20, 2002): 4246–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979202015182.

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Photoluminescence (PL) from Er-implanted hydrogenated amorphous silicon suboxide ( a - SiO X : H 〈 Er 〉( x <2.0)) films was measured. Two luminescence bands with maxima at λ ≅ 750 nm and λ ≅ 1.54μ m, ascribed to the a - SiO x : H intrinsic emission and Er 3+ emission, were observed. Peak intensities of the two bands follow the same trend as a function of annealing temperature from 300 to 1000°C. Micro-Raman results indicate that the a - SiO x : H < Er > films are a mixture of two phases, an amorphous SiO x matrix and amorphous silicon (a-Si) domains embedded there in. FTIR spectra confirm that hydrogen effusion from a - SiO x : H < Er > films occurs during annealing. Hydrogen effusion leads to a reconstruction of the microstructure of a-Si domains, thus having a strong influence on Er 3+ emission. Our study emphasizes the role of a-Si domains on Er 3+ emission in a - SiO x : H < Er > films.
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Follstaedt, D. M., J. A. Knapp, and S. M. Myers. "Mechanical properties of ion-implanted amorphous silicon." Journal of Materials Research 19, no. 1 (January 2004): 338–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2004.19.1.338.

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We used nanoindentation coupled with finite element modeling to determine the mechanical properties of amorphous Si layers formed by self-ion implantation of crystalline Si at approximately 100 K. When the effects of the harder substrate on the response of the layers to indentation were accounted for, the amorphous phase was found to have a Young’s modulus of 136 ± 9 GPa and a hardness of 10.9 ± 0.9 GPa, which were 19% and 10% lower than the corresponding values for crystalline Si. The hardness agrees well with the pressure known to induce a phase transition in amorphous Si to the denser β–Sn-type structure of Si. This transition controls the yielding of amorphous Si under compressive stress during indentation, just as it does in crystalline Si. After annealing 1 h at 500 °C to relax the amorphous structure, the corresponding values increase slightly to 146 ± 9 GPa and 11.6 ± 1.0 GPa. Because hardness and elastic modulus are only moderately reduced with respect to crystalline Si, amorphous Si may be a useful alternative material for components in Si-based microelectromechanical systems if other improved properties are needed, such as increased fracture toughness.
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LIM, P. K., and W. K. TAM. "LOCAL VIBRATIONAL MODES AND THE OPTICAL ABSORPTION TAIL OF AMORPHOUS SILICON." International Journal of Modern Physics B 20, no. 25n27 (October 30, 2006): 4261–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979206041197.

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Local vibrational modes of Si - H is an important research area in recent years. Local vibrational modes of chemical bonds between Si atom and other impurity atoms such as H and O in amorphous silicon films produced by radio frequency sputtering were studied by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The concentrations of Si - H , Si - O and Si - C in the sample were calculated. It was found that the concentration of Si - H bond varied significantly when the material was annealed at temperatures Ta >600 K and tended to zero for Ta >1000 K . The optical absorption edge was also found to depend strongly on the thermal history of the amorphous semiconductor. A strong correlation between the optical absorption coefficient and the concentration of Si - H was also observed.
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Wang, Sheng Zhao, Ying Peng Yin, Chun Juan Nan, and Ming Ji Shi. "Influence of Substrate on μc-Si: H Thin Films." Key Engineering Materials 538 (January 2013): 169–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.538.169.

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By PECVD deposition technology, we mainly investigated the influence of substrate on intrinsic amorphous/microcrystalline silicon thin film prepared at 300°C. We study the crystallization ratio, grain size of the silicon thin film specially. The results reveal that the crystallization ratio and grain size of the silicon thin film changed along with different substrates. The silicon thin film crystallization ratio and grain size changed sharply when using glass and stainless steel substrate. On this work we think ideal μc-Si:H can be obtained by using glass as substrate and in the suitable experimental conditions.
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Leila, Ayat, Meftah Afek, Idda Ahmed, and Zebri Halima. "Analysis and Optimization of the Performance of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell." Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems 24, no. 3 (September 30, 2021): 151–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.14447/jnmes.v24i3.a02.

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As the name implies, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si: H) is composed of silicon atoms which are in a disordered configuration away from all Bravais lattices. The hydrogenated amorphous silicon was manufactured in 1969 where there was a renewed interest in non-hydrogenated amorphous silicon. The use of hydrogenated amorphous silicon as the active material in solar cells inefficient but cheap, is currently much studied. We have presented in this work, the results of the numerical simulation of a-Si: H solar cell by the wxAMPS (Analysis of Microelectronic and Photonic Structures) software and the results were compared with those found experimentally, we find a good agreement. For the efficiency there was a difference of 0.17%. We also study the influence of the thickness of a-Si: H intrinsic layer on the photovoltaic parameters of the solar cell. This allows considering the use of amorphous thinner layers for photovoltaic applications. The efficiency has a maximum value of 7.117 %, corresponding to a intrinsic layer thickness of 560 nm. The using a-Si:H alloys provide a good solution to enhance a-Si:H solar cell performance. The use of a-SiC:H as a p-type window layer in amorphous silicon solar cells is one of its primary photovoltaic applications. The wide band gap of p-a-SiC:H alloy used as window layer for minimizing the optical loss. To improve the efficiency of a-Si:H solar cell, we have study by simulation the performance of the (p) a-SiC:H/(i) a-Si:H/ (n) a-Si:H heterojunction solar cell. The effects of a-SiC:H window layer on the photovoltaic performance have been investigated, where the best initial conversion efficiency of 10.59%.
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Sun, Jia Xin, Bing Qing Zhou, and Xin Gu. "Preparation and Spectrial Studies of Silicon Nitride Thin Films Containing Amorphous Silicon Quantum Dots." Solid State Phenomena 323 (August 30, 2021): 48–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.323.48.

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Silicon-rich silicon nitride thin films are prepared on P-type monocrystalline silicon wafer (100) and glass substrate by plasma chemical vapor deposition with reaction gas sources SiH4 and NH3. The deposited samples are thermally annealed from 600°C to 1000°C in an atmosphere furnace filled with high purity nitrogen. The annealing time is 60 minutes. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is carried out to investigate the bonding configurations in the films. The results show that the Si-H bond and N-H bond decrease with the increase of annealing temperature, and completely disappear at the annealing temperature of 900°C. But the Si-N bond is enhanced with the increase of annealing temperature, and the blue shift occurs, then Si content in the film increases. The Raman Spectra show that the amorphous Si Raman peak appears at 480 cm-1 in the film at 700°C. The Raman spectra of the films annealed at 1000 °C is fitted with two peaks, and a peak at 497 cm -1 is found, which indicated that the Si phase in the films changed from amorphous to crystalline with the increase of annealing temperature. The experiment also analyses the luminescence properties of the samples through PL spectrum, and it is found that there are five luminescence peaks in each sample under different annealing temperature. Based on the analysis of Raman spectrum and FTIR spectrum, the PL peak of amorphous silicon quantum dots appears at the wavelength range of 525-555nm, and the other four PL peaks are all from the defect state luminescence in the thin films, and the amorphous silicon quantum dot size is calculated according to the formula.
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Денисова, К. Н., А. С. Ильин, М. Н. Мартышов, and А. С. Воронцов. "Влияние легирования на свойства аморфного гидрогенизированного кремния, облученного фемтосекундными лазерными импульсами." Физика твердого тела 60, no. 4 (2018): 637. http://dx.doi.org/10.21883/ftt.2018.04.45669.034.

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AbstractA comparative analysis of the effect of femtosecond laser irradiation on the structure and conductivity of undoped and boron-doped hydrogenated amorphous silicon ( a -Si: H) is performed. It is demonstrated that the process of nanocrystal formation in the amorphous matrix under femtosecond laser irradiation is initiated at lower laser energy densities in undoped a -Si: H samples. The differences in conductivity between undoped and doped a -Si: H samples vanish almost completely after irradiation with an energy density of 150–160 mJ/cm^2.
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Iwase, Yoshiaki, Teruaki Fuchigami, Yoji Horie, Yusuke Daiko, Sawao Honda, and Yuji Iwamoto. "Formation and Thermal Behaviors of Ternary Silicon Oxycarbides derived from Silsesquioxane Derivatives." Materials 12, no. 10 (May 27, 2019): 1721. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12101721.

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Silsesquioxane (SQ) derivatives possessing intramolecular H2C = CH- groups and Si-H groups were designed as precursors for ternary silicon oxycarbide (SiOC). By using R-Si(OMe)3, H-Si(OEt)3 and (H-Si(Me)2)2O as starting compounds, SQ derivatives of VH-SQ (R = vinyl) and St-H-SQ (R = stylyl) were successfully synthesized through the conventional sol-gel route. Simultaneous thermogravimetric and mass spectroscopic analyses up to 1000 °C revealed that in situ cross-linking via hydrosilylation and demethanation of VH-SQ suppressed the evolution of gaseous hydrocarbon species to afford amorphous SiOC having a composition close to the desired stoichiometric SiO2(1−x)Cx (x = ca. 0.3) with a high yield. The effect of carbon content on the phase separation and crystallization of the SQ-derived amorphous SiOC was studied by several spectroscopic analyses and TEM observation. The results were discussed aiming to develop a novel polymer-derived ceramics (PDCs) route for in situ formation of binary β-SiC-amorphous SiO2 nanocomposites with enhanced thermal and mechanical stability.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)"

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Tam, Wai Keung. "Effect of thermal annealing on Si-H bonds and dangling bonds in amorphous silicon." HKBU Institutional Repository, 2006. http://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_ra/717.

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Réaux, David. "Cellules photovoltaïques à hétérojonctions de silicium (a-Si˸H/c-Si) : modélisation des défauts et de la recombinaison à l'interface." Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017SACLS174/document.

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Les cellules à hétérojonctions de silicium (HET-Si) sont basées sur un substrat de silicium cristallin (c-Si) dopé n (p), une couche très fine de passivation (en général du silicium amorphe (a-Si:H) non dopé), et une couche d’une dizaine de nanomètres de silicium amorphe dopé p (n). Ces cellules atteignent aujourd’hui des rendements de l’ordre de 26% (record de 26,6% par l’entreprise Kaneka en 2017). Un des axes importants de recherche sur les cellules HET-Si porte sur l’étude de l’interface c-Si/a-Si:H qui est un élément clé dans le rendement des cellules. Ce rendement dépend en particulier de la présence d’états recombinants à l’interface c-Si/a-Si:H. Nous nous sommes donc tout particulièrement intéressés aux défauts d’interface en développant un calcul basé sur le modèle du réservoir de défauts (Defect-Pool Model ou DPM) dans le silicium amorphe et en corrélant nos résultats de modélisation avec des résultats expérimentaux de mesure de durée de vie. Afin de déterminer les caractéristiques de l’interface c-Si/a-Si:H, nous avons procédé comme suit : (1) Calcul de la densité d’états (DOS) volumique dans les couches de a-Si:H (dopé et non dopé), en nous appuyant sur le DPM. Dans ce modèle, la DOS varie en fonction notamment de la position du niveau de Fermi par rapport au bord de bande. La courbure des bandes de la jonction a-Si:H/c-Si implique ainsi une variation spatiale de la DOS dans le a-Si:H. (2) Calcul de la DOS surfacique à l'interface par projection des états volumiques présents à l’interface dans le a-Si:H. (3) Calcul des taux de recombinaison puis de la durée de vie effective sur des structures symétriques a-Si:H/c-Si/a-Si:H et comparaison avec des résultats expérimentaux. Nous avons ainsi pu étudier l’impact des paramètres matériaux du a-Si:H sur la durée de vie effective des porteurs minoritaires. L’évolution de la durée de vie avec les paramètres du a-Si:H est parfois contre-intuitive car deux phénomènes de passivation liés à la position du niveau de Fermi à l’interface s’opposent : passivation par la diminution de la densité d’états à l’interface et passivation par effet de champ. Le seul calcul de la DOS à l’interface ne suffit pas toujours à expliquer les variations de durées de vie, un calcul complet sous lumière est nécessaire. Nous avons montré que l’impact de certains paramètres du DPM peut-être grand sur la DOS mais faible sur la durée de vie effective à cause de cette compensation entre les phénomènes de passivation. Nous avons également étudié des structures correspondant aux faces avant : (p)a-Si:H/(i)a-Si:H/(n)c-Si(PIn) et arrière : (n)a-Si:H/(i)a-Si:H/(n)c-Si(NIn) des cellules HET-Si. Nos simulations permettent de montrer que les interfaces NIn sont moins critiques en terme de recombinaisons que les interfaces de type PIn. Nous montrons que la recombinaison aux interfaces PIn est dominée par la capture des électrons par les liaisons brisées de silicium chargées positivement. Nous montrons également que l’énergie d’Urbach est un paramètre qui joue de manière importante dans le calcul de la durée de vie effective et que l’utilisation de valeurs fixes de cette énergie d’Urbach dans la couche de passivation ne permet pas de reproduire les tendances expérimentales dans les structures avec des interfaces PIn. Nous proposons un modèle de variation de l’énergie d’Urbach avec l’épaisseur de la couche de passivation, qui permet de reproduire les tendances expérimentales pour les faibles épaisseurs de la couche de passivation mais qui demande à être complété pour de plus grandes épaisseurs
Silicon heterojunction (Si- HET) solar cells are based on an n-doped (p-doped) crystalline silicon (c-Si) substrate, a very thin (a few nanometers) passivation layer of undoped hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and a layer of p-doped (n-doped) a-Si:H, approximately 10 nanometer- thick. These cells currently lead the performance of silicon solar cells with conversion efficiencies in the order of 26% (with a record of 26.6% being achieved by the Kaneka company in 2017). One of the major focal points of research in Si- HET cells is the study of the c-Si/a-Si:H interface, which is a key factor in the cells' efficiency. In particular, this efficiency is strongly dependent on the recombination states at the interface between c-Si and a-Si:H. We therefore focused on developing a model of recombination through interface defects, which were evaluated based on the Defect-Pool Model (DPM) in a-Si:H. We calculated the effective lifetime vs excess carrier density curves and their dependence on the undoped a-Si:H passivation layer thickness and compared them to experimental results.In order to determine the characteristics of the c-Si/a-Si:H interface, we proceeded as follows: (1) Calculation of the volumic density of states (DOS) in a-Si:H layers (doped and undoped) using the DPM. In this model, the DOS varies as a function of the position of the Fermi level in relation to the band edge. The band bending at the a-Si:H/c-Si interface thus implies a spatial variation of the DOS in a-Si:H. (2) Calculation of the surface DOS at the interface by projection from the volumic states present in a-Si:H at the interface. (3) Calculation of the recombination rates and of the effective lifetime curves for symmetrical a-Si:H/c-Si/a-Si:H structures and comparison with experimental results. Thus we were able to study the impact of material parameters of a-Si:H on the effective lifetime curves. The change in lifetime as a function of a-Si:H parameters is sometimes counter-intuitive because two passivation mechanisms, namely passivation by field-effect or by the reduction of the DOS at the a-Si:H/c-Si interface, have opposed behavior in relation to the position of the Fermi level at the interface. A simple calculation of the DOS at the interface is not, therefore, sufficient to explain variations in lifetime, and a complete calculation of effective lifetime under illumination is required and has been performed. We demonstrate that the impact of certain DPM parameters may have a significant effect on the DOS but only a minor effect on the effective lifetime due to the compensation by the field-effect passivation. Moreover we have studied both types of silicon heterojunctions, (p)a-Si:H/(i)a-Si:H/(n)c-Si(PIn), and (n)a-Si:H/(i)a-Si:H/(n)c-Si(NIn) that are used as front emitter and back surface field junctions, respectively, in double-side contacted silicon Si-HET solar cells. Our simulations allowed us to emphasize that NIn interfaces are less critical in terms of recombination than PIn interfaces. We demonstrate that recombination at PIn interfaces is dominated by the capture of electrons by positively charged silicon dangling bonds. We further show that the Urbach energy is the major a-Si:H parameter that determines the effective lifetime in Si-HET solar cells and that the use of fixed values for this Urbach energy in the passivation layer whatever the layer thickness does not permit the experimental trends of PIn interfaces to be reproduced. Instead, we propose a model featuring that the Urbach energy decreases with the thickness of the passivation layer, which does allow experimental trends to be reproduced for very thin passivation layers (< 10 nm), but which requires further elaboration for larger thicknesses, for instance with a combined bandgap variation
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Martin, de Nicolas Silvia. "a-Si : H/c-Si heterojunction solar cells : back side assessment and improvement." Thesis, Paris 11, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012PA112253/document.

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Parmi les technologies photovoltaïques à base de silicium, les cellules solaires à hétérojonction a-Si:H/c-Si (HJ) ont montré une attention croissante en ce qui concerne leur fort potentiel d’amélioration du rendement et de la réduction de coûts. Dans cette thèse, des investigations sur les cellules solaires à hétérojonction a-Si:H/c-Si de type (n) développées à l'Institut National de l'Énergie Solaire sont présentées. Les aspects technologiques et physiques du dispositif à HJ ont été revus, en mettant l'accent sur la compréhension du rôle joué par la face arrière. À travers le développement et la mise en œuvre des films de a-Si:H intrinsèques et dopés (n) de haute qualité des cellules solaires à HJ, les conditions requises en face arrière des dispositifs ont été établies. Une comparaison entre plusieurs types de champ surface arrière, avec et sans l’introduction d’une couche buffer, est présentée et les caractéristiques des cellules solaires résultants sont discutées. Une discussion autour du contact arrière de cellules solaires à HJ est aussi présentée. Une nouvelle approche d’oxyde transparent conducteur en face arrière basé sur les couches d’oxyde de zinc dopé au bore (ZnO:B) est étudié. Dans le but de développer des couches de ZnO:B de haute qualité bien adaptées à leur utilisation dans des dispositifs à HJ, différents paramètres de dépôt ainsi que des traitements après dépôt comme le post plasma d’hydrogène ou le recuit laser sont étudiés et leur influence sur des cellules solaires est évaluée. Au cours de ce travail il est montré que la face arrière des cellules solaires à HJ joue un rôle important sur l’accomplissement de hauts rendements. Cependant, l'augmentation de la performance globale du dispositif dû à l’optimisation de la face arrière de la cellule est toujours dépendante des phénomènes ayant lieu en face avant des dispositifs. L'utilisation des films optimisés pour la face arrière des HJs développées dans cette thèse, associée à des couches améliorées pour la face avant et une nouvelle approche de métallisation nous a permis d’atteindre un rendement de conversion record de plus de 22%, démontrant ainsi le grand potentiel de cette technologie à HJ de a-Si:H/c-Si
Amongst available silicon-based photovoltaic technologies, a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunctions (HJ) have raised growing attention because of their potential for further efficiency improvement and cost reduction. In this thesis, research on n-type a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction solar cells developed at the Institute National de l’Énergie Solaire is presented. Technological and physical aspects of HJ devices are reviewed, with the focus on the comprehension of the back side role. Then, an extensive work to optimise amorphous layers used at the rear side of our devices as well as back contact films is addressed. Through the development and implementation of high-quality intrinsic and n-doped a-Si:H films on HJ solar cells, the needed requirements at the back side of devices are established. A comparison between different back surface fields (BSF) with and without the inclusion of a buffer layer is presented and resulting solar cell output characteristics are discussed. A discussion on the back contact of HJ solar cells is also presented. A new back TCO approach based on boron-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:B) layers is studied. With the aim of developing high-quality ZnO:B layers well-adapted to their use in HJ devices, different deposition parameters as well as post-deposition treatments such as post-hydrogen plasma or excimer laser annealing are studied, and their influence on solar cells is assessed. Throughout this work it is evidenced that the back side of HJ solar cells plays an important role on the achievement of high efficiencies. However, the enhancement of the overall device performance due to the back side optimisation is always dependent on phenomena taking place at the front side of devices. The use of the optimised back side layers developed in this thesis, together with improved front side layers and a novel metallisation approach have permitted a record conversion efficiency over 22%, thus demonstrating the great potential of this technology
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Favre, Wilfried. "Silicium de type n pour cellules à hétérojonctions : caractérisations et modélisations." Phd thesis, Université Paris Sud - Paris XI, 2011. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00635222.

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Les cellules à hétérojonctions de silicium fabriquées par croissance de couches minces de silicium amorphe hydrogéné (a-Si :H) à basse température sur des substrats de silicium cristallin (c-Si) peuvent atteindre des rendements de conversion photovoltaïque élevés (η=23 % démontré). Les efforts de recherche ayant principalement été orientés vers le cristallin de type p jusqu'à présent en France, ce travail s'attache à l'étude du type n pour d'une part déterminer les performances auxquelles s'attendre avec cette nouvelle filière et d'autre part les améliorer. Pour cela, nous avons mis en œuvre des techniques de caractérisation des matériaux composant la structure et de l'interface (a-Si :H/c-Si) couplées à des outils de simulations numériques afin mieux comprendre les phénomènes de transport électronique. Nous nous sommes également intéressés aux cellules à hétérojonctions avec substrats de silicium multicristallin de type n, le silicium multicristallin étant le matériau le plus répandu actuellement dans la fabrication des cellules photovoltaïques.
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Larbi, Fadila. "Traitement de couches minces et de dispositifs à base de a-Si : H par un plasma d'hydrogène : Etude in situ par ellipsométrie spectroscopique." Thesis, Reims, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014REIMS010/document.

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Ce travail est une contribution à l'étude de l'interaction entre des couches minces de silicium amorphe hydrogéné (a-Si:H) et un plasma d'hydrogène, dans un réacteur de dépôt par PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition). Le suivi in situ de la cinétique de gravure par l'hydrogène atomique est réalisé par ellipsométrie UV-visble. Les différents paramètres de plasma (température, puissance radiofréquence, pression du gaz H2, type de dopage du matériau) pouvant impacter cette cinétique ont été sondés. L'analyse des spectres d'ellipsométrie spectroscopique, à l'aide d'un modèle optique approprié, a permis de mettre en évidence leurs effets sur le temps de formation de la couche modifiée par l'hydrogène, son épaisseur et son excès d'hydrogène, ont été analysés. Le même traitement au plasma d'hydrogène appliqué à des jonctions i/p et i/n, révèle un comportement particulier de la cinétique de gravure dans la zone de jonction. Ce comportement a été interprété dans le cadre d'un modèle simple de diffusion de l'hydrogène sous champ électrique
This work is a contribution to the study of the interaction between hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) thin films and hydrogen plasma in a PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) reactor. The kinetics of silicon etching by atomic hydrogen is monitored in situ by UV - visble ellipsometry .Several plasma parameters (temperature, RF power, H2 gas pressure, the doping of the material) that may impact the kinetics were probed. An analysis of the spectroscopic ellipsometry spectra, thanks to an appropriate optical model, allowed evidencing their effects on the time constant, the thickness and the hydrogen excess of the H-modified layer.The same hydrogen plasma treatment repeated on i/p and i/n H base junctions revealed a particular behavior of the etching kinetics in the junction zone. This effect is interpreted in the frame of a simple of hydrogen diffusion model under an electric field
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Pepenene, Refuoe Donald. "Macroscopic and Microscopic surface features of Hydrogenated silicon thin films." University of the Western Cape, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/6414.

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Magister Scientiae - MSc (Physics)
An increasing energy demand and growing environmental concerns regarding the use of fossil fuels in South Africa has led to the challenge to explore cheap, alternative sources of energy. The generation of electricity from Photovoltaic (PV) devices such as solar cells is currently seen as a viable alternative source of clean energy. As such, crystalline, amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon thin films are expected to play increasingly important roles as economically viable materials for PV development. Despite the growing interest shown in these materials, challenges such as the partial understanding of standardized measurement protocols, and the relationship between the structure and optoelectronic properties still need to be overcome.
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Bosco, Giácomo Bizinoto Ferreira 1987. "Photoluminescence of Tb3+ in a-Si3N4:H prepared by reactive RF-Sputtering and ECR PECVD = Fotoluminescência de Tb3+ em a-Si3N4:H preparado por RF-Sputtering reativo e ECR PECVD." [s.n.], 2017. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/322722.

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Orientador: Leandro Russovski Tessler
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin
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Resumo: Este trabalho fornece caracterização ótica e estrutural de filmes finos compostos por nitreto de silício amorfo hidrogenado dopado com térbio (a-SiNx:H) ¿ crescidos por deposição química a vapor assistida por plasma gerado através de ressonância ciclotrônica de elétrons (ECR PECVD) e por pulverização catódica reativa em radiofrequência (reactive RF-Sputtering) ¿ com o propósito de avançar a investigação em fabricação de novos materiais e dos mecanismos da emissão de luz de íons de Tb quando diluídos em materiais baseados em silício. A fotoluminescência (PL) atribuída aos filmes de a-SiNx:H foi investigada em termos das condições de deposição e correlacionadas com suas propriedades estruturais e de recozimento pós-deposição. Entre as propriedades caracterizadas estão: estequiometria, taxa de deposição, índice de refração, coeficiente de extinção, bandgap ótico E04, concentração de térbio e vizinhança química presente ao redor de íons Tb3+. Concentrações de Tb da ordem de 1.8 at.% ou 1.4×?10?^21 at/cm^3 foram obtidas em amostras crescidas por Sputtering enquanto que concentrações de 14.0 at.%, ou da ordem ?10?^22 at/cm^3, puderam ser obtidas em amostras crescidas por ECR PECVD. Em Sputtering, a incorporação de Tb varia linearmente com a área recoberta por pastilhas de Tb4O7 em pó, enquanto que em PECVD, a incorporação de Tb é inversamente proporcional e pode ser ajustada sensivelmente pelo fluxo de gás SiH4. Forte emissão de luz, atribuída às transições eletrônicas em Tb3+ (PL do Tb), foi obtida em filmes não-recozidos que possuíam bandgap estequiométrico (E04 = 4.7 ± 0.4 eV and x = 1.5 ± 0.2). Espectros de PL do Tb não mostraram mudanças significativas no formato e na posição dos picos de emissão devido a alterações na temperatura de recozimento, nas condições de deposição ou entre amostras crescidas por diferentes técnicas de deposição. Entretanto, esses parâmetros influenciaram fortemente a intensidade da PL do Tb. Estudos da estrutura fina de absorção de raios-X (XAFS) em filmes crescidos por sputtering mostraram a estabilidade da vizinhança química ao redor dos íons Tb3+ mesmo em altas temperaturas (1100ºC). Investigações por sonda atômica tomográfica (APT) não encontraram formação de nanoclusters envolvendo ou não Tb, mesmo após recozimentos em altas temperaturas. Isso sugere que a excitação de Tb3+ deve ocorrer através da própria matriz hospedeira amorfa e não por mudanças no campo cristalino e, portanto, na força de oscilador das transições eletrônicas do Tb3+. Caracterização da densidade de ligações Si-H por espectroscopia infravermelha a transformada de Fourier (FTIR) em filmes recozidos em diferentes temperaturas foi relacionada com a intensidade da PL do Tb. Ela mostra que um decréscimo na densidade das ligações Si-H, que está relacionada a um aumento na concentração de ligações pendentes de Si (Si-dbs), resulta em filmes com maior intensidade na PL do Tb. Portanto, isso sugere que a excitação de Tb3+ parece acontecer através de transições envolvendo Si-dbs e estados estendidos, o que é consistente com o modelo de excitação Auger por defeitos (DRAE)
Abstract: This work offers optical and structural characterization of terbium (Tb) doped hydrogenated amorphous silicon nitrides thin films (a-SiNx:H) grown by electron cyclotron resonance plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (ECR PECVD) and reactive RF-Sputtering with the purpose of advancing the investigation in fabrication of novel materials and the mechanisms of light emission of Tb ions when embedded in Si-based materials. Photoluminescence (PL) of a-SiNx:H films were investigated and correlated with the deposition conditions, structural properties, and post-deposition thermal treatments (isochronal annealing under flow of N2). Among the characterized properties are: film stoichiometry, deposition rate, refractive index, extinction coefficient, optical bandgap, terbium concentration, and the chemical neighborhood around Tb ions. Tb concentrations of about 1.8 at.% or 1.4×?10?^21 at/cm^3 have been achieved in Sputtering system while concentrations of 14.0 at.%, or about ?10?^22 at/cm^3, could be achieved in ECR PECVD samples. In Sputtering, Tb incorporation varies linearly with the covered area of the Si target by Tb4O7 powder pellets, while in PECVD, Tb incorporation is inversely proportional to and can be sensitively adjusted through SiH4 gas flow. Bright PL attributed to Tb3+ electronic transitions (Tb PL) were obtained in as-deposited films with stoichiometric bandgaps (E04 = 4.7 ± 0.4 eV and x = 1.5 ± 0.2). The Tb PL spectra did not show any significant change in shape and in PL peak positions due to alterations in annealing temperature, deposition conditions or due to the used deposition method. However, these parameters strongly affected Tb PL intensity. Studies of X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) in Sputtering grown films show the stability of the chemical neighborhood around Tb3+ under annealing conditions even after thermal treatments at temperatures as high as 1100ºC. Atom probe tomography (APT) investigation also found no formation of nanoclusters of any type (involving Tb ions or not) after high temperature annealing treatments suggesting that Tb3+ excitation should come from the amorphous host matrix itself and not by changes in crystal field and thus in oscillator strength of Tb3+ electronic transitions. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization of Si-H bond density in films treated atin different annealing temperatures were crossed correlated with Tb PL intensity. It shows that a decrease in Si-H bond density, related to increase in Si dangling bonds (Si-dbs) concentration, results in greater Tb PL intensity. Thus, it suggests that excitation of Tb3+ happens through transitions involving silicon dangling bonds and extended states, consistent with the defect related Auger excitation model (DRAE)
Doutorado
Física
Doutor em Ciências
142174/2012-2
010308/2014-08
CNPQ
CAPES
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Vergnat, Michel. "Hydrogénation d'alliages semi-conducteurs amorphes : Structure et propriétés électroniques des alliages amorphes hydrogènes SI::(1-X)SN::(X):H." Nancy 1, 1988. http://www.theses.fr/1988NAN10322.

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Les atomes d'hydrogène sont introduits dans les couches durant leur élaboration par évaporation. L'influence des paramètres de préparation est mise en évidence sur les propriétés physiques de couches de SI pur. Les alliages SI::(1-X)SN::(X) et SI::(1-X)SN::(X) : H peuvent être préparés à l'état amorphe dans une large gamme de compositions. Des études de diffraction électronique, de spectrométrie moessbauer et des mesures de densité massique montrent que ces alliages possèdent une structure tétraédrique. Cette méthode a également permis d'élaborer des multicouches SI/SI : H, de l'étain semiconducteur et de l'hydrure de titane
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AKA, BOKO. "Photodecomposition sensibilisee au mercure du monosilane (hg-photo-cvd) : application au depot en couches minces de silicium amorphe hydrogene (a-si : h)." Université Louis Pasteur (Strasbourg) (1971-2008), 1989. http://www.theses.fr/1989STR13026.

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L'etude fondamentale des parametres mis en jeu montre que la limitation de la quantite de cilane decompose et la formation importante d'hydrogene doivent etre associees a un mecanisme chimique en phase gazeuse et a la surface plutot qu'a la diminution de la transparence de la fenetre d'entree consecutive au depot du film si. Il est ainsi mis en evidence que la quantite relative de si depose est tres importante aux basses pressions et que la vitesse de depot peut etre accrue en operant a forte intensite lumineuse. La qualite des couches depend fortement des conditions de preparation, en particulier de la temperature du support. Les couches obtenues ont des proprietes essentielles pour la fabrication de dispositifs photovoltaiques et microelectroniques de dimensions reduites et a bon marche
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Pehlivan, Ozlem. "Growth And Morphological Characterization Of Intrinsic Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Thin Film For A-si:h/c-si Heterojunction Solar Cells." Phd thesis, METU, 2013. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12615488/index.pdf.

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Passivation of the crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafer surface and decreasing the number of interface defects are basic requirements for development of high efficiency a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction solar cells. Surface passivation is generally achieved by development of detailed silicon wafer cleaning processes and the optimization of PECVD parameters for the deposition of intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous silicon layer. a-Si:H layers are grown in UHV-PECVD system. Solar cells were deposited on the p type Cz-silicon substrates in the structure of Al front contact/a-Si:H(n)/a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(p)/Al back contact. Solar cell parameters were determined under standard test conditions namely, using 1000 W/m2, AM 1.5G illumination at 25 oC. Growth of (i) a-Si:H, films on the clean wafer surface was investigated as a function of substrate temperature, RF power density, gas flow rate, hydrogen dilution ratio and deposition time and was characterized using SEM, HRTEM, AFM, SE, ATR-FTIR and I/V measurements. Structural properties of the films deposited on silicon wafer surface are directly effective on the solar cell efficiency. Morphological characterization of the grown films on the crystalline surface was found to be very complex depending on the deposition parameters and may even change during the deposition time. At 225 oC substrate temperature, at the beginning of the deposition, (i) a-Si:H films was found grown in epitaxial structure, followed by a simultaneous growth of crystalline and amorphous structure, and finally transforming to complete amorphous structure. Despite this complex structure, an efficiency of 9.2% for solar cells with total area of 72 cm2 was achieved. In this cell structure, TCO and back surface passivation do not exist. In the
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Books on the topic "Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)"

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Senoussaoui, Nadia. Einfluss der Oberflächenstrukturierung auf die optischen Eigenschaften der Dünnschichtsolarzellen auf der Basis von a-Si : H und [mu]c-Si: H. Jülich: Forschungszentrum Jülich, Zentralbibliothek, 2004.

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Book chapters on the topic "Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)"

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Xu, Z., J. V. Vandyshev, P. M. Fauchet, C. W. Rella, H. A. Schwettman, and C. C. Tsai. "Ultrafast Excitation and Deexcitation of Local Vibrational Modes in a Solid Matrix: The Si-H Bond in Amorphous Silicon." In Springer Series in Chemical Physics, 410–11. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-80314-7_179.

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Adachi, Sadao. "a-Silicon (a-Si)." In Optical Constants of Crystalline and Amorphous Semiconductors, 663–72. Boston, MA: Springer US, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5247-5_63.

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Güneş, Mehmet. "Native and Light Induced Defect States in Wide Band Gap Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon-Carbon(a-Si1-X Cx :H) Alloy Thin Films." In Diamond Based Composites, 285–99. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5592-2_24.

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Nishino, S., and J. Saraie. "Epitaxial Growth of 3C-SiC on a Si Substrate Using Methyltrichlorosilane." In Amorphous and Crystalline Silicon Carbide and Related Materials, 45–50. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-93406-3_5.

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De Wolf, Stefaan. "Intrinsic and Doped a-Si:H/c-Si Interface Passivation." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 223–59. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_7.

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Tucci, Mario, Luca Serenelli, Simona De Iuliis, Massimo Izzi, Giampiero de Cesare, and Domenico Caputo. "Contact Formation on a-Si:H/c-Si Heterostructure Solar Cells." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 331–75. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_10.

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Leendertz, Caspar, and Rolf Stangl. "Modeling an a-Si:H/c-Si Solar Cell with AFORS-HET." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 459–82. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_14.

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Korte, Lars. "Electronic Properties of Ultrathin a-Si:H Layers and the a-Si:H/c-Si Interface." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 161–221. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_6.

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Angermann, Heike, and Jörg Rappich. "Wet-Chemical Conditioning of Silicon Substrates for a-Si:H/c-Si Heterojunctions." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 45–94. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_3.

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Muñoz, Delfina, Thibaut Desrues, and Pierre-Jean Ribeyron. "a-Si:H/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells: A Smart Choice for High Efficiency Solar Cells." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 539–72. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_17.

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Conference papers on the topic "Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)"

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Lucovsky, G. "Nano-scale order in hydrogenated amorphous silicon a-Si,H and doped a-Si(H) Defect reduction for device applications." In 2013 14th International Conference on Ultimate Integration on Silicon (ULIS 2013). IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ulis.2013.6523524.

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Mahan, A. H., and Milan Vanecek. "A reduction in the Staebler-Wronski effect observed in low H content a-Si:H films deposited by the hot wire technique." In Amorphous silicon materials and solar cells. AIP, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.41028.

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Barth, M., and P. Hess. "Observation of Si-Ge Alloy Formation for Germanium Growth on H-Terminated Si(111) by Real-Time Ellipsometry." In Chemistry and Physics of Small-Scale Structures. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/cps.1997.cmb.5.

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The photon-controlled nucleation and growth of amorphous hydrogenated germanium (a-Ge:H) was investigated for different silicon substrate surfaces. The 6.4 eV photons of a 193 nm ArF laser initiated the deposition process by photolyzing digermane in the gas phase (parallel laser beam surface configuration). The growth process was monitored in situ by real-time spectroscopic ellipsometry (RTSE) to obtain the evolution of the optical functions and to get information on the microstructure and nucleation process.
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Schall, J. D., G. T. Gao, K. V. Workum, P. T. Mikulski, and J. A. Harrison. "Friction and Wear Studies of Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbon Films Containing Silicon." In World Tribology Congress III. ASMEDC, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/wtc2005-63746.

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The ratios of sp2 to sp3 content for a series of hydrogenated amorphous carbon-silicon systems were determined using molecular dynamics simulation. The values of elastic modulii were then determined for each system using constant tension and constant temperature molecular dynamics simulation method. The relationship between sp2 to sp3 content and modulii was investigated by varying Si and H content in the films. The thermal conductivity and heat capacity were also calculated for each system. A series of sliding simulations was used to determine which properties had the greatest effects on the resulting friction and wear behavior of the films.
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Knobloch, J., and P. Hess. "Atomic-Scale FTIR Spectroscopy of Silicon Nucleation and Growth on H-Terminated and Oxide Covered Si(111)." In Chemistry and Physics of Small-Scale Structures. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/cps.1997.cmb.4.

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The photon-controlled nucleation and growth of amorphous hydrogenated silicon (a-Si:H) was investigated on different silicon surfaces. The 7.9 eV photons of a 157 nm F2 laser initiated the growth process by photolyzing disilane in the gas phase. The short laser pulses allowed a digital control of growth by a small fraction of a monolayer with promt operation and cessation of deposition as monitored by a quartz-crystal microbalance. Mainly the initial stage of growth up to steady state deposition of bulk material was studied yielding information on the binding configuration and structure of the interface region. Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup with the F2 laser beam in parallel configuration and the IR beam passing the substrate holder through a hole in perpendicular configuration.
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Xu, Zhiwei, Jury V. Vandyshev, Philippe M. Fauchet, Chris W. Rella, H. Alan Schwettman, and Chuang Chuang Tsai. "Ultrafast Excitation and Deexcitation of Local Vibrational Modes in a Solid Matrix: The Si-H Bond in Amorphous Silicon." In International Conference on Ultrafast Phenomena. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/up.1996.thc.5.

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Recent advances in femtosecond laser technology have made it possible to answer experimentally the question of how long a vibrational excitation can remain localized on a single bond in a solid matrix. From these measurements, we can infer quantitative information on the local atomic arrangement and the coupling of a specific bond to the matrix. If energy can remain localized for long periods of time, several new applications may emerge, such as laser-assisted growth. Although related work is already being performed on isolated molecules, when the bonds are imbedded in a solid matrix, many new channels for energy decay open up. As a result, there is to our knowledge no reliable theoretical work on the deexcitation of localized vibrational modes in a solid matrix.
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Kim, Kwangsu, Yonghyun Cho, Youngjin Kim, and Taesung Kim. "Generation of SI Nanoparticles Using Plasma Technology for Novel Device and Energy Storage Application." In ASME 2007 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2007-41800.

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Silicon nanoparticles are widely studied as a building block for various applications. M. L. Ostraat et al.[1] and S. Koliopoulou et al.[2] studied NFGM (nano floating gate memory), and S. Oda[3] studied electron characteristics of Si nanoparticles. H. Shirai et al.[4] studied optical characteristics of crystalline silicon nanoparticles. In addition, silicon nanoparticles can be applied for energy devices such as 2nd generation battery. In this paper, we investigated the generation of Si nanoparticles using pulse plasma technology. An inductively-coupled plasma chamber with RF power (13.56 MHz) was designed for this study. DC-bias was applied between the substrate and grounded grid installed above the substrate to increase the particle collection efficiency and to avoid film formation on the substrate. Moreover, in order to control the structure of silicon nanoparticle, we implemented heater inside the substrate. Experiments were performed with various pulse periods to generate nanoparticles with various sizes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to measure the shape, structure and size of nanoparticles. TEM images showed that the generated nanoparticles have spherical shape with highly monodisperse size distribution. The structure is originally amorphous but we could change its structure to crystal by annealing. We employed a widely used plasma technology, so we except that it can be easily applied to industry with small modification.
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Wilden, J., and A. Wank. "Hartstoffsynthese aus flüssigen Precursoren auf Siliziumbasis mittels DC-Plasmajet (Hard Material Coatings Synthesized of Silicon Based Liquid Precursors by DC-Plasmajet)." In ITSC 1999, edited by E. Lugscheider and P. A. Kammer. Verlag für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren DVS-Verlag GmbH, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.cp.itsc1999p0158.

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Abstract Using a DC-plasmajet amorphous and nanocrystalline Si-C-layers are synthesized from chloromethylsilanes on various substrate materials. Though most of the layers show granular morphologies with cluster diameters between 25 and 400 nm depending on the process parameters, coatings with a dense or columnar morphology and with a smooth surface can be synthesized as well. XRD analyses verify β-SiC crystals with an average diameter of 5 nm. In some samples produced from carbon rich precursors also graphite is detected. Depending on the substrate material and the process parameters deposition rates up to 1,300 µm/h are obtained. Apart from silicon and carbon the coatings convey oxygen and chlorine verified by EDX. Coatings removed from the substrate can withstand several bending cycles (45°) without any visible indication of failure. Paper text in German.
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Mueller, Thomas, Maximilian Scherff, Wolfgang Dungen, Yue Ma, and Wolfgang Fahrner. "Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbon-Silicon Alloys [a-SixC1-x(n):Hy] used as Emitters of Heterojunction Solar Cells." In 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference. IEEE, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/wcpec.2006.279715.

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Kabulov, Rustam R. "Influence of the varyband layer of the amorphous hydrogenated silicon-germanium on the current-volt characteristics of the n+(a-Si:H)-i(a-Si 1-x Ge x :H)-n+(a-Si:H)-structures." In Microelectronic Manufacturing, edited by David Burnett, Shin'ichiro Kimura, and Bhanwar Singh. SPIE, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.395742.

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