Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Alpine mountains'

Alpine soils are young, poorly developed soils that occur above treeline. This study investigates soils located in the alpine-subalpine zone of the Wallowa Mountains, northeast Oregon. Parent material, topography, and vegetation are the most influential pedogenic factors in the high alpine landscape of the Wallowas. Soil samples were collected from the Eagle Cap Wilderness Area of the Wallowas at three mountain locations: Eagle Cap, Sacajawea, and Matterhorn. Catenas were studied in the Windblown and Minimum Snowcover zones to examine different pedogenic factors, according to the Synthetic Alpine Slope model. · Field and laboratory testing characterized the alpine soils as predominantly loamy-sands with weak structural development. The 1:1 water pH values range from 6.5 to 7.3, and the soil hues are lOYR and 2. SY in color. Soil classification characterized Eagle Cap soils as Andisols: Lithic and Typic Haplocryands. The Matterhorn and Sacajawea residuum was not classified. Parent material influence on soil development was more noticeable on granodiorite than basalt, reflecting the propensity of granodiorite to weather rapidly. Marble and shale sites lacked soil development. All the soils exhibited eolian influence, determined from silt mineralogy results. While this component did not dominate the soils as in other alpine areas, its presence was ·proven by quartz and feldspars in soils developed on marble and calcite in soils developed on granodiorite. Sodium fluoride (NaF) pH tests indicate that there is also a high aluminum content in the alpine soils, probably due to influx of Mazama volcanic ash. Krummholz and alpine turf increase the organic content of the soil, although soils beneath krummholz were not as deep. This is partially due to decreased snowcover, subsequent lack of moisture, and different parent material. All soils show a decrease in organic carbon with depth indicating that bioturbation was either low, or the soil recovered from the disturbance rapidly. Organocutans found on the bottom of rocks in the B horizon illustrate organic trans location. The increase in pH with depth shows the influence of surficial organic matter, translocated dusts, and ash. Nunatak and landmass influence on soil development was undetermined.

A wide area assessment of forecast changes in wintertime synoptic conditions over western North America is combined with a meso-scale alpine hydrometeorology model to evaluate the joint impact(s) of forecast climate change on snowpack conditions in an alpine watershed in the southern Canadian Rockies. The synoptic analysis was used to generate long-term climate time series scenarios using the CCCma CGCM1. An alpine hydrometerology model is used to predict changes in wintertime precipitation at the watershed scale. A mass balance snow model is utilized to predict the overall snow accumulation throughout a watershed. A vapour transfer model has been incorporated in the snow model to estimate snow volumes more accurately. The synoptic analysis and GCM output forecasts a modest increase in both winter precipitation and temperatures in the study area, resulting in a decline of winter snow accumulations, and hence an expected decline in spring runoff.
ix, 87 leaves : ill. ; 28 cm.

Data collection and analysis for managed wild lands is vital to their effective stewardship. To address this I gathered and analyzed data for largely undocumented alpine and cliff ecosystems located in the North-Central Rocky Mountains. This information should aid in decision-making processes for regional land managers and increase the overall ecological understanding of these systems. This manuscript includes detailed community analyses of alpine vegetation and its environment on andesitic-volcanic substrates in the Washburn Range and the Northern Absarokas. It also places the Washburn Range and Northern Absarokas into a regional non-volcanic context by comparing them to alpine areas in the Beartooth Mountains. Cliff communities were studied to record common species and to describe variation with respect to water and substrate gradients. An understanding of both alpine and cliff systems is important given the growing presence of exotic mountain goats (Oreomnos americanus) in the region, and concerns over the impact of global climate change to the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, particularly in alpine areas. I also present here a number of original methods which should be of interest to ecologists. These include (1) methods for identifying objectively appropriate vegetation classification methods, and finding the correct number of data clusters in datasets, (2) methods for studying important environmental parameters on rock surfaces, and (3) a new protocol for efficiently determining soil water potentials.

Terrestrial ecosystems in British Columbia are cataloged using the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC). My research is a continuation of the BEC program, specifically aimed at classifying high-elevation ecosystems (alpine and subalpine) of the western Cariboo Mountains of British Columbia. I’ve included a literature review describing the factors that contribute to the formation of high-elevation plant communities. My results include: five new site series for the Interior Mountain Heather wet cold alpine subzone; b) seven new site series for the Engelmann Spruce Subalpine Fir wet cold parkland subzone; c) two plant orders (one not previously described); d) 5 alliances (2 not previously described), and 19 plant associations (17 not previously described). These results contribute to the description of Site Associations, Site Orders and Site Alliances for the provincial Alpine classification. To develop the classification, I explored the interaction of vegetation with topographic and edaphic variables, and followed phytosociology methods to develop the nomenclature for the plant communities

Mountain precipitation, as a major component of global ecology and culture, requires diverse observation-based distribution studies to improve process characterisation and so enhance environmental management and understanding. Analysis of data from an array of precipitation gauges within the nationally important, and internationally extreme, mountainous Lake Pukaki catchment in New Zealand has been undertaken in an effort to provide such a study, while also improving local hydrological understanding. An objective observation based undercatch-corrected 1971-2000 average annual precipitation distribution has been prepared for the mountainous Lake Pukaki catchment, New Zealand. Precipitation records from 58 gauges at 51 sites, augmented with 10 new gauges, were used in preparation of the distribution. The assessed undercatch correction of 17 % across the catchment indicates that mountain hydrological investigations in New Zealand that use precipitation data and yet do not consider undercatch will be in considerable error. The average annual distribution confirms the existence of high precipitation magnitudes and horizontal gradients in the catchment in comparison with other mountain regions around the world. The high magnitude is unusual when its position in the lee of the principal orographic divide is considered indicating rare precipitation distribution processes occur in the region. Consideration of river flows, glacial change and evaporation led to a confirmation of the gauge derived average catchment precipitation. Precipitation to wind direction relationships identified the predominant westerly wind to be the primary precipitation generating direction with large magnitude events biased towards the northerly direction. All directions from the eastern side of the mountain divide had the lowest frequency and daily precipitation magnitude. Derivation of wind-classed precipitation distributions identified a distinctive south east to north west precipitation gradient for all wind directions, most severe for the north west direction and least severe for the easterly direction. Precipitation extent was greatest for the northerly direction and least for the south south westerly. The wind-classed distributions enable the estimation of daily precipitation likelihood and magnitude at any location in the catchment based on knowledge of the synoptic wind flow direction and precipitation at just one reference site. Improved river flow and lake inflow estimates resulted from the use of wind classed daily precipitation estimates validating the quality of the wind classed distributions. From 1939 to 2000 there has been no statistically significant trend in precipitation magnitudes, frequencies, or extremes in the catchment. At Aoraki/Mt Cook village, in the upper catchment, there have been significant increases in magnitude, frequency and extremes associated with the phase change of the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) in 1978. This change can be explained by the increase in strength of westerly winds for the different IPO phases but not by a change in frequency of different wind directions. In the lower catchment the IPO relationship is of an opposite sense to that observed in the upper catchment, indicating that the areas operate under two different climate regimes with different precipitation controls. The significant relationship to the IPO phase indicates that it is more important than climate warming in terms of future precipitation distribution in the Lake Pukaki catchment, and by extension the Southern Alps. The distributions prepared provide a valuable tool for operational and academic hydrological applications in the region. In addition, they provide a valuable characterisation of the precipitation in a Southern Hemisphere mid-latitude lee to predominant westerlies glacierized mountain catchment. From this standpoint they highlight the contrast to Northern Hemisphere mountain precipitation distributions commonly used in model validation studies, thereby providing an extension of locations with which to refine orographic precipitation process understanding.

The Iberian Peninsula is considered as a “micro-continent”, located between the Eurasian and the African plates. Several ranges formed during the Alpine orogeny, in the borders of the plate or intraplate. As part of this thesis the first magnetotelluric (MT) data was collected across the intraplate Iberian fold and thrust belt and the first long-period magnetotelluric was collected across the Cantabrian Mountains, located in the northern boundary of the Iberian plate. This MT data was used to image the electrical conductivity distribution of the crust beneath these two orogens. The analysis of the MT data revealed the presence of three-dimensional structures in both studied areas and therefore 3-D inversion algorithms were used to obtain the final resistivity models. In the Cantabrian Mountains the correlation between the geoelectric image, the existing geophysical models and the surface geology provided a deeper understanding of the lithospherical processes. The final model shows excellent correlation with the superficial geology, depicting the main faults and lithologies at depth. The Duero Basin sediments are well delineated. A thickness of 2.5 to 3.5 km was deduced, and is in agreement with the seismic studies and well log data. Conductive zones in the Palaeozoic basement are related to enhanced permeability along the main Alpine faults. These conductive zones detected in the model do not reach more than 10 km in the southern part of the Cantabrian Mountains and 15 km in the northern part, and are therefore concentrated in the upper crust. The hydration/serpentinization of the upper mantle within the mantle wedge and beneath the Moho of the Cantabrian Margin is imaged as a zone of low resistivities. In the Iberian Chain the 3-D inversion model indicates that several Alpine thrusts are imaged as dipping conductors, which are limited to the upper crust. Two of them are the North Iberian Thrust and the Serranía de Cuenca Thrust, which bound to the north and to the south respectively the basement involved areas of the Iberian Chain. Both faults do not reach more than 15 km depth, suggesting that they are linked to the thrust system detachment at 10–15 km depth. This indicates that the Cenozoic thrust system causing the crustal thickening of the Iberian Chain is concentrated in the upper crust, which confirms the previous geological hypothesis proposed by Guimerà and Alvaro (1990). The 3-D inversion model is consistent with the collocated seismic image. A statistical analysis of the correlation between seismic velocity and electrical resistivity along a NE-SW profile is carried out for the upper crust and shows a clear correlation between both parameters. An increase in both seismic velocity and electrical resistivity is observed and is related to the depth at which the geological formations are located.
La Península Ibérica es un micro continente situado entre las Placas Euroasiática y Africana. Existen varios orógenos alpinos situados en el borde de placa y en su interior. En esta tesis se han realizado perfiles de magnetotelúrica a través de dos de estos orógenos: la Cordillera Cantábrica y la Cadena Ibérica. A partir de los datos de magnetotelúrica se han obtenido las imágenes de resistividad eléctrica a escala litosférica en la Cordillera Cantábrica y a escala cortical en la Cadena Ibérica. En ambos casos el análisis de la dimensionalidad de la estructura geoléctrica ha puesto de relieve un comportamiento 3-D. Por tanto se han realizado en cada caso inversiones 3-D conjuntas de las cuatro componentes del tensor de impedancias y de la función de transferencia geomagnética. En la Cordillera Cantábrica, la correlación de la distribución de resistividad eléctrica con otros modelos geofísicos y la geología de superficie ha conducido a una mejor comprensión de los procesos litosféricos de formación de la cordillera. El modelo de resistividades obtenido da una imagen de las principales fallas y estructuras en profundidad. La Cuenca del Duero está formada por sedimentos con un espesor variable, entre 2.5 a 3.5 km. El basamento paleozoico resistivo presenta zonas de conductividad elevada relacionadas con las fallas alpinas que no superan los 10 km de profundidad en la parte más meridional de la Cordillera y los 15 km en la parte septentrional de la misma, lo que indica que se sitúan en la corteza superior. La hidratación /serpentinización en la cuña del manto del margen cantábrico aparece reflejada por una zona de elevada conductividad eléctrica. En la Cadena Ibérica el modelo de inversión 3D obtenido revela la geometría de los cabalgamientos alpinos mediante zonas de elevada conductividad. Los dos principales son el Cabalgamiento Frontal Noribérico y el de la Serranía de Cuenca que limitan, al Norte y al Sur respectivamente, el basamento de la Cadena Ibérica. Ambas fallas no superan los 15 km de profundidad, indicando que el sistema de cabalgamientos cenozoico causante del engrosamiento de la cadena se concentra en la corteza superior. Se ha realizado un análisis estadístico de la correlación entre el modelo de resistividades obtenido y un modelo de velocidades sísmicas existente. El resultado indica una coincidencia entre un aumento de velocidades sísmicas y un aumento de resistividad eléctrica relacionado con la localización de las formaciones geológicas a distintas profundidades.

The New Zealand alpine zone has many fleshy-fruited plant species, but now has a relatively depauperate animal fauna. The key question is, therefore, are native alpine plants still being dispersed, if so where to and by what? I first measured fruit removal rates among nine common species using animal-exclusion cages to compare natural fruit removal by all animals, and by lizards only. Over two years, mean percent of fruit removed by early winter ranged from 25–60% among species. Speed of fruit removal also varied depending on species. Secondly, I quantified which animals disperse (or predate) seeds of those fruits, into which habitats they deposit the seeds, and the relative importance of each animal species for dispersal, in two ways. A 2-year study using fixed-area transects to monitor faecal deposition showed that introduced mammals (especially possums, rabbits, hares, sheep, pigs and hedgehogs) were abundant and widespread through alpine habitat. Of the 25,537 faeces collected, a sub-sample of 2,338 was dissected. Most mammals dispersed most (> 90%) seeds intact. However, possums (numerically the important disperser) moved most seeds into mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri) forest, while rabbits, hares, and sheep dispersed seeds mainly into open grassland dominated by thick swards of exotic grasses (e.g. Agrostis capillaris and Anthoxanthum odoratum); all are less suitable microsites. Kea (Nestor notabilis), the largest and most mobile of only three remaining native alpine bird species, are potentially useful as a long-distance seed disperser, even though parrots are typically seed predators. I found that kea are numerically more important than all other birds combined, damage very few seeds, and are probably responsible for most dispersal of seeds between mountain ranges. Finally, I investigated the effects of seed deposition microsite (shady/high-light), pulp-removal (whole/cleaned), competition (soil dug/not-dug) and predation (caged/ not) on germination, growth and survival of eight subalpine plant species. There were strong positive effects of shady microsites for seed germination and seedling survival to 3.5 years for six of the eight species. Effects of other treatments were less important and varied among species and stages. Hence, both native birds and introduced mammals are dispersing alpine seeds, but the mammals often deposit seeds in habitats unsuitable for establishment. Any evaluation of the dispersal effectiveness of frugivores must consider their contribution towards the long-term success for plant recruitment through dispersal quantity and quality.

Master of Science
Department of Civil Engineering
Natalie Mladenov
The Colorado Front Range of the Rocky Mountains contains undeveloped, barren soils, yet in this environment there is strong evidence for a microbial role in increased nitrogen (N) export. Barren soils in alpine environments are severely carbon-limited, and organic carbon (OC) is the main energy source for heterotrophic microbial activity and sustenance of life. Atmospheric deposition can contain high amounts of OC. Atmospheric pollutants, dust events, and biological aerosols, such as bacteria, may be important contributors to the atmospheric OC load. In this stage of the research we evaluated seasonal trends and annual loadings in the chemical composition and optical spectroscopic (fluorescence and UV-vis absorbance) signatures of wet deposition and dry deposition in an alpine environment, at Niwot Ridge in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado to better understand the sources and chemical characteristics of atmospheric deposition. Dry deposition was found to be an important source of OC to the alpine. Wet deposition contributed substantially greater amounts of dissolved ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate. There were also positive relationships between dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations and ammonium, nitrate and sulfate concentrations in wet deposition, which may be derived from such sources as dust and urban air pollution. We also observed the presence of seasonally-variable fluorescent components in atmospheric samples that are different from aquatic dissolved organic matter (DOM). Finally, the quality of atmospheric organic compounds reflects photodegradation during transport through the atmosphere. These results are relevant because atmospheric inputs of carbon and other nutrients may influence nitrification in barren, alpine soils and, ultimately, the export of nitrate from alpine watersheds.

This thesis focuses on the impact of climate change in alpine ecosystems stressing the response of high elevation terricolous lichen communities. In fact, despite the strong sensitivity of cryptogams to changes in climatic factors, information is still scanty.We collected records in 154 plots placed in the summit area of the Majella Massif. In Following a multitaxon approach, Chapter 1 includes cryptogams and vascular plants. We analysed patterns in species richness, beta diversity and functional composition. In Chapter 2, we analysed the relationships between climatic variables and phylogenetic diversity and structure indices. Chapter 3 provides a long-term response relative to the consequences of climate change on a representative terricolous lichen genus across the Alps. Chapter 4 explores the relationships between the species richness and the functional composition of lichen growing on two types of substrates (carbonatic and siliceous soils) along different elevation gradients in the Eastern Alps. Climate change could affect cryptogams and lichens much more than vascular plants in Mediterranean mountains. Contrasting species-climate and traits-climate relationships were found between lichens and bryophytes, suggesting that each group may be sensitive to different components of climate change. Ongoing climate change may also lead to a loss of genetic diversity at high elevation ranges in the Mediterranean mountains, pauperising the life history richness of lichens. Alpine results forecasted that moderate range loss dynamics will occur at low elevation and in peripheral areas of the alpine chain. Results also support the view that range dynamics could be associated with functional traits mainly related to water-use strategies, dispersal, and establishment ability. We also highlighted the importance of substrates as a main driver of both species’ richness and functional traits composition. A “trade-off” also occurs between stress tolerance and the competitive response of communities of terricolous lichens that grow above siliceous and carbonatic soils.

Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) is a foundation and keystone species at alpine treelines of the northern Rocky Mountains and is threatened by the fungus white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). This disease affects all five-needled white pines, but has caused particularly widespread mortality in whitebark pine. Objectives of this research were: 1) to characterize the landscape structure of the treeline study sites at Divide Mountain in Glacier National Park and at Wyoming Creek in the Beartooth Mountains of Montana using landscape metrics and fieldwork; 2) to determine the frequency of blister rust infection of whitebark pine trees and determine if landscape pattern is correlated with higher infection rates; and 3) to characterize the climate at alpine treeline. I used both field surveys and subsequent statistical analysis to meet these objectives. Field data collection included detailed surveys of blister rust infection of treeline whitebark pine and characterization of landscape cover type in a combined total of 60 quadrats, positioned at the study sites using a random sampling scheme stratified by aspect. Landscape analysis of metrics such as patch area, proximity and contagion were generated in FRAGSTATS software and ArcGIS. Spearmanâ s rank correlation analysis found significant correlations between tree island patch size, patch perimeter, and percent of landscape and blister rust infection intensity at both study sites. These findings support previous research involving the relationship between patch area and blister rust infection rates and contribute to the field of landscape ecology by understanding what other landscape metrics are significant in invasive disease infection patterns.
Master of Science

This study analyzes the structure and biophysical correlates of density of two whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) populations in the northern Rocky Mountains. Whitebark pine is a keystone species and an important component of treeline ecosystem dynamics; however, subalpine populations have declined nearly rangewide in recent decades. Though declines in subalpine forests have been well documented in the literature, few studies have assessed population structure and habitat requirements at treeline. Various disturbances have combined to impact whitebark pine populations across its range, but the primary threat at treeline sites in the northern Rocky Mountains is white pine blister rust, caused by the exotic fungal pathogen Cronartium ribicola. In this study, I aim to: 1) assess population structure and regeneration within two geographically different treelines experiencing contrasting levels of infection, and 2) examine associations among several biophysical variables and whitebark pine density to better understand treeline habitat variability and regeneration patterns. I used density-diameter curves and non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis tests to compare population structure between sites, and developed generalized linear mixed models to assess correlations between whitebark pine density and biophysical site variables. The results demonstrate that despite very different ecosystems and blister rust infection rates, our two study sites have similar population structure. Our model results highlight marked differences between populations in terms of biophysical correlates of density. While correlations are similar within site, seedlings and saplings have stronger correlations with biophysical variables than established trees.
Master of Science

The tuff of Elevenmile Canyon (TEC) is a 25.1 Ma trachydacite to rhyolite intracaldera tuff produced by the largest of 6 Oligocene overlapping calderas that, along with related plutons, constitute the Stillwater Caldera Complex, one of the largest eruptions of the Western Nevada Volcanic Field during the mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up. Typically crystal-rich with a mineral assemblage of plagioclase > quartz  sanidine > biotite ± hornblende and clinopyroxene, there are two discernable pumice types throughout the tuff: a lighter crystal-rich pumice and a darker, commonly aphyric pumice type. Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic compositions of pumice fragments and whole rock samples indicate an enriched mantle component (87Sr/86Srin = 0.70495 – 0.70535, Nd[t=25.1Ma] = -1.13 to -0.39) similar to that of coeval Cenozoic mafic lavas. Pb isotopes (206Pb/204Pbin = 19.042 – 19.168, 207Pb/204Pbin = 15.557 – 15.664) fall along a tight trend between the Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (Hart 1984) and an endmember similar to local granitic units. Major and trace element modelling support a source for the TEC derived from the mixing of anatectic melts of crustal rocks with intruded mantle-derived magmas similar to a local basaltic-andesite.

Understanding biological responses to climate change is a primary concern in conservation biology. Of the ecosystems being rapidly impacted by climate change, those in the high-elevation tropics are among the most poorly studied. The tropical Andean biosphere includes record elevations above 5000 meters, where extreme environmental conditions challenge many organisms. In the Cordillera Vilcanota of southern Peru, frogs including Pleurodema marmoratum and Telmatobius marmoratus have expanded their ranges to 5244 – 5400 m into habitats created by glacial recession, making them among the highest recorded amphibians on Earth. To understand how hydrologic alterations from loss of glacial meltwater and climatic fluctuations affect these amphibians, I conduct a 36-month field study of reproductive phenology and develop a method to distinguish glacial meltwater-fed ponds and precipitation-fed ponds utilizing natural variation in stable isotopes of water (18O, 2H, and d-excess). My results suggest that some ponds critical for breeding populations may have lost their connection to glacial runoff. Ongoing deglaciation may transform these ponds from permanent to ephemeral habitats, leading to the extirpation of the fully aquatic species, T. marmoratus. The 2015/2016 El Niño delayed the onset of the 2015 wet season and shortened the P. marmoratum breeding and tadpole development period in ephemeral ponds. I examine regional patterns of amphibian occupancy and prevalence of the deadly amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobaditis in unexplored high-elevation zones that were until recent decades covered by permanent ice. Next, I examine adaptive strategies that allow these two frog species to persist in the harsh high-elevation environment. Pleurodema marmoratum withstands the daily freeze-thaw cycle by utilizing a wide thermal tolerance range (from below 0ºC to CTmax > 32ºC) and I report the first evidence of frost tolerance in a tropical frog. My research compares divergent strategies allowing two anuran species to persist through disease and variable, extreme conditions in high-mountain environments, providing a better understanding of responses to and consequences of climate change for some of the world's highest life forms.

The purpose of this thesis was to classify and describe low-elevation grassland and shrubland vegetation, mid-elevation woodland and forested vegetation, and high elevation alpine vegetation associations of the Beartooth Mountains study area and to compare newly derived associations with existing habitat type and community type classifications of ecologically relevant environments in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. Five grassland/shrubland associations, twelve woodland/forested associations and thirteen alpine associations were classified and described for the Beartooth Mountains study area. Prior to this thesis, no comprehensive vegetation association classification of the Beartooth Mountains, the highest, largest and easternmost alpine region in Montana, has been conducted. 'Co-authored by Dave W. Roberts.'

In theory and practice, centralization, sub-optimization, and transborder crisscross culture have been extensively discussed over decades with limited progress on the interdisciplinary level in the developing countries (precisely in the remote semi-arid highland regions: the High Mountains of Sinai Peninsula). Post the Egyptian National Reforms Revolution of January 25, 2011 CE, the need for a decentralized governance structure in the Arab Republic of Egypt surfaced once again as one of the very demanding reforms for socio-economic and socio-ecological sustainable development., accounting to several domestic (e.g. social strategy, behaviour and stratification; traditional tribal system ‘kinship seniority’ and alliances; social homogeneity subdivisions; survival strategies and interaction; urbanization, trade and mobility; productivity and resources exploitation) and external ones (e.g. cross political and economic interest, and warfare). A Comparative Corporate Governance Model ‘CCGM’ based on three integrated sub-models is conducted to identify, address, and feasibly resolve the previously discussed issues: 1 a newly modified timeline-based version of Quality Function Deployment ‘QFD’, addressing the socioeconomic aspects and needs (i.e. issues of interest; domestic and global practice); 2 heritage-based arid/semi-arid watershed management model, utilizing the heritage economic-conservation and experimental archeology methodologies and techniques as the core for a low cost model; 3 dynamic sub-monitoring model, enabling multilevel decision making actions (i.e. predictive/preventive); all under routine and breaking governance events In practice, the high mountains act as a system under pre-defined criteria. The CCGM resolves the legislative and administrative constraints (e.g. land use and ownership) by decentralizing the planning and decision making process on the micro-local/municipal and macro-regional/governorate levels. It is an interdisciplinary approach towards natural-cultural heritage conservation and preservation under the sustainability and decrease theories while being subjected to a domestic profit maximization trend. It is conducted inSinai Peninsula with reflections on the Alpine and Himalayan contexts.

In alpine regions worldwide, climate change is dramatically altering ecosystems, affecting biodiversity across habitats and taxonomic scales. For streams, the associated recession of mountain glaciers and snowfields, paired with altered precipitation regimes, are driving shifts in hydrology, species distributions, and basal resources – often threatening the very existence of some habitats and biota. Globally, alpine streams harbor particularly substantial species and genetic diversity due to significant habitat insularity and environmental heterogeneity: however, anthropogenic warming threatens to homogenize habitats through the reduction of the cryosphere, thereby reducing biodiversity from micro- to macroscopic organisms and genes to communities. Still, alpine stream biodiversity, particularly in North America, is poorly understood, making it difficult to predict future changes without baselines for comparison. For my dissertation, I used genetic tools to assess biodiversity in alpine streams of the central Rocky Mountains in North America. Here, I begin by reviewing the current state of alpine stream biology from an organismal perspective. Next, I provide two perspectives on macroinvertebrate diversity. The first, a population genetic comparison of three highly similar species, is followed by a fine-scale genomic study of one species, Lednia tumana. I follow these largely macroinvertebrate-centric chapters with a modern synthesis of the microbial ecology of mountain glacier ecosystems. Finally, I conclude with a study of microbial diversity that addresses how microbial diversity is shaped by geography, habitat, and hydrological source in North America. Collectively, this research refines existing themes in alpine stream biology by revealing unexpected differences in population genetic patterns among closely related species, the influence of recent deglaciation on population genetic structure and demographic history of a threatened stonefly, and clarification of the environmental drivers shaping microbial diversity.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- La Trobe University, 2007.
Research. "A thesis submitted in total fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Technology and Engineering, La Trobe University, Bundoora". Includes bibliographical references (leaves 173-187). Also available via the World Wide Web.

Proglacial environments, formed by glacier retreat, exhibit distinct characteristics in discharge, water temperature, water residence time, and dissolved ion, carbon, and suspended sediment concentrations. The unnamed alpine glacier at the headwaters of the Wheaton River, Yukon, Canada, provides an ideal setting to compare deglaciation processes that result in three different proglacial environments. The glacier has evolved from occupying one large catchment (~4 km 2) to two smaller catchments (each ~2 km 2) via glacier thinning and net mass loss, forming two lobes separated by a medial moraine. Field observations revealed neither crevasses nor evidence of subglacial drainage outlets and suggested this glacier had a non-temperate thermal regime with meltwater predominantly flowing from supraglacial and ice marginal sources. Climate and bedrock geology were similar for the subcatchments, providing a natural laboratory to compare deglaciation processes. This study compared the hydrology and biogeochemistry of three outlet streams from this glacier: one stream drained a proglacial lake which is fed by meltwater from the lower west lobe, a second stream drained the upper west lobe, and a third stream was the major drainage outlet for the east lobe. Hydrologic monitoring over the 2006 melt season (June-August) and analyses of water samples for dissolved ion content and carbon indicated that the meltwaters are dominated by Ca 2+ and HCO 3-, which are derived from biogeochemical weathering of crustal materials. The study demonstrated that the presence of the proglacial lake, which acted as a meltwater reservoir, measurably modified meltwater residence time, water temperature, water chemistry, and bacterial biomass relative to the proglacial streams. Rock:water interaction between meltwater and medial morainal sediment and fine-grained, reactive glacial flour suspended in the streams and the lake water column also enhanced biogeochemical weathering within the catchment. Thus, this study provided a small-scale example for how differences in proglacial environments and water flow paths affect headwater hydrology and biogeochemistry. This study was the first of its kind in the Coast Mountains, Yukon, Canada, and results presented here aid in the understanding of how proglacial environments created by climate-induced glacier retreat affect hydrochemistry, hydrology, and carbon dynamics in remote high elevation environments.

The objectives of this study were two fold. The first was to quantify the nature and extent of current levels of human impact in alpine areas at four sites within Fiordland and Mount Aspiring National Parks along walking tracks at Key Summit, Gertrude Saddle, Borland Saddle and Sugarloaf Pass. In order to do so, a survey was carried out with transects placed perpendicular to the track, and distributed among different vegetation types. In each transect, plant structural and compositional aspects, and soil and environmental parameters were measured. Transects were divided into track, transition, undisturbed and control zones, and changes to dependent variables were compared with distance from the track centre. Damage from visitor impact was largely restricted to within 1m from the track centre. The most significant impacts were to structural aspects of plant and soil properties with significant reductions in plant height, total vegetation cover and bryophyte cover, and increases in bareground and erosion on tracks. Erosion was more prevalent on slopes greater than 25°, while tracks on peat soils contained greater bareground exposure, particularly of organic soil. The second study objective was to investigate the relationship between specific levels of impact and the resulting damage to two key alpine vegetation types, tussock herb field and cushion bog. This was undertaken by carrying out controlled trampling experiments, measuring changes to plant structural and compositional aspects four weeks and one year after treatment. Both vegetation types saw dramatic reductions in total vegetation cover and height immediately after trampling, however overall composition and species richness varied little. These two alpine vegetation types showed moderate-low resistance to initial impact and low resilience, with very little recovery evident one year later. Research intothese two areas is important for managing visitor use within alpine areas in order to meet conservation and recreation goals. The survey indicates that alpine community types are very sensitive to visitor use, showing significant structural damage, however the spatial extent of impact is limited within the broader landscape. Instead, visitor impacts associated with tracks are likely to be more visually and aesthetically significant, influencing the visitor experience. The trampling experiments indicate that use levels over 25-75 passes per year within tussock herbfield and cushion bog vegetation on peat soils will result in ongoing damage to previously undisturbed sites. Methods for minimising impacts include limiting visitor numbers, public education in low impact practices, redirection of tracks and use to areas that are less sensitive, the dispersal of visitor activity at very low use intensities (less than 75 direct passes per year) and the concentration of activity on tracks above this level.

Since the second half of the 20th century, an expansion of the forest in European mountain areas due to agricultural abandonment has been observed. The reduction of the agricultural intensity implies the disappearance of semi-natural alpine meadows and pastures of great ecological and aesthetic value. This thesis proposes a computational model, using P systems, to simulate the future agricultural landscape evolution in the Catalan Pyrenees and in the Stubai Valley, located in central Alps, for a period of 30 years. In these regions, three simulated scenarios have been established: (1) Continuation of the observed farming trends, or maintenance of the status quo, (2) significant and (3) strong stocking rate reductions. The results show how the traditional agricultural surfaces decrease in all simulated scenarios in both study areas. Therefore, it is important to apply new strategies to preserve these cultural surfaces and the multiple ecosystem services for future generations before they disappear definitively.
D'ençà de la segona meitat del segle XX s'ha observat una expansió del bosc a les zones de muntanya europees, originada per l'abandonament de l'agricultura. La reducció de la intensitat agrícola comporta la desaparició de prats i pastures alpins seminaturals de gran valor ecològic i estètic. Aquesta tesi proposa un model computacional utilitzant P sistemes per simular l'evolució futura del paisatge agrícola als Pirineus catalans i a la Vall de Stubai, situada als Alps centrals, durant un període de 30 anys. En aquestes regions s'han establert tres escenaris a simular: (1) continuació de la tendència ramadera observada, o manteniment del statu quo, (2) reducció significativa i (3) molt forta de la càrrega ramadera. Els resultats obtinguts mostren com la superfície agrícola tradicional es redueix en tots els escenaris simulats en ambdues àrees d'estudi. Per tant, és important aplicar noves estratègies per preservar aquestes superfícies culturals i els múltiples serveis de l'ecosistema per a les futures generacions, abans que desapareguin definitivament.
Desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX se ha observado un expansión del bosque en las zonas de montaña europeas, originada por el abandono de la agricultura. La reducción de la intensidad agrícola implica la desaparición de prados y pastos alpinos seminaturales de gran valor ecológico y estético. Esta tesis propone un modelo computacional utilizando P sistemas para simular la evolución futura del paisaje agrícola en los Pirineos catalanes y en el Valle de Stubai, situado en los Alpes centrales, durante un periodo de 30 años. En estas regiones se han establecido tres escenarios a simular: (1) continuación de la tendencia ganadera observada, o mantenimiento del statu quo, (2) reducción significativa y (3) muy fuerte de la carga ganadera. Los resultados obtenidos muestran como la superficie agrícola tradicional se reduce en todos los escenarios simulados en las dos áreas de estudio. Por lo tanto, es importante aplicar nuevas estrategias para preservar estas superficies culturales y los múltiples servicios del ecosistema para las futuras generaciones, antes de que desaparezcan definitivamente.

Alpine valleys are rarely closed systems, implying that the atmospheric boundary layer of a particular valley section is influenced by the surrounding terrain and large-scale flows. A detailed characterisation and quantification of these effects is required in order to design appropriate parameterisation schemes for complex terrains. The focus of this work is to improve the understanding of the effects of surrounding terrain (plains, valleys or tributaries) on the heat and mass budgets of the stable boundary layer of a valley section, under dry and weak large-scale wind conditions. Numerical simulations using idealised and real frameworks are performed to meet this goal. Several idealised terrains (configurations) were considered: an infinitely long valley (i.e. two-dimensional), and upstream valleys opening either on a plain (valley-plain), on a wider valley (draining) or on a narrower valley (pooling). In three-dimensional valleys, two main regimes can be identified for all configurations: a transient regime, before the down-valley flow develops, followed by a quasi-steady regime, when the down-valley flow is fully developed. The presence of a downstream valley reduces the along-valley temperature difference, therefore leading to weaker down-valley flows. As a result, the duration of the transient regime increases compared to the respective valley-plain configuration. Its duration is longest for the pooling configuration. For strong pooling the along-valley temperature difference can reverse, forcing up-valley flows from the narrower towards the wider valley. In this regime, the average cooling rate at the valley-scale is found to be a maximum and its magnitude is dependent on the configuration considered. Therefore pooling and draining induce colder and deeper boundary layers than the respective valley-plain configurations. In the quasisteady regime the cooling rate is smaller than during the transient regime, and almost independent of the configuration considered. Indeed, as the pooling character is more pronounced, the warming contribution from advection to the heat budget decreases because of weaker down-valley flows, and so does the cooling contribution from the surface sensible heat flux. The mass budget of the valley boundary layer was found to be controlled by a balance between the convergence of downslope flows at the top of the boundary layer and the divergence of the down-valley flow along the valley axis, with negligible contributions of subsidence far from the valley sidewalls. The mass budget highlighted the importance of the return current above the down-valley flow, which may contribute significantly to the inflow of air at the top of the boundary layer. A case-study of a persistent cold-air pool event which occurred in February 2015 in the Arve River Valley during the intensive observation period 1 (IOP1) of the PASSY- 2015 field campaign, allowed us to quantify the effects of neighbouring valleys on the heat and mass budgets of a real valley atmosphere. The cold-air pool persisted as a result of warm air advection at the valley top, associated with the passage of an upper-level ridge over Europe. The contributions from each tributary valley to the mass and heat budgets of the valley atmosphere were found to vary from day to day within the persistent stage of the cold-air pool, depending on the large-scale flow. Tributary flows had significant impact on the height of the inversion layer and the strength of the cold-air pool, transporting a significant amount of mass within the valley atmosphere throughout the night. The strong stratification of the near-surface atmosphere prevented the tributary flows from penetrating down to the valley floor. The evolution of the large-scale flow during the episode had a profound impact on the near-surface circulation of the valley. The channelling of the large-scale flow at night, can lead to the decrease of the horizontal temperature difference driving the near-surface down-valley flow, favouring the stagnation of the air close to the ground.

Cette thèse propose de penser les liens entre gouvernance, innovation sociale et territoire dans des marges transfrontalières des Alpes dans une perspective de dépassement disciplinaire. Inscrite principalement en géographie et secondairement en droit, cette recherche explore des thématiques communes que sont la frontière et le territoire. Elle tente de trouver un terrain d’entente sur la gouvernance avant aborder un sujet relativement neuf celui de l’innovation sociale.La gouvernance des coopérations transfrontalières Alpi Marittime-Mercantour et Espace Mont-Blanc a ainsi été décortiquée et analysée de façon comparative. D’ordinaire peu étudiées par la littérature sur la gouvernance, ces coopérations présentent pourtant un intérêt du fait de leurs thématiques et enjeux spécifiques par rapport aux coopérations urbaines. En effet, le développement durable selon les trois piliers classiques est au coeur de leur projet respectif et doit trouver un équilibre acceptable entre protection et développement économique. La frontière défonctionnalisée sur le même modèle que les autres frontières internes à l’Europe permet une coopération. Cependant le relief fait obstacle au franchissement et affecte les modalités de la coopération. Cet aspect doit être intégré à l’analyse de la gouvernance, qui repose sur trois formes : une gouvernance institutionnelle (formelle et informelle), une gouvernance de projet (plutôt formelle) et une gouvernance de programme transfrontalier relativement complexe. Ce système de gouvernance est bien entendu multi-niveaux avec des relations verticales (bottom-up et top-down) mais aussi horizontales. La thèse fait le point sur la définition de l’innovation et en particulier de l’innovation sociale dans une perspective critique. L’ambition n’est pas de déceler des innovations, mais plutôt d’expliquer comment le système de gouvernance décrit précédemment met en place des politiques publiques ayant entre autres objectifs l’innovation et de montrer les failles avec les « presque innovations » et les « innovations ratées ». Enfin les processus d’institutionnalisation et de territorialisation de la coopération transfrontalière sont décrits en regard l’un de l’autre. Tous deux sont des processus continus inscrits dans le temps long, qui dépendent du ou des projets des acteurs de la coopération, de leurs ambitions, mais aussi des cadres politiques et juridiques nationaux et européen
This thesis examines the links between governance, social innovation and territories with a disciplinaryoverrun context, in Alpine cross-border margins. Mainly related to geography and secondarily to lawdisciplines, this research explores common thematic such us border and space. It tries to find commonground on the governance before working on relatively new topic: social innovation.The Alpi Marittime-Mercantour and Espace Mont-Blanc cross-border governance has been analyzedwith a comparative approach. These cases are poorly investigated by the literature on governance,although they have interesting special topic and issues like sustainable development. They have to findan acceptable balance between protection measures and socio-economic development. Thefunctionalization of border allows for cross-border cooperation but the topography and the pooraccessibility constraint and affect the agreement the of the governance. The analysis of governance isbased on three different forms: institutional governance (formal and informal), project governance(mainly formal) and Interreg program governance relatively complex. This system is obviously multilevelwith vertical (top-down and bottom-up) and horizontal relations.The thesis reviews the definition of innovation especially social innovation with a critical perspective.The ambition isn’t to say “this is an innovation” but to understand and explain how the system ofgovernance implements public policies and finally produces innovations. The goal is also to show andanalyze “almost innovations” and “failed innovation”.Finally, this research considers institutionalization and territorialization processes next to each other.Both of them are continuous on long term and they are dependent on project’s players, their ambitions,but also on national and European, political and legal framework

This thesis examines scientific research undertaken by British travellers in the higher regions of the Alps from c.1815 to c.1880. Within this spatial backdrop I study how bodily habits and physical practices were used in the formation of a distinct observational style, how this style was transferred to other individuals and other social groups, and how they could be called upon to legitimate the knowledge produced. Mountain regions provide an ideal space to examine the role of physical practices in the production of scientific knowledge. Difficult geography and unpredictable weather make the Alps a very hostile environment. The period between 1815 (the end of the Napoleonic wars) and 1880 (when 'guideless' climbing was introduced) was a period of considerable change for Alpine research and mountain travel. It was during this period that scientific research was shifted from the lower Alpine valleys towards the higher regions of permanent snow and ice. But before the higher regions could be observed, individuals were first required to learn bodily habits and physical practices. To further these aims this study will the broadly based around the Alpine Club. Formed in 1857, it was the premier authority on high mountain travel. Though knowledge production formed a strong part of its outlook, the Club also contained members intent on pursuing mountain travel for pleasure. As a result the Club placed scientific activities alongside the unique physical skills and the technical experiences of its membership. Members interested in producing scientific research in the higher Alps used the Club to extend participation in observation gathering. To do so they used the Club's rules and regulations, meetings and committee structure as well as its publications to define and articulate how this knowledge should be collected.

This study is an interdisciplinary ecological study addressing the fine-scale relationships between plants, invertebrates and the environment in an alpine ecosystem. Alpine environments are marked by steep environmental gradients and complex habitat mosaics at various spatial scales. Regular forming periglacial patterned ground landforms on the Old Man Range, Central Otago, South Island, New Zealand present an ideal medium for studying plant-invertebrate-environment relationships due to their partitioning of the landscape into discrete units of contrasting environmental conditions, and the existence of some baseline knowledge of the soil, microclimate, vegetation and flora. The study was conducted in three types of patterned ground (hummocks, stripes and solifluction terraces) on the Old Man Range. Each component of the study was sampled at the same spatial scale for comparison. Temperature was recorded in the soil and ground surface from April 2001 to March 2004 in microtopographic subunits (microsites) of each patterned ground landform. Plant species cover was sampled within each microsite; invertebrates were sampled from soil cores taken from the same locations as plant samples in April 2001 and September 2001. The two sampling occasions coincided with autumn before the soil freezes, and winter when maximum freezing was expected. Fine-scale changes in the topographic relief of the patterned ground led to notable differences in the timing and duration of snow. The steepest environmental gradients existed during periods of uneven snow distribution. The soil in exposed or south-facing microsites froze first, beginning in May, and typically froze to more than 40cm depth. Least exposed microsites rarely froze. Within the microtopography, patterns of freezing at specific locations were consistent between years with only minor differences in the timing or depths of freezing; however, notable variation in freezing existed between similar microsites. Within the microtopography, different assemblages of organisms were associated with different microsites. In total, 84 plant and lichen species were recorded, grouping into six community types. Species composition was best explained by growing degree-days, freeze-thaw cycles, time frozen and snow-free days; species diversity and richness increased with increasing environmental stress as indicated by freeze-thaw cycles, time frozen and exposure. In total 20,494 invertebrates, representing four Phyla, 12 Classes, 23 Orders and 295 morpho-taxa were collected from 0.17m� of soil. Acari, Collembola and Pseudococcidae were the most abundant invertebrates. Over 95% of the invertebrates were found in the plant material and first 10cm depth of soil. Few significant relationships were found between diversity, richness or abundance of invertebrate taxa and the microsites; however, multivariate analyses identified distinct invertebrate assemblages based on abundance. Invertebrate composition was best explained by recent low temperature and moisture, particularly in winter; however, plant composition also explained invertebrate composition, but more so in autumn. This research has shown that organisms in the alpine environment of the Old Man Range are sensitive to fine-scale changes in their environment. These results have implications as to how historical changes to the ecosystem may have had long-lasting influences on the biota, as well as how a currently changing climate may have further impacts on the composition and distribution of organisms.

Depuis leur création en 1888, les Alpins constituent une subdivision d’arme à part au sein de l’armée de terre française. Territorialement très marquées, ces unités ont pour mission originelle et spécifique de défendre la frontière alpine. En 1962, après deux guerres mondiales et deux guerres de décolonisation, la France entre dans une nouvelle ère. Face à l’évolution de la menace, le pays opte pour la nucléarisation de son armée. Dans ce contexte de guerre froide, les troupes alpines ne sont plus que des « troupes du territoire ». Elles se marginalisent et peinent à trouver leur place aussi bien dans le nouveau dispositif de sécurité et de défense nationale qu’au sein des territoires alpins en pleine mutation. Pourtant, en 1983, à la surprise générale, la 27e Division Alpine s’intègre dans la Force d’Action Rapide et participe à sa première opération extérieure. Cette OPEX au Liban marque le début d’une renaissance pour les Alpins. Le déploiement des soldats de montagne en Yougoslavie au cours des années 1990 puis en Afghanistan au cours des années 2000 assoit la légitimité opérationnelle des Alpins. Au XXIe siècle, l’armée des Alpes désormais professionnelle, occupe une nouvelle place dans les territoires de montagne et joue un rôle nouveau auprès des sociétés alpines. En effet, le combat de légitimation, de reconnaissance et de rayonnement de la « spécificité montagne » des troupes alpines ne se gagne pas seulement sur les champs de batailles. La quête de traditions nouvelles pour refonder une identité militaire et montagnarde, l’organisation de diverses cérémonies dans l’espace public, la construction d’un patrimoine commun sont autant d’armes aux mains du commandement de la 27e Brigade d’Infanterie de Montagne pour continuer d’exister malgré la « réforme perpétuelle » de la Défense française. La 27e Brigade d'Infanterie de Montagne reste aujourd’hui dépositaire des traditions des Alpins d’autrefois. La 27e BIM reste la brigade d’urgence de montagne de l’armée de Terre. De par ses capacités opérationnelles reconnues, la « 27 » met en œuvre des savoir-faire spécifiques sur les théâtres les plus divers, à l’intérieur ou à l’extérieur du territoire national
Since their creation in 1888, the Alpins form a separate subdivision within the French Army. The primary and specific mission of these territorially very marked units is to defend the Alpine border. In 1962, after two world wars and two decolonization wars, France enters a new era. In response to the threat, the nuclearization of the army is decided by the country. In this context of cold war, the Alpines units are merely territory troops. They become marginalized and hardly find a place as well in the new safety and national defence features as within the Alpins territories which are undergoing profoundchange. However, in 1983, to widespread surprise, the 27e Division Alpine joins the Force d’Action Rapide and takes part in its first external operation. This OPEX (EXternal OPeration) in Lebanon marks a beginning of rebirth for the Alpins. Their operational legitimacy was established by the deployment of mountain soldiers in Yugoslavia in the 1990s and then in Afghanistan in the 2000s. In the XXIth century, the henceforth professional army of the Alps occupies a novel place in the mountain territories and plays a new role to the Alpin societies. Indeed, the struggle for legitimation, appreciation and influence of the “mountain specificity” of the Alpin troops is not to be won on the battlefields only. The search for new traditions in an attempt to rebuild a mountain military identity,the organisation of various ceremonies in the public space, the reconstruction of a common heritage are all weapons in the hands of the 27e Brigade d’Infanterie de Montagne command for the purpose of continuing to exist in spite of the “perpetual reform” of the “Défense française”. The 27e Brigade d'Infanterie de Montagne remains guardian of the traditions of the former Alpins. The 27e BIM stays the emergency brigade of the French land army. Due to its acknowledged operational capabilities, it implements its specific expertise in various theatres, within the national territory or outside

Grazing livestock systems play a key role in the maintenance of mountain areas in Europe, contributing to human well-being through the creation of socio-ecological systems in which human activities shape ecosystems and are influenced by local and regional socioeconomic, environmental and cultural conditions. The alpine cattle husbandry is historically based on small herds of the local dual-purpose breed, usually hosted in closed barns located in the low valley, excepts for the summer period in which they are moved to high-pastures (summer farms). During last half of the 20th century, livestock husbandry in the alps had to face the impact of the processes of abandonment and intensification, which threaten the ecological functions of the mountain agroecosystems. Both trends involve land use changes, with the intensification occurring in valleys bottoms, whereas abandoned areas are mainly located at high altitudes and steep slopes. As a consequence, there are severe impacts on terrestrial, aquatic and aerial systems, a decrease in the number of farms and a progressive intensification of the remaining farms (larger herds, milk specialised breed, massive use of extra-farms feed). Issues related to livestock husbandry on food security, agroecosystem protection, biodiversity, animal welfare, social concerns and economic competitiveness, have emerged in the public and scientific debate, strongly demanding for a focus on the sustainability of the sector. Sustainability is defined as the use of available resources for meeting human development goals while maintaining the ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. It is composed of three parts, a social, an environmental and an economic one. Approaches as multifunctionality and Ecosystem Services have been developed to value the provision of additional function apart from commodity outputs to agroecosystems. Both concepts can be used to tackle the current need and social demand for a sustainable development of mountain agroecosystems. The term of Ecosystem Services defines all the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being. They are categorised as provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. However, if managed in an incorrect way, the ecosystem can react with what is defined as an Ecosystem Disservices (EDs), which has negative outcomes for society. The aim of this Ph.D thesis was to assess the multifunctionality of the alpine dairy cattle system in the Alpine agroecosystems, integrating the ESs framework into socio-economic approaches (choice model), and participatory approaches (questionnaire and focus group), involving and adding value to stakeholders’ opinions. This Ph.D thesis is composed of three chapters. The first chapter aimed at analysing, within the Ecosystem Services framework, the sociocultural and economic value of a number of positive functions of Alpine agroecosystems, in a context of simultaneous processes of intensification and abandonment. We first performed interviews with farmers and other local stakeholders (qualitative method) to explore the relationships between the dairy livestock systems and the environment. Then we developed a choice model to rank and value the most important functions of the current agroecosystems (dairy livestock systems and permanent crops) according to the views of local (residents of the study area) and reference (residents of the six neighbouring provinces) populations in three policy scenarios. Results showed that local stakeholders had a positive opinion of the outcomes of the mountain dairy livestock system. Regulation services, represented in the choice model by water quality, were found to be the most valuable for the well-being of society. Considering a hypothetical sustainable development scenario, people showed to be willing to compromise on production rather than cut back on environmental services. Besides, they rejected the current trend of intensification of permanent crops and dairy production with the consequent abandonment of summer pastures. It would be possible to take action to support the dairy sector and promote its sustainability since the Total Economic Value of Alpine agroecosystems calculated was €159.30 per person per year, which exceeded current expenditure on agroenvironmental programmes. The second chapter considered the farmer’s ambitions regarding their life and their farm and the connection between their objectives and the real management practices on the farm located in a mountain area. We performed a principal component analyses (PCA) and a cluster analysis on data coming from face to face questionnaires, identifying three factors (quality of life through diversification, environmental goals and economic goals) and three clusters (Diversification entrepreneurs, Traditional farmers and Planner farmers). The relationships among clusters, behaviours and data on their farm structure and management were tested. The analysis highlighted differences in farmer’s personal goals for their farms and trade-off between economic aspects and social sustainability that was to the detriment of the social sustainability. Significant differences among clusters were found when considering management variables related with the territory. The identification of the heterogeneity of farmers’ behaviour is a relevant starting point to achieve the sustainable development of the mountain farming system and for the application of participatory approaches. The third chapter aimed at investigating the relationship between local supply chains and ESs in Austrian and Italian mountain areas, understanding also to which extent the positive added values generated are communicated to society. In order to do so, we applied a stakeholder analysis, an online survey and a focus group for both the Italian and Austrian study areas. As in the first chapter, we found a general positive vision of the effects of the livestock production chain on the mountain environment and vice versa. Only Italian stakeholders identified a negative impact on the environment, concerning water quality. Common difficulties and opinions among stakeholders of both study areas were unravelled during the focus groups. Stakeholders expressed the need for a common network and of an increase in the collaboration among themselves, to generate a targeted communication of ESs linked to the territory maintenance of the dairy production chains in mountain areas. The results of this Ph.D thesis give interesting insights about the Ecosystem Services and sustainability evaluation of Alpine dairy cattle systems. The assessment through the use multiple tools of analysis, allowed stakeholders and researchers to improve the understanding of the relationship between human activities and the ecosystem and also to identify intervention points for problem solving.
I sistemi zootecnici giocano un ruolo fondamentale nel mantenimento delle aree montane Europee, contribuendo al benessere umano attraverso la creazione di sistemi socio-ecologici in cui le attività umane plasmano gli ecosistemi e sono influenzate dalle condizioni socioeconomiche, ambientali e culturali locali e regionali. Storicamente, l’allevamento zootecnico alpino si basa su piccole mandrie di razze locali a duplice attitudine. Durante la maggior parte dell’anno, le mandrie trovano riparo in stalle del fondo valle, mentre nel periodo estivo vengono trasferite nei pascoli a quote elevate, nelle malghe. Nell’ultima metà del ventesimo secolo, l’allevamento di bestiame nelle alpi ha dovuto affrontare l’impatto dei processi di abbandono e di intensificazione, i quali minacciano le funzioni ecologiche degli agroecosistemi montani. Entrambe le tendenze implicano dei cambiamenti nell’uso del suolo, con l’intensificazione che prende piede nel fondo valle, mentre le aree abbandonate si localizzano principalmente alle altitudini più elevate e lungo i pendii più ripidi. Di conseguenza, si verificano impatti severi sui sistemi acquatici, aerei, e terrestri; una diminuzione nel numero delle aziende zootecniche e una progressiva spinta all’intensificazione delle aziende rimanenti ( mandrie più grandi, razze specializzate da latte, uso massiccio dei mangimi extra-aziendali). I problemi legati all’allevamento zootecnico sulla sicurezza alimentare, sulla protezione degli agroecosistemi, sulla biodiversità, sul benessere animale, sulle preoccupazioni sociali e culla competitività economica, sono emersi nel dibattito pubblico e scientifico, richiedendo a gran voce una maggiore attenzione sulla sostenibilità del settore. La sostenibilità viene definita come l’uso delle risorse disponibili per raggiungere gli obiettivi dello sviluppo umano mentre si mantiene la capacità dei sistemi naturali di continuare a fornire le stesse risorse naturali e i Servizi Ecosistemici su cui dipendono l’economia e la società. La sostenibilità si compone di tre parti: una sociale, una ambientale e una economica. Per valutare l’approvvigionamento delle funzioni dell’ecosistema, che non rientrino nell’ambito della fornitura di beni di mercato, sono stati sviluppati degli approcci come la multifunzionalità e i Servizi Ecosistemici. Entrambi i concetti posso essere usati per affrontare il bisogno corrente e la domanda sociale di uno sviluppo sostenibile degli agroecosistemi montani. Il termine Servizi Ecosistemici definisce tutti i contributi diretti e indiretti di un ecosistema al benessere umano. Sono categorizzati come servizi di approvvigionamento, di regolazione, culturali e di supporto alla vita. In ogni caso gli ecosistemi, se gestiti in maniera erronea, possono regire con quelli che vengono definiti Disservizi Ecosistemici, che hanno impatti negativi per la società. Lo scopo della mia tesi di dottorato è stato quello di stimare la multifunzionalità dei sistemi di allevamento di vacche da latte negli agroecosistemi alpini, integrando la struttura teorica dei Servizi Ecosistemici negli approcci socio-economici (modelli di scelta), negli approcci partecipativi (questionari e gruppi di discussione), coinvolgendo e valorizzando l’opinione dei portatori di interesse. Questa tesi di dottorato è composta da tre capitoli. Il primo capitolo della tesi, puntava all’analisi, nell’ambito della teoria dei Servizi Ecosistemici, del valore socioculturale ed economico di un numero di funzioni positive degli agroecosistemi alpini, in un contesto di due processi simultanei di intensificazione e di abbandono. Per prima cosa, furono svolte delle interviste con gli allevatori e con altri portatori di interesse locali ( metodo qualitativo), per esplorare la relazione tra i sistemi zootecnici da latte e l’ambiente. In seguito, fu sviluppato un modello di scelta per classificare e valutare le più importanti funzioni attuali degli agroecosistemi (i sistemi zootecnici da latte e le colture permanenti), secondo i punti di vista delle popolazioni locali ( residenti nell’area di studio) e di riferimento ( i residenti delle sei provincie confinanti l’area di studio) in tre diversi scenari politici. I risultati hanno mostrato che i portatori di interesse locali avevano una opinione positiva delle attività del sistema zootecnico da latte di montagna. I servizi di regolazione, rappresentati nel modello di scelta dalla qualità dell’acqua, sono stati considerati come i più importanti per il benessere della società. Considerando uno scenario ipotetico di sviluppo sostenibile, le persone si sono mostrate propense al compromesso sulla produzione lattiero-casearia piuttosto che sulla riduzione dei Servizi Ecosistemici. Inoltre, hanno rifiutato il processo corrente di intensificazione delle colture permanenti e della produzione lattiero-casearia, con il conseguente abbandono dei pascoli alpini. Dato che il valore economico totale degli agroecosistemi alpini calcolato è risultato essere di €159.30 pro capite all’anno, che eccede la spesa corrente sui programmi agroambientali, sarebbe possibile intraprendere azione per supportare il settore zootecnico da latte e promuovere la sua sostenibilità. Il secondo capitolo ha preso in considerazione le ambizioni degli allevatori riguardo la loro vita e la loro azienda, e la connessione tra i loro obiettivi e le reali pratiche di gestione applicate nelle loro aziende montane. Un’analisi in componenti principali (PCA) e un’analisi dei gruppi è stata portata a termine partendo da dati raccolti tramite interviste personali, identificando tre fattori (qualità della vita ottenuta tramite la diversificazione aziendale; obiettivi ambientali; obiettivi economici) e tre gruppi (imprenditori della diversificazione, allevatori tradizionali, allevatori pianificatori). Furono inoltre testate le relazioni tra i gruppi, i comportamenti e i dati sulla struttura e sulla gestione aziendale. Le analisi hanno messo in luce delle differenze negli obiettivi personali degli allevatori per quanto riguardava le loro aziende, e un equilibrio tra gli aspetti economici e la sostenibilità sociale che pendeva a sfavore di quest’ultima. Prendendo in considerazione le variabili di gestione territoriale, sono state trovate differenze significative tra i gruppi . L’identificazione dell’eterogeneità del comportamento degli allevatori è un punto di partenza fondamentale per raggiungere uno sviluppo sostenibile nei sistemi zootecnici montani e per l’applicazione di eventuali approcci partecipativi. Il terzo capitolo della tesi mirava ad investigare la relazione tra le strutture di approvvigionamento locale e i Servizi Ecosistemici nelle aree montane italiane e austriache, cercando anche di capire a che livello viene comunicato alla società il valore aggiunto generato dalla filiera. Per fare ciò, sono state messe in atto un’analisi dei portatori di interesse, una indagine online e un gruppi di discussione sia per l’area di studio italiana che per quella austriaca. Come nel primo capitolo, in generale è stata trovata una visione positiva degli effetti della filiera zootecnica da latte sull’ambiente montano e vice versa. Solo i portatori di interesse italiani hanno identificato degli impatti negativi sull’ambiente, che riguardavano principalmente la qualità dell’acqua. Durante i gruppi di discussione, è stata fatta luce sulle comuni difficoltà e opinioni tra i portatori di interesse di entrambe le aree di studio. I portatori di interesse hanno inoltre espresso il bisogno di una rete di comunicazione comune e di un incremento nelle collaborazioni tra di loro, con l’obiettivo di mirare la comunicazione sui Servizi Ecosistemici legati al mantenimento del territorio e alla produzione zootecnica da latte nelle aree montane. I risultati di questa tesi di dottorato offrono spunti interessanti sui Servizi Ecosistemici e sulla valutazione della sostenibilità del sistema zootecnico di vacche da latte nelle alpi. La stima attraverso l’uso di numerose metodologie di analisi, ha permesso ai portatori di interesse e ai ricercatori di migliorare la comprensione delle relazioni tra le attività umane e gli ecosistemi, identificando possibili punti di intervento per la futura risoluzione dei problemi.

The status of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), a foundation and keystone species and a pioneer establisher at alpine treeline, is threatened by the invasive and exotic fungal pathogen (Cronartium ribicola) that causes white pine blister rust in five-needled pines. Originally thought to be limited to moderate environments, the disease is now found extensively throughout colder and dryer regions east of the Continental Divide, including alpine treeline. My research objective was to determine how blister rust infection of treeline whitebark pine varies across Glacier National Park. I present findings from field sampling conducted in July 2008 in Glacier National Park, Montana. Thirty plots were randomly placed at 6 different treeline study sites on the eastern slopes of the Continental Divide. Vegetative and geomorphic characteristics, along with presence/absence and level of blister rust intensity, were detailed within each plot. Vegetation measurements included conifer composition, tree island dimensions and windward growth patterns, evidence and intensity of blister rust, as well as shelter type. Field-measured topographic characteristics included elevation, aspect, and slope. In addition, high resolution GPS-derived DEMs were created at each plot in order to model the land surface and calculate detailed environmental variables in a GIS. Environmental and blister rust intensity variables were used to determine spatial correlates of blister rust infection at treeline. The resulting blister rust prediction model (P < 0.001, F(4,25) = 6.79, R2 = 0.52, Adjusted R2 = 0.44) suggests that areas exhibiting increased wind speed, northwest facing slopes, high flow accumulation rates, and close proximity to perennial streams have a higher likelihood of blister rust intensity, specifically total canker density. Results of this research may contribute to the understanding of the dynamics of this disease, and prove useful in whitebark ecosystem management and conservation.
Master of Science

Lo studio svolto in questo elaborato consiste in un’analisi biomeccanica delle vibrazioni che subisce il corpo umano durante due attività sportive: la mountain bike e lo sci alpino. Il seguente lavoro si occuperà di definire, tramite la ricerca di articoli scientifici, il ruolo che possono avere le vibrazioni in queste due discipline. Questa ricerca nasce da una forte passione per entrambe le discipline e dalla curiosità di approfondire aspetti legati alla biomeccanica in particolare al ruolo di questa disciplina nell’analisi del rischio di infortunio. Lo scopo è quindi quello di quantificare gli effetti delle vibrazioni e valutare l’influenza di fattori quali per esempio la dimensione o la pressione dei pneumatici al fine di limitare il rischio di infortunio per gli atleti che praticano la disciplina.

Groundwater is documented to flow through solution-widened fractures and bedding planes in limestone and dolostone units in low-relief topography. This enhancement, or karstification, is much harder to study in alpine environments like the Bear River Range of northern Utah. This is problematic, due to the fact that the Bear River Range karst aquifer system supplies the City of Logan with a large quantity of water at Dewitt Spring. Furthermore, the karst aquifer sustains the Logan River for much of the year, and may allow groundwater to flow directly in the subsurface to the Cache Valley principal aquifer system. Flow measurements along the Logan River constrain a minimum volume of 2.32x106 m3 /y (1.88x103 af/y) that could recharge the Cache Valley principal aquifer. Hydraulic characteristics of alpine karst were estimated by analysis of major ions, stable isotopes, and dissolved gases in spring waters. These data reflect quick groundwater flow through caverns, with no evidence for “diffuse” flow anticipated by some to occupy interstitial space. In fact, the oldest reasonable estimated recharge age for groundwater is 70 years. Young recharge, fast flow, and low storage capability indicate that alpine karst aquifers are very sensitive to droughts and that related water resources are vulnerable to longer-term changes in climate.

La dynamique de la couche limite atmosphérique d'une vallée alpine est influencée par le relief environnant et par l’écoulement de grande échelle qui la surmonte. La paramétrisation de cette circulation atmosphérique requiert donc de caractériser finement ces effets. C'est l’objectif de ce travail de thèse : comprendre l’influence du relief environnant une vallée sur les bilans de masse et de chaleur au travers d’une section de cette vallée, par conditions stables et sèches et lorsque le vent synoptique est faible mais non négligeable. Le travail s’appuie sur des simulations numériques.Plusieurs vallées idéalisées ont tout d’abord été considérées: une vallée infiniment longue (bidimensionnelle) et une vallée tridimensionnelle, qualifiée de supérieure, ouvrant soit sur une plaine (cas “vallée-plaine”), soit sur une autre vallée, qualifiée d’inférieure. Cette seconde vallée est soit plus large (cas “drainage”) ou plus étroite (cas “quasi-stagnation”).Dans les vallées tridimensionnelles, deux régimes principaux ont été identifiés, quelle que soit le cas considéré : un régime transitoire, avant que le vent de vallée (descendant) ne se développe, puis un régime quasi-stationnaire, quand le vent de vallée est complètement développé. La présence d’une vallée inférieure réduit la variation de température le long de la vallée, de sorte que le vent de vallée y est plus faible que dans le cas vallée-plaine. En conséquence, la durée du régime transitoire augmente et est maximum pour le cas quasi-stagnation. Lorsque la vallée inférieure est très étroite, la variation de température peut même changer de signe, conduisant à un vent de vallée montant, de la vallée inférieure vers la vallée supérieure. Durant ce régime transitoire, le taux de refroidissement moyenné sur le volume de la vallée est maximum, sa valeur dépendant du cas considéré. En conclusion, les cas drainage et quasi-stagnation conduisent à une couche limite dans la vallée supérieure plus froide et plus profonde que dans le cas vallée-plaine.Dans le régime quasi-stationnaire, le taux de refroidissement moyenné sur le volume de la vallée est plus faible que dans le régime transitoire et varie peu en fonction du cas considéré. En effet, lorsque la vallée inférieure devient plus étroite, le réchauffement lié aux effets advectifs diminue car la vitesse du vent de vallée diminue, de sorte que la contribution (refroidissante) du flux de chaleur sensible diminue également. La conservation de la masse dans la couche limite de la vallée supérieure est assurée par un équilibre entre la convergence des vents de pente au sommet de la couche limite (alimenté par un courant de retour au-dessus (et en sens inverse) du vent de vallée descendant) et la divergence du vent de vallée, les effets de subsidence loin des parois de la vallée jouant un rôle négligeable.Le cas réaliste de la vallée de l’Arve autour de Passy durant une période d’observation intensive de la campagne de mesures PASSY-2015 a permis de caractériser l’impact des vallées environnant Passy sur les bilans de masse et de chaleur dans la vallée. Une couche d’air froid persistante se forme en fond de vallée, suite à l’advection d’air chaud associée au passage d’une crête anticyclonique au-dessus de l’Europe. Les écoulements le long des vallées tributaires présentent une grande variabilité durant la phase persistante de l’épisode, dépendant de la variabilité de l’écoulement à grande échelle, et ont un impact majeur sur l’intensité de la couche d’air froid et la hauteur de l’inversion qui la surmonte. La forte stratification près du sol conduit à leur décollement au-dessus du fond de vallée, les empêchant d'y pénétrer. L’évolution de l’écoulement à grande échelle durant l’épisode a un profond impact sur la dynamique proche du fond de vallée. Durant la nuit en effet, la canalisation de cet écoulement réduit la variation de température le long de la vallée contrôlant le vent de vallée, favorisant la stagnation de l’air
Alpine valleys are rarely closed systems, implying that the atmospheric boundary layer of a particular valley is influenced by the surrounding terrain and large-scale flows. A detailed characterisation and quantification of these effects is required in order to design appropriate parameterisation schemes for complex terrains. The focus of this work is to improve the understanding of the effects of surrounding terrain (plains, valleys or tributaries) on the heat and mass budgets of the stable boundary layer of a valley, under dry and weak large-scale wind conditions. Numerical simulations using idealised and real frameworks are performed to meet this goal. Several idealised terrains (configurations) were considered: an infinitely long valley (i.e. two-dimensional), and upstream valleys opening either on a plain (valley-plain), on a wider valley (draining) or on a narrower valley (pooling). In three-dimensional valleys, two main regimes can be identified for all configurations: a transient regime, before the down-valley flow develops, followed by a quasi-steady regime, when the down-valley flow is fully developed. The presence of a downstream valley reduces the along-valley temperature difference, therefore leading to weaker down-valley flows. As a result, the duration of the transient regime increases compared to the respective valley-plain configuration. Its duration is longest for pooling configuration. For strong pooling the along-valley temperature difference can reverse, forcing up-valley flows from the narrower towards the wider valley. In this regime, the volume-averaged cooling rate is found maximum and its magnitude dependent on the configuration considered. Therefore pooling and draining induce colder and deeper boundary layers than the respective valley-plain configurations. In the quasi-steady regime the cooling rate is smaller than in the transient regime, and almost independent of the configuration considered. Indeed, as the pooling character is more pronounced, the warming contribution from advection to the heat budget decreases because of weaker down-valley flows, and so does the cooling contribution from the surface sensible heat flux. The mass budget of the valley boundary layer was found to be controlled by a balance between the convergence of downslope flows at the boundary layer top and the divergence of down-valley flows along the valley axis, with negligible contributions of subsidence far from the slopes. The mass budget highlighted the importance of the return current above the down-valley flow, which may contribute significantly to the inflow of air at the top of the boundary layer. A case-study of a persistent cold-air pool event which occurred in February 2015 in the Arve River Valley during the intensive observation period 1 of the PASSY-2015 field campaign, allowed to quantify the effects of neighbouring valleys on the heat and mass budgets of a real valley atmosphere. The cold-air pool persisted because of warm air advection at the valley top, associated with the passage of an upper-level ridge over Europe. The contributions from each tributary valley to the mass and heat budgets of the valley atmosphere were found to vary from day to day within the persistent stage of the cold-air pool, depending on the large-scale flow. Tributary flows had significant impact on the height of the inversion layer and the strength of the cold-air pool, transporting a significant amount of mass within the valley atmosphere throughout the night. The strong stratification of the near-surface atmosphere prevented the tributary flows from penetrating down to the valley floor. The evolution of the large-scale flow during the episode had a profound impact on the near-surface circulation of the valley. The channelling of the large-scale flow at night, can lead to the decrease of the horizontal temperature difference driving the near-surface down-valley flow, favouring the stagnation of the air close to the ground

The three studies reported in this thesis have been conducted on the Alpine ibex population of the Marmolada-Monzoni, in the north-eastearn Italian Alps. A summary for each study is given below. Chapter I: Land morphology, season and individual activity influence GPS fix acquisition rates and location error in an alpine ungulate. The use of GPS technologies in wildlife research has greatly increased the opportunities for addressing ecological issues that affect ultimately the conservation of the species. However, in order to formulate accurate and unbiased conclusions in studies of movement ecology with GPS-tracking systems, it is necessary to understand the sources of potential bias and error associated with this technology, under specific environmental conditions and taking into account the behavioural patterns of the species monitored. In chapter I, I first present the results of a field trial with stationary collars scheduled to attempt a location fix every 30 min during 24 hours cycles. The collars were positioned in 64 locations throughout the study area in order to sample different land cover categories and topographic conditions. GPS collars performances were influenced mainly by available sky view. When sky view was higher than 70%, acquired as respect to scheduled locations were close to 100%, and location accuracy was within 10 m for 75% of acquired locations. When sky view was below 70 %, the proportion of acquired locations dropped to 75% and location error increased to within 20 m for 75% of locations acquired. I then examined a database of more than 90.000 attempted locations from 11 GPS-tagged females of Alpine ibex to assess the temporal trends in fix acquisition rate, and how it was influenced by habitat features of daily areas used, by individual activity, and by climate and weather variables. I found that fix acquisition rate was very good and scarcely variable in summer, but could drop to less than 85% during the coldest months and at night in winter. Fix acquisition rate was strongly and positively influenced by individual activity and declined, especially in winter, in periods of adverse weather and lower than average temperatures. Most probably female ibex, when inactive and seeking for shelter, use microhabitats providing cover that obstructs the satellites signal, so reducing fix acquisition rate. I concluded that, although with an adequate screening procedure for identifying outliers the accuracy of locations received from different habitat conditions may remain good, the acquired locations underestimate the use of habitats providing shelter and the periods of adverse weather. In general, the results underline the importance of combining stationary tests with tests on free-ranging animals when assessing GPS bias and accuracy in field conditions. Chapter II: Determinants of home range size across spatio-temporal scales in a high mountain ungulate. The high seasonality of Alpine habitats might have strong effects on the spatial strategies of large herbivores. In the second chapter, I obtained a database of 672 estimates of weekly home ranges (232 in summer and 440 in winter) and 160 estimates of monthly home ranges (64 in summer and 96 in winter) from 15 female ibexes, and analysed it to describe intra-annual patterns of spatial use and to asses how it was influenced by climate, food resources and individual conditions. I used the k-LoCoH method to calculate the areas used at two spatial scales: the home range (HR; calculated on 95% of locations) and the core area (CA, calculated on 50% of the locations). At all temporal and spatial scales, the areas used by females were very small in deep winter, progressively increased until a peak in mid-summer, and then dropped again. This pattern was very marked, with a 15-20-fold increase in size from the winter minimum to the summer maximum. The HR and CA size was positively correlated with daylight, but was more synchronized with indexes of climate and vegetation phenology, as absolute temperature and average NDVI of the study area. After having defined biologically meaningful seasons with a clustering approach based on step distances and habitat features associated with locations, I then analysed, within seasons and correcting for temporal trends, the effects of the stochastic variability of climatic and weather conditions and of food resources on the size of ranges used. I found that, in winter, HRs and CAs at all temporal scales decreased strongly when snow was deeper, or precipitations more abundant, while in summer they decreased with increasing food resources (indexed by the average NDVI value or proportion of vegetation in the HRs or CAs). Also slope, which I used as an index of refuge areas from predators but also of snow accumulation, had a marked negative effect on the size of areas used. In contrast, individual conditions, as age class and reproductive status, did not influence with consistent patterns the spatial behaviour of females. These results highlight the peculiar strategy of spatial use of female ibex, which appear to be extremely energy conservative in winter and aimed at optimizing the use of food resources in summer. The understanding of factors driving spatial behaviour of female ibex is fundamental to conserve key wintering areas and habitats, and to predict how future climate changes might impact on the species. Chapter III: Validation of a non-invasive technique for estimating diet quality in an alpine ungulate. In seasonal environments, the behavioural patterns of large herbivores are shaped by the availability of forage resources, which affect the individual performance and reproduction success. Faecal nitrogen (FN) and Faecal Neutral Detergent Fibre (FNDF) have been proposed as indicators of diet quality in wildlife species. In the study reported in chapter III, I aimed at evaluating the use of faecal N, and secondarily of faceal NDF, to describe patterns of diet quality in Alpine ibex. Since chemical analyses are costly and time consuming, I also verificed whether NIRS estimates of faecal N might provide results as accurate as those of chemical analyses. From late June to November, I collected fresh samples of female and male ibex faeces, which were analyzed for FN and FNDF using Chemical analysis and three different NIRS instruments with variable wavelength ranges and approach (reflectance or transmittance). In order to verify possible relationships, I also associated to each sample the NDVI index of greenness of a surrounding buffer area. NIRS analyses gave good predictions for N, and only slightly lower for NDF, provided that the instrument used operated over a wide spectral range and in reflectance. Faecal N decreased, and FNDF increased, with Julian date, suggesting a reduction in diet quality thorugh summer and autumn. Females tended to have higher FN and lower FNDF contents than males, suggesting the ability to select a diet of better quality. These patterns were best described by data from chemical analyses, but were closely approximated by those from the best NIRS method. The NDVI of the buffer area surrounding faecal samples did not influence indexes of diet quality. I concluded that FN estimated with NIRS techniques could be a useful tool for studying patterns of diet quality in Alpine ibex. The declining FN and increasing FNDF values from summer to autumn suggest that ibex do not have the ability to contrast, with alternative food sources or with increasing selectivity, the decline in vegetation quality. This emphasizes the importance of energy-saving strategies during the winter, and of exploiting the short availability of good food resources in spring.
Questa tesi riporta I risultati di tre studi condotti sulla colonia di stambecco alpino dei gruppi “Marmolada-Monzoni”. Una sintesi per ciascuno studio è riportata di seguito. Contributo I: Morfologia del suolo, stagione e attività individuale influenzano la probabilità di acquisizione e l’errore associato alle localizzazioni con sistema GPS in un ungulato alpino. L'applicazione della tecnologia “GPS-tracking” nella ricerca sulla fauna selvatica ha offerto nuove, ampie opportunità per affrontare questioni ecologiche che riguardano in definitiva la conservazione delle specie. Tuttavia, per sfruttare a pieno le potenzialità della tecnologia e formulare conclusioni corrette, è necessario approfondire le conoscenze sulle cause di errore in essa implicite, nelle specifiche condizioni ambientali e con le specie su cui si opera. Nel primo capitolo, ho studiato come le peculiarità dell’ambiente alpino e il comportamento di femmine di stambecco influiscano sulla probabilità di acquisizione delle localizzazioni e sulla loro accuratezza. Ho prima condotto una prova sul campo, utilizzando collari programmati a tentare una localizzazione (fix) ogni 30 minuti durante cicli di 24 ore, e posizionati in 64 punti, di cui era stata determinata la posizione con un errore di 2.0 (ds = 2.8) m, scelti in modo da rappresentare le diverse condizioni di cielo visibile e di vegetazione (bosco o area aperta) dell’area occupata dalle femmine di stambecco oggetto del mio studio. Le prestazioni dei collari sono state influenzate soprattutto dalla percentuale di cielo visibile (skyview). Con skyview superiori al 70%, le localizzazioni acquisite sono state prossime al 100% di quelle attese, e l’errore di localizzazione si è mantenuto entro i 10 m per il 75% di esse. Con skyview minori di tale soglia, tuttavia, le localizzazioni acuisite sono scese al 75% di quelle attese e l’errore è aumentato fino a 20 m, sempre per il 75% delle localizzazioni. Ho poi analizzato un database di oltre 85.000 localizzazioni tentate, su 11 femmine munite di collare GPS durante un periodo di tre anni, al fine di individuare l’effetto delle caratteristiche ambientali dell’area usata giornalmente, del livello di attività degli animali (misurato dai sensori di movimento dei collari), e della variabilità climatica e meteorologica sulla probabilità di acquisizione delle localizzazioni attese. In estate, tale probabilità è rimasta molto buona (intorno al 95%) durante tutti i mesi e nell’arco di tutta la giornata. In inverno, invece, è diminuita fino a meno dell’85% nei mesi più freddi e nelle ore notturne. L’attività degli animali ha influenzato positivamente la probabilità di acquisizione delle localizzazioni, che è stata invece penalizzata dalle giornate con precipitazioni e da temperature inferiori alla media del periodo, soprattutto d’inverno. L’effetto positivo dell’attività si spiega molto probabilmente con il fatto che gli animali, quando sono attivi per spostarsi o per alimentarsi, tendono a frequentare aree aperte, mentre quando sono inattivi, sia di notte che di giorno se cercano rifugio dalle intemperie, tendono a frequentare aree riparate dove la skyview diminuisce. In conclusione, sebbene con un adeguato screening per eliminare gli outliers dalle localizzazioni ricevute sia possibile assicurare una buona accuratezza dei fix provenienti da habitat diversi, le localizzazioni ricevute sottostimano l’uso di habitat che forniscono riparo e i periodi climaticamente sfavorevoli. In generale, inoltre, i risultati di questo contributo sottolineano l’importanza di abbinare alle prove con collari statici anche l’analisi di database provenienti dagli animali oggetto di studio, al fine di individuare meglio i fattori che influiscono sulle prestazioni della tecnologia. Contributo II: Fattori determinanti le variazioni dell’home range a diverse scale spazio-tamporali in un ungulato Alpino L'elevata stagionalità degli ambienti alpini può incidere fortemente sulle strategie di uso dello spazio da parte dei grandi erbivori che le abitano. Nel secondo contributo ho prodotto e utilizzato un database di 672 home range settimanali (232 in estate and 440 in inverno) e uno di 160 home range mensili (64 in estate e 96 in inverno), derivante dal monitoraggio con collari GPS di 15 femmine di stambecco alpino nell’arco di tre anni, per individuare i pattern di variazione intra-annuale delle aree usate individualmente e per verificare come le variabili climatiche, gli indici di disponibilità alimentare, e fattori individuali agissero su tali pattern. Ho utilizzato, per il calcolo delle aree usate, il metodo k-LoCoH con due scale spaziali: l’home range (HR, calcolato sul 95% delle localizzazioni) e la core area (CA, calcolata sul 50% delle localizzazioni). Con tutte le scale temporali e spaziali, le aree usate dalle femmine sono risultate molto ridotte in inverno, per aumentare poi progressivamente fino a un picco in estate, e diminuire poi nuovamente. Questo andamento si è rivelato molto marcato, con un aumento fino a 15-20 volte di dimensione degli HR e delle CA passando dal minimo invernale al massimo estivo. L’area degli HR e delle CA è risultata così correlata positivamente con il fotoperiodo, ma le sue variazioni si sono sincronizzate maggiormente con l’andamento della temperatura e dell’indice NDVI medio dell’area di studio. Successivamente, dopo aver individuato stagioni biologicamente sensate sulla base di una cluster analisi della “step distance” e delle variabili ambientali associate alle localizzazioni, ho analizzato HR e CA, entro stagione e correggendo per il trend temporale, al fine di verificare gli efetti della varibilità stocastica degli indici climatici, degli indici di abbondanza trofica, e delle caratteristiche individuali degli animali. Le aree di HR a CA sono risultate negativamente influenzate dalla variabilità del manto nevoso o dall’abbondanza delle precipitazioni in inverno, e dalla disponibilità alimentare individuale (indicizzata dall’NDVI medio o dalla prevalenza di vegetazione su rocce e ghiaioni entro HR e CA). Anche la pendenza, che può indicare la disponibilità di zone di rifugio, ha influito negativamente sull’area di HR e CA. Invece, i fattori individuali, cioè la classe di età e lo stato di lattazione o meno, non hanno influito in misura apprezzabile sul comportamento spaziale. Questi risultati sottolineano la peculiarità delle strategie di uso dello spazio da parte delle femmine di stambecco alpino, che appaiono estremamente conservative nei riguardi dei dispendi energetici d’inverno e improntate a ottimizzare l’uso delle risorse alimentari, anche con rilevanti spostamenti, durante l’estate. La comprensione dei fattori che determinano tali strategie è di fondamentale importanza per la conservazione di aree e habitat chiave e per prevedere come la specie possa reagire al loro modificarsi, ad esempio in seguito al cambiamento climatico. Contributo III: Validazione di una tecnica non invasiva per la stima indiretta della qualità della dieta in un ungulato alpino Uno dei principali fattori che determinano i modelli di comportamento dei grandi erbivori è il variare stagionale della disponibilità di risorse alimentari, soprattutto in ambienti estremi come quelli frequentati dallo stambecco alpino. I contenuti fecali di azoto (FN) e, in minor misura, di NDF (FNDF) sono stati suggeriti come indicatori della qualità della dieta negli erbivori selvatici. Lo studio considerato dal terzo contributo ha valutato l’uso di questi indicatori per descrivere i pattern di qualità della dieta di stambecchi maschi e femmine dall’inizio dell’estate all’autunno. Dato che le analisi chimiche sono onerose in termini di costi e tempo richiesto, lo studio ha anche verificato in che misura i dati provenienti da strumenti NIRS diversi per ampiezza della gamma spettrale e per principio (riflettanza o assorbanza) potessero sostituire quelli dell’analisi chimica. Da giugno avanzato fino a novembre ho raccolto campioni freschi di feci di stambecchi maschi e femmine, su tutta l’area occupata dalla colonia. I campioni sono stati poi analizzati per N e NDF con metodo chimico tradizionale e con NIRS. Le predizioni NIRS sono risultate soddisfacenti, soprattutto per l’N, solo con lo strumento caratterizzato da ampia banda (350-1050 nm) e basato sulla riflettanza. I valori di FN sono diminuiti con il crescere della data giuliana, e quelli di FNDF sono aumentati, suggerendo un progressivo peggioramento della qualità della dieta ingerita da entrambi i sessi. Le femmine hanno tuttavia tendenzialmente mostrato valori di FN superiori e di FNDF inferiori a quelli dei maschi. Anche se questi andamenti sono stati descritti nella maniera più puntuale dai dati dell’analisi chimica, i dati prodotti dallo strumento NIRS rivelatosi più affidabile hanno prodotto patterns molto simili. Al fine di evidenziare eventuali correlazioni, ciascun campione fecale era stato caratterizzato anche con il valore medio dell’indice NDVI di un’area buffer circostante la sua localizzazione. Tuttavia, nessuna relazione è stata trovata tra indici di qualità della dieta e NDVI. In conclusione, i risultati ottenuti dimostrano che adeguate tecnologie NIRS possono sostituire le analisi chimiche per la stima dell’N e dell’NDF fecali. I patterns osservati per questi indicatori suggeriscono che, anche se le femmine sembrano capaci di selezionare una dieta migliore di quella dei maschi, entrambi i sessi sperimentano nel corso dell’estate e dell’autunno un declino progressivo della qualità della dieta ingerita. Questo risultato sottolinea l’importanza delle strategie di riduzione dei dispendi energetici messe in atto dalla specie in inverno, sia di quelle intese a massimizzare l’uso delle risorse trofiche messe in atto durante la primavera.

Les vallées alpines urbanisées sont régulièrement soumises à des épisodes de pollution aux particules fines, en particulier sous des conditions hivernales anticycloniques. Ces épisodes se développent du fait de la conjonction de l'augmentation des émissions et de la stratification de l'atmosphère qui inhibe le mélange vertical et isole l'atmosphère de vallée de la dynamique de grande échelle. Le transport des polluants devient alors principalement piloté par les écoulements locaux d'origine thermique. Ces écoulements se caractérisent par une forte dépendance aux spécificités locales de la zone et sont difficiles à représenter dans les modèles numériques de prévision du temps, tout comme les conditions stables qui les accompagnent. L'amélioration de la prévision des situations de pollution hivernale en zone de montagne nécessite donc une meilleure compréhension de la dynamique locale en condition stable. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans ce contexte et vise à améliorer la compréhension de la structure des circulations locales à l'échelle de la vallée. Pour cela, l'étude s'appuie sur les données acquises lors de la campagne Passy-2015 et sur des simulations numériques haute résolution réalisées avec le modèle Méso-NH. La campagne s'est déroulée durant l'hiver 2014-2015 dans le bassin de Passy, situé à proximité du Mont-Blanc et à la confluence de trois vallées. Les concentrations en PM10 observées dans ce bassin excédent régulièrement les seuils réglementaires et montrent des hétérogénéités marquées au sein du bassin et avec les vallées adjacentes. L'étude de la dynamique met en évidence le rôle des circulations locales vis-à-vis des disparités dans la distribution spatiale des polluants. En particulier, les écoulements dans le bassin sont organisés selon différentes strates et génèrent des niveaux de ventilation hétérogènes. En journée, les échanges de masse s'opèrent de manière préférentielle entre les segments de vallée les plus ensoleillés. [...]
Air quality issues are frequent in urbanized valleys, particularly in wintertime under anticyclonic conditions. Pollution episodes occur due to the combination of increased emissions and atmospheric stratification that inhibits vertical mixing and isolates the valley atmosphere from large-scale dynamics. The transport of pollutants then becomes mainly driven by local thermally driven flows that largely depend on local characteristics and are difficult to represent in numerical weather prediction models. Improving the forecasting of winter pollution situations in mountain areas therefore requires a better understanding of local dynamics under stable conditions. This thesis fall within this objective and aims at improving the understanding of local wind dynamics at valley scale. It is based on high-resolution numerical simulations performed with Méso-NH and data from the Passy-2015 field experiment that took place during the winter of 2014-2015 within the Passy basin, located near Mont-Blanc and at the confluence of three valleys. The PM10 concentrations observed in this basin regularly exceed the regulatory thresholds and show marked heterogeneities within the basin and with adjacent valleys. The wind dynamics study highlights local flow characteristics that are consistent with the PM10 heterogeneities observed within the valley. In particular, flows within the basin show a stratified structure and give rise to heterogeneous ventilation levels. During the day, mass exchanges preferentially occur between the sunniest valley sections. At night, the convergence of flows from tributary valleys, along with the local orography, induces a very heterogeneous flow structure on the vertical and horizontal in the Passy basin. These characteristics tend to reduce ventilation in the basin especially in the eastern sector, which is also the most polluted sector during wintertime episodes. As spring approaches, the increase of solar radiation balances inter-valley mass exchanges, thus reducing pollutant accumulation within the basin. The analysis of mechanisms controlling local circulations underlines the importance of fine scale characteristics of topography and surface (snow cover) that determine the distribution of energy received at the surface

Conceptual models of first-order controls governing river channel dynamics in mountain streams have been rarely tested in the field. In this Ph.D. thesis we examine the effects of hydro-meteorological forcing and sediment supply on the bedload transport dynamics of mountain streams. To this purpose we select three step-pool mountain streams that share identical granitic lithology, but exhibit contrasting sediment supply and hydro-climatic conditions. The three study sites, which are located in Trentino, Eastern Italian Alps, include the Ussaia Creek (2.3 km2) in Val di Sole, and the Grigno and Tolvà Creeks (7 km2) in Valsugana. The former is characterized by high, sand-rich sediment supply delivered by some 20 m-thick glacigenic deposits. The latter two, which flow through glacially carved bedrock terrain, are disconnected from colluvial sediment inputs so that sediment sources are limited to channel banks and bars during high flows. Mean annual precipitation is respectively 844 mm in Ussaia Creek and 1511 mm in Grigno and Tolvà Creeks. All study streams experience, to variable extents, snowmelt and rainfall-induced bedload transporting flows. To estimate quantitatively the effects and the interactions associated with sediment supply and hydro-meteorological forcing, we monitor precipitation and atmospheric temperature. Hydrological levels at instrumented sections are recorded via pressure transducers. Bedload transport is monitored by tagging and tracking 632 stones (b-axis: 30 to 131 mm; weight 88-4004 g). The tracking of these PIT-tagged tracers was conducted from December 2013 to December 2015 by means of an RFID portable pole antenna. Cumulatively, a total of 16, 11 and 19 bedload events were monitored respectively at Grigno, Tolvà and Ussaia Creek. We measured displacement lengths occurred during inter-survey periods, induced by peak flows associated to snowmelt, rainfall or a combination of the two (mixed-type). Active channel depth was evaluated via direct digging tests at the three study sites finding a median burial depth of 0.1 m at Grigno and Tolvà Creeks, and 0.25 m at Ussaia Creek; recent findings (Schneider et al., 2014), show that ordinary bedload events of boulder-bed streams in the Alps, active layer thickness is comprised within 0.01 and 0.22 m; Houbrechts et al. (2012) demonstrated that in mountain streams the active layer thickness is lower than D50. The active layer width was evaluated via orthophoto maps obtained through Structure-from-Motion. To characterize the streambed roughness and the channel slope we conducted topographic and morphologic surveys. To evaluate event-based bedload sediment volumes we applied the virtual velocity approach (Haschenburger and Church, 1998). In particular, to assess the minimum discharge able to entrain clasts, determining the virtual transport duration of each tracer weight class, we used the competence flow method. In order to evaluate the uncertainty associated with methodology that has been customarily applied in the literature, we performed a sensitivity analysis of the evaluation of bedload transfer proposing three scenarios varying the assumptions that (i) virtual velocities are normally distributed and therefore justifying the adoption of median virtual velocities instead of the average virtual velocity, (ii) that active channel width is constant in time, hence replacing bankfull width with site-specific active widths, evaluated on the base of PIT-tagged particles displacements. The monitoring year 2014 was characterized by a total annual precipitation two times larger than the historical mean, associated to a prolonged snowmelt and to heavy storm front events. By contrast, in 2015 we observed no snowmelt and no precipitation occurred in November and December. At Grigno and Tolvà Creeks, the majority of sediment is transported during autumn storm fronts (median travel distance: 30 m) and secondarily by summer convective storms (median travel distance: 4.5 m). At Ussaia Creek, snowmelt-related events induced 17% of the observed displacement lengths (median travel distance: 2 m), but the primary source of sediment transport is associated chiefly with prolonged storm fronts (median travel distance: 200 m). The mass of tracers does not affect virtual velocities, that are instead affected by seasonal distribution of hydro-meteorological events. In fact, at Grigno and Tolvà Creeks we observe a stratification of velocities according to hydro-meteorological forcing, with the largest values observed during rainfall season, commonly associated to highest values of peak discharge. Variability of virtual velocities at Ussaia Creek does not depend on seasonal hydro-climatic forcing and peak discharge values, with distributions of virtual velocities partly overlapping among snowmelt- and rainfall-related events. The seasonal pattern is translated to bedload transport volumes, with Ussaia Creek transporting by the end of the snowmelt period in 2014, three times more sediment than Grigno Creek. This is testified by a prolonged autumn rainfall that hit simultaneously the study sites, caused a debris-flow that transported 1084 m3 at Ussaia Creek, a much larger quantity compared to the 32.2 m3 evaluated at Grigno and the 62.5 m3 at Tolvà Creek. The definition of rainfall intensity-duration thresholds of precipitation events triggering bedload at our sites shows that transport-limited systems (i.e., Ussaia Creek) result sensitive to precipitation inputs characterized by low rainfall intensity (below 5 mm hr-1) and large duration. Conversely, supply-limited systems (i.e., Grigno and Tolvà Creeks) exhibit armoured beds and interlocked, resilient structures that limit entrainment processes, mobilizing bedload only in response to short-duration/high-intensity rainfall (10 mm hr-1). These channels preserve their morphological structure even under high flow events, triggering sediment transport processes limitedly to peaked storm hydrographs. In the present study we show that the variability in bedload transport among different study reaches is linked to sediment supply conditions and to peculiar hydro-climatic settings. An additional study site characterized by dry conditions, Strimm Creek (Alto Adige, Italy), allows us to obtain a latitudinal transect from dry to wet conditions across the Eastern Italian Alps. By monitoring tracer displacements from 2011 to 2015 at this formerly-glaciated, high-elevation mountain basin, we observe that limited sediment-supply conditions exert a strong control on bedload, chiefly triggered by snowmelt events that account for 73% of the overall travel distances. At Grigno and Tolvà Creeks, also characterized by limited sediment supply, transport is dominated by rainfall events, responsible of driving 95% of the overall travel distances. Sediment availability at Ussaia Creek is responsible for triggering the largest observed bedload events, associated to prolonged autumn precipitation and secondarily to snowmelt events.

Conceptual models of first-order controls governing river channel dynamics in mountain streams have been rarely tested in the field. In this Ph.D. thesis we examine the effects of hydro-meteorological forcing and sediment supply on the bedload transport dynamics of mountain streams. To this purpose we select three step-pool mountain streams that share identical granitic lithology, but exhibit contrasting sediment supply and hydro-climatic conditions. The three study sites, which are located in Trentino, Eastern Italian Alps, include the Ussaia Creek (2.3 km2) in Val di Sole, and the Grigno and Tolvà Creeks (7 km2) in Valsugana. The former is characterized by high, sand-rich sediment supply delivered by some 20 m-thick glacigenic deposits. The latter two, which flow through glacially carved bedrock terrain, are disconnected from colluvial sediment inputs so that sediment sources are limited to channel banks and bars during high flows. Mean annual precipitation is respectively 844 mm in Ussaia Creek and 1511 mm in Grigno and Tolvà Creeks. All study streams experience, to variable extents, snowmelt and rainfall-induced bedload transporting flows. To estimate quantitatively the effects and the interactions associated with sediment supply and hydro-meteorological forcing, we monitor precipitation and atmospheric temperature. Hydrological levels at instrumented sections are recorded via pressure transducers. Bedload transport is monitored by tagging and tracking 632 stones (b-axis: 30 to 131 mm; weight 88-4004 g). The tracking of these PIT-tagged tracers was conducted from December 2013 to December 2015 by means of an RFID portable pole antenna. Cumulatively, a total of 16, 11 and 19 bedload events were monitored respectively at Grigno, Tolvà and Ussaia Creek. We measured displacement lengths occurred during inter-survey periods, induced by peak flows associated to snowmelt, rainfall or a combination of the two (mixed-type). Active channel depth was evaluated via direct digging tests at the three study sites finding a median burial depth of 0.1 m at Grigno and Tolvà Creeks, and 0.25 m at Ussaia Creek; recent findings (Schneider et al., 2014), show that ordinary bedload events of boulder-bed streams in the Alps, active layer thickness is comprised within 0.01 and 0.22 m; Houbrechts et al. (2012) demonstrated that in mountain streams the active layer thickness is lower than D50. The active layer width was evaluated via orthophoto maps obtained through Structure-from-Motion. To characterize the streambed roughness and the channel slope we conducted topographic and morphologic surveys. To evaluate event-based bedload sediment volumes we applied the virtual velocity approach (Haschenburger and Church, 1998). In particular, to assess the minimum discharge able to entrain clasts, determining the virtual transport duration of each tracer weight class, we used the competence flow method. In order to evaluate the uncertainty associated with methodology that has been customarily applied in the literature, we performed a sensitivity analysis of the evaluation of bedload transfer proposing three scenarios varying the assumptions that (i) virtual velocities are normally distributed and therefore justifying the adoption of median virtual velocities instead of the average virtual velocity, (ii) that active channel width is constant in time, hence replacing bankfull width with site-specific active widths, evaluated on the base of PIT-tagged particles displacements. The monitoring year 2014 was characterized by a total annual precipitation two times larger than the historical mean, associated to a prolonged snowmelt and to heavy storm front events. By contrast, in 2015 we observed no snowmelt and no precipitation occurred in November and December. At Grigno and Tolvà Creeks, the majority of sediment is transported during autumn storm fronts (median travel distance: 30 m) and secondarily by summer convective storms (median travel distance: 4.5 m). At Ussaia Creek, snowmelt-related events induced 17% of the observed displacement lengths (median travel distance: 2 m), but the primary source of sediment transport is associated chiefly with prolonged storm fronts (median travel distance: 200 m). The mass of tracers does not affect virtual velocities, that are instead affected by seasonal distribution of hydro-meteorological events. In fact, at Grigno and Tolvà Creeks we observe a stratification of velocities according to hydro-meteorological forcing, with the largest values observed during rainfall season, commonly associated to highest values of peak discharge. Variability of virtual velocities at Ussaia Creek does not depend on seasonal hydro-climatic forcing and peak discharge values, with distributions of virtual velocities partly overlapping among snowmelt- and rainfall-related events. The seasonal pattern is translated to bedload transport volumes, with Ussaia Creek transporting by the end of the snowmelt period in 2014, three times more sediment than Grigno Creek. This is testified by a prolonged autumn rainfall that hit simultaneously the study sites, caused a debris-flow that transported 1084 m3 at Ussaia Creek, a much larger quantity compared to the 32.2 m3 evaluated at Grigno and the 62.5 m3 at Tolvà Creek. The definition of rainfall intensity-duration thresholds of precipitation events triggering bedload at our sites shows that transport-limited systems (i.e., Ussaia Creek) result sensitive to precipitation inputs characterized by low rainfall intensity (below 5 mm hr-1) and large duration. Conversely, supply-limited systems (i.e., Grigno and Tolvà Creeks) exhibit armoured beds and interlocked, resilient structures that limit entrainment processes, mobilizing bedload only in response to short-duration/high-intensity rainfall (10 mm hr-1). These channels preserve their morphological structure even under high flow events, triggering sediment transport processes limitedly to peaked storm hydrographs. In the present study we show that the variability in bedload transport among different study reaches is linked to sediment supply conditions and to peculiar hydro-climatic settings. An additional study site characterized by dry conditions, Strimm Creek (Alto Adige, Italy), allows us to obtain a latitudinal transect from dry to wet conditions across the Eastern Italian Alps. By monitoring tracer displacements from 2011 to 2015 at this formerly-glaciated, high-elevation mountain basin, we observe that limited sediment-supply conditions exert a strong control on bedload, chiefly triggered by snowmelt events that account for 73% of the overall travel distances. At Grigno and Tolvà Creeks, also characterized by limited sediment supply, transport is dominated by rainfall events, responsible of driving 95% of the overall travel distances. Sediment availability at Ussaia Creek is responsible for triggering the largest observed bedload events, associated to prolonged autumn precipitation and secondarily to snowmelt events.