Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Air taxes'

Cette thèse examine des outils économiques et comportementaux pour réduire les émissions de CO2 du transport aérien. Elle est structurée en trois chapitres, chacun traitant d’un aspect spécifique : l’impact des taxes sur les billets d’avion, l’effet du cadrage des émissions de CO2 et l’influence des signaux sociaux sur les choix entre l’avion et le train. Le premier chapitre analyse l’effet des taxes passager sur les billets d’avion en Europe entre 2001 et 2019, tout en prenant en compte l’impact des lignes à grande vitesse (LGV). En utilisant une méthode de doubles différences appliquée aux routes aériennes entre villes, l’étude estime l’effet de ces taxes sur le trafic aérien. Les résultats montrent qu’une augmentation d’un euro des taxes entraîne une baisse de 1 % du trafic aérien, tandis que chaque kilomètre de LGV réduit le trafic aérien concurrent de 0,24 %. Sur la période étudiée, les taxes passager ont permis une réduction de 3 % des émissions de CO2 liées à l’aviation, tandis que les LGV ont contribué à une réduction de 0,4 %. Cette analyse met en lumière l’effet combiné des taxes et des investissements dans les infrastructures ferroviaires pour réduire les émissions du trafic aérien. Le deuxième chapitre explore comment un cadrage des émissions de CO2 peut encourager informations environnementales peuvent orienter les comportements vers des choix moins émetteurs. Le troisième chapitre étudie l’impact de deux incitations : une information descriptive sur les émissions de CO2 des avions et un signal social sur la part d’utilisateurs du train par rapport à l’avion. Une expérience de choix discrets permet d’analyser comment ces outils influencent le choix entre avion et train. Le signal social avec une part modale élevée d’utilisateurs de train a un impact significatif, équivalant à une réduction de 20 % du prix du train. L’information sur les émissions de CO2 a un effet équivalant à une réduction de 5 % du prix du train. Combinés, ces signaux montrent un effet global supérieur à leurs impacts individuels. Ce travail souligne l’efficacité des signaux sociaux dans l’orientation des comportements de transport. Il offre des implications concrètes pour les politiques publiques, suggérant l’utilisation conjointe d’incitations pour maximiser leur efficacité sans effet d’éviction. Cette thèse fournit donc des preuves empiriques sur l’impact des politiques de réduction des émissions de CO2 pour le secteur du transport aérien. Elle montre que les taxes passager, les investissements dans les infrastructures ferroviaires, le cadrage en perte des informations sur les émissions de CO2 et les signaux sociaux peuvent contribuer à des changements comportementaux significatifs, offrant des pistes pour des interventions politiques efficaces combinant des instruments complémentaires
This thesis examines economic and behavioral tools to reduce CO2 emissions from air transport. It is structured into three chapters, each addressing a specific aspect: the impact of taxes on airline tickets, the effect of framing CO2 emissions, and the influence of social signals on the choice between air and rail travel. The first chapter analyzes the effect of passenger taxes on airline tickets in Europe between 2001 and 2019, while accounting for the impact of high-speed rail (HSR). Using a difference-in-differences method applied to air routes between cities, the study estimates the effect of these taxes on air traffic. The results show that a one-euro increase in taxes leads to a 1% decrease in air traffic, while each kilometer of HSR reduces competing air traffic by 0.24%. Over the studied period, passenger taxes contributed to a 3% reduction in aviation-related CO2 emissions, while HSR contributed to a 0.4% reduction. This analysis highlights the combined effect of taxes and investments in rail infrastructure in reducing air traffic emissions. The second chapter explores how framing CO2 emissions can encourage more environmentally friendly transportation choices. A discrete choice experiment evaluates whether a gain-framed message (highlighting the positive impact of reducing emissions) or a loss framed information can steer behaviors toward lower-emissionchoices. The third chapter examines the impact of two incentives: descriptive information on the CO2 emissions of airplanes and a social signal regarding the share of train users compared to air travel. A discrete choice experiment analyzes how these tools influence the choice between flying and taking the train. The social signal, showing a high modal share of train users, has a significant impact, equivalent to a 20% reduction in the price of train tickets. Information on CO2 emissions has an effect equivalent to a 5% price reduction. When combined, these signals show a greater overall effect than their individual impacts. This work underlines the effectiveness of social signals in guiding transport behaviors. It offers concrete policy implications, suggesting the combined use of incentives to maximize their effectiveness without diminishing returns. Thus, this thesis provides empirical evidence on the impact of CO2 emission reduction policies in the air transport sector. It demonstrates that passenger taxes, investments in rail infrastructure, loss-framed information on CO2 emissions, and social signals can contribute to significant behavioral changes, offering insights for effective policy interventions that combine complementary instruments

Cette thèse étudie les marchés du logement en France et en Espagne et leur interaction avec différents phénomènes. Le chapitre 1 évalue l'impact théorique et empirique d'une taxe sur les logements vacants. J'exploite la variation quasi-expérimentale occasionnée par l'instauration d’une taxe sur les logements vacants en France pour identifier son effet causal sur les taux de vacance via une approche par les doubles différences, combinée avec un appariement sur les scores de propension. Je constate que la taxe a réduit les taux de vacance de 13 %, entraîné la remise sur le marché locatif de résidences principales et réduit l’inoccupation de long terme. Le chapitre 2 étudie l’impact d'Airbnb sur le marché du logement de Barcelone. Nous exploitons la date d’apparition d'Airbnb et la géographie des offres pour estimer l’effet causal d’Airbnb sur les loyers et les prix immobiliers à Barcelone. La stratégie empirique combine des modèles de panel à effets fixes avec des tendances temporelles spécifiques à chaque quartier, une variable instrumentale de type « shift-share », et un « event-study ». Nos résultats indiquent qu’Airbnb a occasionné une hausse des loyers de 1,9%, et une hausse des prix immobiliers de 3,7-5,3%. Le chapitre 3 évalue l’impact du transport aérien sur les marchés du logement en France. Nous exploitons la variation exogène du trafic engendrée par la libéralisation du marché européen de l'aviation sur les petits et grands aéroports français pour estimer l’effet du transport aérien sur les prix immobiliers des communes situées au voisinage des aéroports. Nos résultats indiquent un effet inflationniste significatif, bien que relativement modeste du trafic, tiré par la fréquence des vols, l’arrivée de compagnies low-cost, ainsi que l’achat de résidences secondaires par des visiteurs étrangers ou des seniors
This thesis studies housing markets in France and Spain and their interaction with different phenomena. Chapter 1 assesses, both theoretically and empirically, the impact of a tax on vacant housing. I exploit the quasi-experimental variation provided by the French policy to causally identify the impact of a tax on vacancy rates in a difference-in-differences setting. I combine this strategy with a propensity score matching and I find that the tax reduced vacancy rates by 13%. The tax is responsible for the reintroduction of primary residences in the rental market and the reduction of long-term vacancy. Chapter 2 looks at the effects of Airbnb penetration in Barcelona’s housing market. We use several econometric approaches that exploit the exact timing and geography of Airbnb activity in the city. These include the use of neighborhood-specific trends, an instrumental shift-share strategy, and an event study. Our results imply that rents have increased by 1.9%, while transaction (posted) prices have increased by 5.3% (3.7%). The estimated impact in neighborhoods with high Airbnb activity is substantial. Chapter 3 investigates whether air traffic exerts a pro-inflationary effect on housing markets. We exploit the variation in air traffic between small and large French airports caused by the liberalization of the European aviation market in the 1990s to evaluate the air transport impact on housing prices in French municipalities. Our results show a small but significant inflationary effect of air traffic, which is essentially due to the higher frequency of flights, the arrival of low-cost airlines, and the buying strategy of international and senior visitors

L'objectif de notre thèse vise à évaluer les résultats engrangés par les marchés du carbone. Afin de pouvoir explorer différents aspects des marchés du carbone à un niveau mondial et en raison de la diversité des instruments qui se cachent derrière ce vocable, nous avons choisi de réaliser une thèse par article. Sur base de nos analyses empiriques nous avons pu vérifier dans quelle mesure les avantages et les limites théoriques des marchés du carbone se sont réalisés en pratique.

Une hypothèse forte des marchés du carbone dotés d’un système de plafonnement est qu’ils permettraient de garantir le respect des objectifs climatiques. Cette hypothèse ne s’est pas révélée exacte. En générant plus d’un milliard de crédits, dont un nombre important de crédits issus de projets, et en ne parvenant pas à empêcher des défections, le système mis en place par le Protocole de Kyoto n’est pas parvenu à garantir le plafonnement des émissions dans les pays développés. Il en va de même pour les systèmes liés à Kyoto comme le système communautaire d'échange de quotas d'émissions (SCEQE).

Dans la plupart des configurations des règles ad hoc et peu transparentes ont nui à l’objectif environnemental. La comptabilité commune de différents gaz à effet de serre, malgré des incertitudes importantes sur les pouvoirs de réchauffement globaux a également été néfaste à l'intégrité du système.

Le lien à des mécanismes de projets trouvant leur légitimité dans une preuve de l’additionnalité souvent floue demeure problématique. Notre analyse a ainsi mis en avant la problématique de l'enregistrement de projets hydrauliques dont la décision de construction est antérieure aux marchés du carbone.

En théorie, le mécanisme d’échange a pour conséquence que les acteurs confrontés à des coûts de réduction faibles soient encouragés à réduire leurs émissions. Dans la pratique, notre analyse montre que peu d’acteurs connaissent leur coût de réduction marginal, empêchant dès lors la concrétisation de cet idéal d’une réduction au moindre coût. Nous avons aussi mis en avant le fait qu’un prix identique par tonne de CO2 réduite n’est pas adapté au soutien de technologies nouvelles, souvent plus onéreuses au début de leur cycle de développement.

Finalement, un des principaux mérites des marchés du carbone a peut-être été leur acceptabilité auprès des décideurs politiques et économiques. Il est manifeste que les marchés permettent d'internaliser le carbone à un niveau international sans passer par une difficile harmonisation des politiques fiscales. C'est clairement une des raisons de leur adoption rapide et dans de nombreux pays.

Les marchés du carbone ont aussi joué un rôle important en matière de sensibilisation aux changements climatiques. Ils ont permis de faire progresser la comptabilité carbone et la compréhension des technologies sobres en carbone.

L’effondrement récent du prix du carbone montre que ce nouvel instrument qui, en théorie, est efficace pour atteindre un objectif de réduction prédéfini, ne permet pas, dans la pratique, par manque d’ambition ou en raison d’erreurs dans la conception, de financer la transition vers une nouvelle économie sobre en carbone. Il apparaît dès lors nécessaire de réformer cet instrument mais aussi de développer progressivement des alternatives afin de ne pas uniquement faire reposer la réussite de l’atteinte des objectifs climatiques sur les seuls marchés du carbone et ainsi augmenter la résilience des politiques climatiques aux aléas de marchés financiers, par ailleurs eux-mêmes soumis à de nombreux tourments depuis 2008.

Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Background: A continuously growing urban population leads to congested urban areas. As a result, people are wasting time being stuck in traffic. One way of solving this problem is to use the air for moving people. Thus, companies all over the globe are working extensively on approaches for Urban Air Mobility such as air taxis. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is the identification of key determinants influencing the acceptance of air taxis from a potential user perspective. Thereby, the thesis develops the Urban Air Mobility Acceptance Model (UAMAM) as an extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Method: An explanatory online survey was conducted to test the hypotheses in the proposed UAMAM. Data from 321 respondents living in cities larger than one million inhabitants representing the potential target group was collected. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS SEM) was used to assess the measurement model in terms of validity and reliability and the structural model in terms of hypotheses testing and strength of relationships between proposed variables. Further, a multigroup analysis has been examined to identify significant differences among groups. Conclusion: The results show that the attitude, which is strongly influenced by the perceived usefulness, as well as subjective norm, travel cost and the personal innovativeness are key determinants affecting the users’ behavioral intention to use air taxis. Further, moderating effects of age on the relation between time saving and behavioral intention as well as on the relation between personal innovativeness and behavioral intention were identified. Additionally, moderating effects of occupational status on the relation between travel cost and behavioral intention were found.

I boschi con tasso hanno subito nei secoli una progressiva regressione a causa dei cambiamenti climatici e dell’azione dell’uomo. In Europa le popolazioni di Taxus baccata L., sono oggi in misura sempre maggiore oggetto di tutela e soggette a misureattive per la loro conservazione e valorizzazione. L’elevata longevità, il lento accrescimento e la tolleranza all’ombra rendono il tasso una specie con enormi capacità di adattamento ai diversi stress ambientali. Peraltro la differenziazione dei sessi, le esigenze climatiche di tipo oceanico e la sensitività alla brucatura accrescono le problematiche di sopravvivenza delle popolazioni spesso già numericamente ridotte. L’obiettivo principale di questa ricerca è quello di verificare le condizioni di vitalità di una delle popolazione di tasso più importanti del centro Italia attraverso la sua caratterizzazione strutturale e funzionale. L’area di studio è rappresentata dal complesso forestale della “Macchia delle Tassinete” (MC), area floristica e sito di importanza comunitaria (SIC) proprio per la significativa presenza del tasso. Lo studio ha analizzato la popolazione di tasso esistente su più livelli d’indagine: (a) assetto dendrometrico-strutturale, sex ratio, condizioni vegetative e distribuzione spaziale degli individui adulti (aventi diametro del fusto ≥ 15cm); (b) consistenza, distribuzione, condizioni vegetative e danni da brucatura della rinnovazione; (c) relazioni fra soprassuolo tipo di copertura e popolazione di tasso (adulti e rinnovazione); (d) relazioni fra rinnovazione e caratteristiche del suolo; (e) dinamica di accrescimento e sensitività climatica. La popolazione adulta costituita da più di 1000 esemplari si trova in buone condizioni di salute anche se costretta a vegetare sotto copertura di soprassuoli generalmente a copertura colma. Il 90% dei tassi adulti si distribuisce su una superficie limitata dell’area protetta(circa 20 ha) dove si osserva un’elevatissima densità di rinnovazione (> 4000 individui ad ettaro). Peraltro l’affermazione delle giovani piantine è condizionata dalla ridotta disponibilità di luce e dalla pressione da brucamento esercitata da ungulati selvatici (in particolare il capriolo). Si evidenzia la necessità di attivare nell’area in oggetto, mediante un’efficace monitoraggio, una gestione integrata, forestale e faunistica, finalizzata al raggiungimento di un equilibrio dinamico fra popolazioni animali e capacità di rinnovazione del tasso, che di questo bosco è il simbolo millenario.
During the last centuries forests with yew trees have continuously shrunk due both to climate change and human activity. In Europe the populations of Taxus baccata L. are nowadays increasingly protected and subject to active conservation strategies. Its longevity, slow growth and shadow tolerance make yew a species with an enormous capacity to resist environmental stress. At the same time though, the fact that the species is dioecious, its climatic needs and its vulnerability to grazing increase the survival problems of populations that are often already very reduced. The main goal of this study is to ascertain the vitality conditions of one of the main yew populations in central Italy through its structural and functional characterization. The object of this research is the “Macchia delle Tassinete” (Macerata), a forest that has been designed protected regional biotope and Site of Community Importance precisely because of the abundance of yew trees. The analysis of the population of yew trees has been conducted on several levels: (a) forest structure, sex ratio, vegetative conditions and spatial distribution of the specimens defined as adults (stem dbh ≥ 15cm); (b) population size, distribution, vegetative conditions and browsing damage to saplings; (c) relation between the different forest structures and population size of yew trees (adults and saplings); (d) ) relation between saplings density and distribution and the soil characteristics; (e) age structure, tree-ring growth and climate sensitivity of yew. The adult population consisting of more than 1000 individuals is in good health conditions , even though it is forced to vegetate under a generally dense and closed forest. Ninety percent of the adult yews is distributed on an area of about 20ha which leads to an extremely high density of saplings – more than 4000 individuals pro hectare – in this area. However the growth of the young plants is negatively influenced by the scarce availability of light and by the pressure through browsing by wild ungulates (roe dear in particular). We point out the need for an integrated, forest and game management of the Tassinete area, with the goal of find an equilibrium between the animal populations and the regeneration capacity of the yew, a tree that has become the symbol of this millenary forest.

Sommaire : Comprendre le fonctionnement des e??cosyste??mes est un enjeu crucial, en particulier dans un contexte de changements globaux. Afin de mieux pre??dire les processus e??cosyste??miques, j???ai teste?? la pre??cision et les limites des hypothe??ses du biomass-ratio de Grime (HBMR) et de l???annulation idiosyncratique (HAI), cette dernie??re e??tant une hypothe??se originale de cette the??se. Pour cela, j???ai applique?? le principe du biomass-ratio aux traits fonctionnels, en employant la me??thode des traits agre??ge??s en communaute??, pour estimer la re??ponse globale des espe??ces en me??lange. La de??composition des litie??res plurispe??cifiques constitue un bon mode??le biologique, pour lequel je me suis pose?? les questions suivantes : (1) est-ce que l???HBMR pre??dit bien les taux de de??composition en me??langes plurispe??cifiques ? ; (2) est-ce que le degre?? de variabilite?? de ces taux diminue pour des raisons biologiques avec l???augmentation de la richesse spe??cifique (RS) des me??langes (HAI) ? ; (3) est-ce que la variabilite?? des taux entre me??langes diminue quand les conditions abiotiques du site deviennent plus limitantes ? ; (4) conside??rant que les me??langes plus contraste??s fonctionnellement sont susceptibles de de??velopper plus d???interactions, est-ce que la de??viation a?? la pre??diction augmente avec la dispersion fonctionnelle des me??langes (?? FDis ??, Laliberte?? & Legendre 2010) ? Cette the??se inclut deux expe??riences de de??composition en sachets a?? litie??res : (1) a?? Sherbrooke (QC, Canada) avec des microcosmes, impliquant des litie??res de six espe??ces d???arbres, de??composant seules et en me??langes et (2) sur trois sites au climat contraste?? dans la re??gion de Clermont-Ferrand (France) avec des litie??res de quatre espe??ces d???herbace??es, de??composant seules et en me??langes. Les re??sultats montrent des de??viations positives et ne??gatives par rapport aux taux pre??dits, mais l???HBMR de??crit bien la re??ponse moyenne des litie??res plurispe??cifiques. Bien que l???HAI ait e??te?? rejete??e, les re??sultats montrent une convergence des taux observe??s vers les taux pre??dits quand (1) la RS des me??langes augmente, (2) l???e??chelle spatiale augmente et (3) le climat est plus limitant pour la de??composition. Enfin, malgre?? des corre??lations entre FDis et interactions entre espe??ces dans les litie??res, cette relation n???est pas ge??ne??ralisable et l???hypothe??se de corre??lation positive entre FDis et de??viation a?? l???HBMR a e??te?? rejete??e. // Abstract : Understanding ecosystem functioning is a key goal in ecology, especially in the context of global changes. To better predict ecosystem processes, I tested the accuracy and the limits of Grime???s biomass-ratio (BMRH) hypothesis and a novel idiosyncratic annulment (IAH) hypothesis. I applied the biomass-ratio to functional traits, using the community-weighted means (CWM) to estimate the global response of species in mixtures. I studied the decomposition of litter species mixtures as a biological model and asked the following questions : (1) does the BMRH predict well the decomposition rates of mixed species litters? ; (2) does the degree of variability of these rates decrease with increasing species richness (SR) beyond that expected from purely mathematical causes (IAH)? ; (3) does the variability of rates between mixtures decrease with less favourable abiotic conditions for decomposition? ; (4) as more functionally contrasted mixtures are expected to develop more interactions, does the deviation from prediction increase with increasing functional dispersion in mixtures (?? FDis ??, Lalibert?? & Legendre 2010)? This study involves two decomposition experiments using litterbags: (1) at Sherbrooke (QC, Canada), in microcosms, involving litters from six tree species, decomposed alone and in mixtures and (2) in three climatically contrasted sites in the region of Clermont-Ferrand (France) with litters from four herbaceous species, decomposed alone and in mixtures. Despite both positive and negative deviations from expectation occurring at all levels of SR, the BMRH well described the average response of mixed species litters. Although I rejected the IAH, the results showed a convergence to the predicted values based on CWM with (1) increasing the SR in mixtures, (2) increasing the spatial scale of the study and (3) a less favourable climate to decomposition. Finally, although there was a correlation between litter interactions and functional divergence, this relationship was not generalizable and I rejected the hypothesis of a positive correlation between FDis and the deviations from BMRH.

L’objectif sous-jacent aux trois chapitres qui composent cette thèse, est une meilleure compréhension de l’incidence des politiques publiques dont les impacts diffèrent entre secteurs hétérogènes. Nous déclinons cette analyse à trois types de politiques publiques au cœur de la macro-économie contemporaine : (i) une politique environnementale (ii) une politique d’aide au développement et (iii) une politique de déficits jumeaux. A travers ces trois chapitres, nous soutenons que les impacts sectoriels des politiques jouent un rôle crucial dans l’évaluation des politiques et dans la détermination de la politique optimale. Le premier chapitre se concentre sur la taxe sur la pollution. Il fournit un modèle théorique qui explique pourquoi il existe une relation négative entre le revenu des ménages et leur soutien pour la taxe sur la pollution. Dans le deuxième chapitre, j’étudie les impacts macroéconomiques d’une politique d’aide au développement et je considère deux secteurs: secteur des biens échangeables (T-secteur) et le secteur des biens non-échangeables (N-secteur). Je considère deux types d’aide étrangère: (i) une aide distribuée par des transferts forfaitaires aux ménages et (ii) une aide destinée à financer les investissements publics. J'étudie l'impact de la libéralisation du marché des capitaux sur la forme optimale et la performance de l'aide au développement. Le troisième chapitre est centré sur les déficits jumeaux : un déficit de la balance courante induit par un déficit de l'équilibre budgétaire. L'analyse économétrique du papier montre que les pays ayant adopté une négociation salariée centralisée présentent des déficits jumeaux plus faibles que les autres. Ce chapitre fournit aussi un modèle théorique pour expliquer ces résultats empiriques
In this dissertation, I study the implications of policies with heterogeneous sectoral impacts in three separate research fields of macroeconomics: (i) environmental policy, (ii) foreign aid and (iii) the political economy of the twin deficits. Through the three chapters of this thesis, it is argued that, in all these three contexts, the sectoral impacts of policies play important roles in the policy evaluation and in the determination of optimal policy. In the first chapter, the policy of concern is the pollution tax. The paper provides a theoretical model to explain why in top income percentiles, there can be a negative relationship between household's income and their support for pollution tax. In the second chapter, I study the macroeconomic impacts of foreign aid and I consider two sectors: tradable sector (T-sector) and non-tradable sector (N-sector). I consider two forms of foreign aid: (i) aid which is transferred to the households and (ii) aid which is used to finance public investment. I investigate the impact of the liberalization of capital market on the optimal form and on the performance of foreign aid. In the third chapter, I consider the same sectors as in the second chapter : T-sector and N-sector. The focus of this chapter is rather on the political economy of the twin deficits: a deficit in current account induced by a deficit in fiscal balance. Econometric analysis of the paper finds evidence that wage centralization, in a cross-section of industrialized economies, is significantly associated with lower deficits in current account and budget balance. The paper provides a political economy framework to explain this empirical finding

La recherche d'une mesure mondiale et corrective des émissions de gaz à effet de serreafin de réduire l'impact de l'activité aérienne internationale sur les changements climatiques a étéconfrontée à l'émergence d'obstacles, sous forme de conflits de normes, liés au défi général del'interaction entre le droit international de l'aviation civile, le droit international des changementsclimatiques et le droit de l'Union européenne. La conciliation des normes matérielles etinstitutionnelles concernées, sur la base d'une interprétation évolutive de la convention de Chicago,est alors apparue comme l'unique solution pour remédier aux situations conflictuelles constatées.Le recours à cette démarche interprétative maintient néanmoins un climat d'insécurité juridique etpose la question des limites à l'adaptation du droit international de l'aviation civile au défi d'uneprotection du climat mondial. Ce travail d'analyse vise alors à démontrer qu'un recours à cettedémarche interprétative n'est pas toujours nécessaire et qu'une application rigoureuse de ladistinction intrinsèque au droit international de l'aviation civile séparant le domaine de lanavigation aérienne du domaine du transport aérien international est la clef du problème. Ellepermet en effet de proposer une solution corrective respectueuse des ordres juridiques fonctionnelsconcernés tout en rétablissant un climat de sécurité juridique indispensable au développementsoutenable de l'aviation civile internationale
Looking for a global and corrective measure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions frominternational civil aviation has been facing legal obstacles. These obstacles took the form ofconflicts of norms linked to the general challenge of the interactions between international aviationlaw, climate change law and the law of the European Union. Using evolutionary interpretation ofthe Chicago Convention in order to reconcile norms of substantive and institutional nature emergedas the best solution. However, this method perpetuates legal uncertainty and poses the generalchallenge of flexibly and elasticity of the Chicago Convention in response to the climate changechallenge. This study examines the above mentioned issues of interactions between legal ordersand provides recommendations to restore legal certainty needed to ensure sustainable developmentof international civil aviation. More specifically, this study reveals the underestimated relevance ofthe ongoing distinction between the legal regimes of air navigation and air transport, which is a keylegal element in the search for a global and corrective solution to the impact of international civilaviation on climate change

L'étude a pour principal objet l'identification et la définition des libertés publiques économiques au sein de la jurisprudence administrative. Au terme de cette recherche, il apparaît que la liberté d'entreprendre constitue la seule véritable liberté publique économique utilisée par le juge administratif. Elle est en effet la seule qui a pour fondement la protection de droits ou d'intérêts subjectifs liés à la personnalité juridique, en particulier celles des personnes privées. Elle recouvre deux prérogatives essentielles : l’accès à une activité économique et l’exercice d’une activité économique. Si l'expression « liberté d'entreprendre » n'est pas apparue au sein de la jurisprudence administrative mais au sein des jurisprudences constitutionnelle et européenne, il importe de ne pas se laisser abuser par les mots employés. Celle-ci est en réalité présente au sein de la jurisprudence administrative depuis fort longtemps sous l'expression « liberté du commerce et de l'industrie ». A ce titre, elle recouvre un certain nombre d'autres appellations qui varient en fonction du contexte. Même si le juge administratif considère - à l'image du juge constitutionnel ou du juge européen - qu'il s'agit d'une liberté de second rang, il n'en demeure pas moins qu'il s'agit d'une liberté de valeur constitutionnelle. La définition et la classification de la « libre concurrence » s'avèrent plus problématiques. Celle-ci recouvre deux aspects distincts :- un aspect dans lequel elle doit être envisagée comme le respect du principe d'égale concurrence, c'est-à-dire comme celui d'une déclinaison, le cas échéant rénovée, du principe d'égalité. Dans cette optique, elle peut revêtir un aspect subjectif, c’est-à-dire qu’elle protège un droit dont le fondement se trouve dans la personnalité juridique, alors même que son objet principal reste la protection du mécanisme de marché.- un aspect dans lequel elle doit être regardée comme un ordre concurrentiel. Dans cette optique, elle ne peut être assimilée à une liberté publique mais doit être envisagée comme un objectif ou un impératif d'intérêt général correspondant au bon fonctionnement concurrentiel du marché. Les prérogatives ou intérêts que les opérateurs économiques tirent de la défense de cet ordre concurrentiel ne leur sont pas accordés en raison de leur seule personnalité. Ces prérogatives et intérêts sont défendus de manière subsidiaire puisque c’est l’atteinte au fonctionnement concurrentiel du marché qui est en premier lieu et avant tout prohibée. Les prérogatives et intérêts que les opérateurs tirent de la défense de l’ordre concurrentiel trouvent leur source et leur assise dans la liberté d’entreprendre. C’est cette liberté qui octroie aux personnes morales et physiques le droit d’accéder à l’activité économique et le droit de l’exercer. La libre concurrence a pour effet de garantir et de renforcer l’effectivité de ces deux prérogatives fondamentales
The primary purpose of this study is to identify and define economic public freedoms in administrative case law. The research shows that free enterprise is the only genuine public economic freedom relied upon by administrative judges. It is indeed the only one based on protecting the subjective rights or interests that are related to the legal personality, especially when it comes to individuals. It covers two essential rights: access to an economic activity and the running thereof. If the expression "free enterprise" was not created by the administrative judges but by the constitutional and European judges, it has however been known for a long time by administrative judges as "freedom of trade and industry." As such, it has a number of different names, which may vary depending on the context. Even if administrative judges consider – like their constitutional and European counterparts – that is it a secondary freedom, it is still a constitutional freedom.The definition and classification of "free competition" are more problematic, since such freedom covers two different aspects:- it may first be considered the respect of equal competition, as a new version of the equality principle. In this context, it can take a subjective aspect since it protects a right based on legal personality, even though its primary purpose is to protect market mechanisms.- it may also be considered as a competition system. From this perspective, it cannot be considered a public freedom but rather a goal or a requirement of general interest in the market good competitive functioning. The rights or interests of economic actors that derive from the protection of the competition system are not granted on the basis of their legal personality alone. The protection of those rights and interests in only subsidiary; interfering with free competition on the market is first and foremost prohibited. The rights and interests of economic actors in protecting the competition system have their source and guarantee in free enterprise. This freedom gives legal and natural persons the right to access and to run a business. Free competition ensures and reinforces the effectiveness of these two fundamental rights

Diese Arbeit bietet eine solide theoretische Grundlage zu Philanthropie und religiös motivierten Spendenaktivitäten und deren Einfluss auf Wohltätigkeitstrends, Entwicklungszusammenarbeit und einer auf dem Gedanken der sozialen Gerechtigkeit beruhenden Philanthropie. Untersucht werden dafür die Strukturen religiös motivierte Spenden, für die in der islamischen Tradition die Begriffe „zakat“, „Waqf“ oder im Plural auch „awqaf-“ oder „Sadaqa“ verwendet werden, der christliche Begriff dafür lautet „tithes“ oder „ushour“. Aufbauend auf diesem theoretischen Rahmenwerk analysiert die qualitative und quantitative Feldstudie auf nationaler Ebene, wie die ägyptische Öffentlichkeit Philanthropie, soziale Gerechtigkeit, Menschenrechte, Spenden, Freiwilligenarbeit und andere Konzepte des zivilgesellschaftlichen Engagements wahrnimmt. Um eine umfassende und repräsentative Datengrundlage zu erhalten, wurden 2000 Haushalte, 200 zivilgesellschaftliche Organisationen erfasst, sowie Spender, Empfänger, religiöse Wohltäter und andere Akteure interviewt. Die so gewonnen Erkenntnisse lassen aussagekräftige Aufschlüsse über philanthropische Trends zu. Erstmals wird so auch eine finanzielle Einschätzung und Bewertung der Aktivitäten im lokalen Wohltätigkeitsbereich möglich, die sich auf mehr als eine Billion US-Dollar beziffern lassen. Die Erhebung weist nach, dass gemessen an den Pro-Kopf-Aufwendungen die privaten Spendenaktivitäten weitaus wichtiger sind als auswärtige wirtschaftliche Hilfe für Ägypten. Das wiederum lässt Rückschlüsse zu, welche Bedeutung lokale Wohltätigkeit erlangen kann, wenn sie richtig gesteuert wird und nicht wie bislang oft im Teufelskreis von ad-hoc-Spenden oder Hilfen von Privatperson an Privatperson gefangen ist. Die Studie stellt außerdem eine Verbindung her zwischen lokalen Wohltätigkeits-Mechanismen, die meist auf religiösen und kulturellen Werten beruhen, und modernen Strukturen, wie etwa Gemeinde-Stiftungen oder Gemeinde-„waqf“, innerhalb derer die Spenden eine nachhaltige Veränderung bewirken können. Daher bietet diese Arbeit also eine umfassende wissenschaftliche Grundlage, die nicht nur ein besseres Verständnis, sondern auch den nachhaltiger Aus- und Aufbau lokaler Wohltätigkeitsstrukturen in Ägypten ermöglicht. Zentral ist dabei vor allem die Rolle lokaler, individueller Spenden, die beispielsweise für Stiftungen auf der Gemeindeebene eingesetzt, wesentlich zu einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung beitragen könnten – und das nicht nur in Ägypten, sondern in der gesamten arabischen Region. Als konkretes Ergebnis dieser Arbeit, wurde ein innovatives Modell entwickelt, dass neben den wissenschaftlichen Daten das Konzept der „waqf“ berücksichtigt. Der Wissenschaftlerin und einem engagierten Vorstand ist es auf dieser Grundlage gelungen, die Waqfeyat al Maadi Community Foundation (WMCF) zu gründen, die nicht nur ein Modell für eine Bürgerstiftung ist, sondern auch das tradierte Konzept der „waqf“ als praktikable und verbürgte Wohlstätigkeitsstruktur sinnvoll weiterentwickelt.
This work provides a solid theoretical base on philanthropy, religious giving (Islamic zakat, ‘ushour, Waqf -plural: awqaf-, Sadaqa and Christian tithes or ‘ushour), and their implications on giving trends, development work, social justice philanthropy. The field study (quantitative and qualitative) that supports the theoretical framework reflects at a national level the Egyptian public’s perceptions on philanthropy, social justice, human rights, giving and volunteering and other concepts that determine the peoples’ civic engagement. The statistics cover 2000 households, 200 Civil Society Organizations distributed all over Egypt and interviews donors, recipients, religious people and other stakeholders. The numbers reflect philanthropic trends and for the first time provide a monetary estimate of local philanthropy of over USD 1 Billion annually. The survey proves that the per capita share of philanthropy outweighs the per capita share of foreign economic assistance to Egypt, which implies the significance of local giving if properly channeled, and not as it is actually consumed in the vicious circle of ad-hoc, person to person charity. In addition, the study relates local giving mechanisms derived from religion and culture to modern actual structures, like community foundations or community waqf that could bring about sustainable change in the communities. In sum, the work provides a comprehensive scientific base to help understand- and build on local philanthropy in Egypt. It explores the role that local individual giving could play in achieving sustainable development and building a new wave of community foundations not only in Egypt but in the Arab region at large. As a tangible result of this thesis, an innovative model that revives the concept of waqf and builds on the study’s results was created by the researcher and a dedicated board of trustees who succeeded in establishing Waqfeyat al Maadi Community Foundation (WMCF) that not only introduces the community foundation model to Egypt, but revives and modernizes the waqf as a practical authentic philanthropic structure.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2004.
Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 93-98). Also available online via the University of Tennessee Electronic Theses and Dissertations website (http://web.utk.edu/~thesis/etd.shtml).

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geospatial Technologies
Electric aviation is being developed as a new mode of transportation for the urban areas of the future. This requires an urban air space management that considers these aircraft and restricts the vehicles’ flight routes from passing nofly areas. Flight routes need to be determined that avoid the no-fly areas and are also optimally planned in regard to minimize the flight time, energy consumption and added noise. The no-fly areas and the flight routes can be best modelled as three-dimensional geographical objects. The problem of finding a good flight route that suits all three criteria is hard and requires an optimization technique. Yet, no study exists for optimizing 3D-routes that are represented as geographical objects while avoiding three-dimensional restricted areas. The research gap is overcome by optimizing the 3D-routes with the multi-criteria optimization technique called Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (II).We applied the optimization on the study area of Manhattan (New York City) and for two representatives of different electrical aircraft, the Lilium Jet and the Ehang 184. Special procedures are proposed in the optimization process to incorporate the chosen geographical representations. We included a seeding procedure for initializing the first flight routes, repair methods for invalid flight routes and a mutation technique that relocates points along a sine curve. The resulting flight routes are compromise solutions for the criteria flight time, energy emission and added noise. Compared to a least distance path, the optimized flight routeswere improved for all three objectives. The lowest observed improvementwas a noise reduction by 36% for the Ehang 184. The highest improvement was an energy consumption reduction by 90% for the Lilium Jet. The proposed representation caused high computation times, which lead to other limitations, e.g. a missing uncertainty analysis.With the proposed methods, we achieved to optimize 3D-routes with multiple objectives and constraints. A reproducibility self-assessment1 resulted in 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 (input data, preprocessing, methods, computational environment, results).

Dissertação de mestrado em Direito dos Negócios, Europeu e Transnacional
This thesis shows that taxes are frequently a foe but also an ally of competition. Traditionally, both the legal doctrine and economic theory see taxes as an obstacle to competition. The imposition of a tax affects the supply and demand and therefore interferes with the normal balance of the market. Custom duties and tax aids are basic examples of how taxes can restrict competition. In the European context, the lack of tax coordination in the internal market is another factor that contributes to distort competition considering that it obliges European firms to compete under different rules and involves high compliance costs. These and other situations where taxes affect competition will be analysed in this study. Despite of the obstacles that taxes often represent to competition, the author believes that taxes must also be regarded as an ally to the extent that they can foster competition as well as be used to correct serious market failures, some of the most important purposes of competition policy. That is the case e.g., of taxes that foster competition in monopolistic markets, patent boxes and even environmental taxes. Through these and other examples the author will try to sustain that the negative and the positive effects that taxes have on competition are two sides of the same coin. As taxes are more often a foe than an ally, it is necessary from a competition policy perspective to eradicate the obstacles that taxes create for competition. Therefore in this work the author contributes with a list of recommendations for the EU policymakers, hoping that in the future they will be reflected in European tax law.
Esta tese demonstra que os impostos são frequentemente um inimigo, mas também um aliado da concorrência. Tradicionalmente, não só a doutrina jurídica mas também a teoria económica, vêm os impostos como um obstáculo à concorrência. A imposição de um imposto interfere com o normal funcionamento do mercado, afectanto a oferta e a procura, uma vez que aumenta os preços do mercado. Impostos alfandegários e auxílios fiscais são exemplos básicos de como os impostos podem restringir a concorrência. No contexto Europeu, a falta de coordenação fiscal no mercado interno é outro factor que contribui para a distorção da concorrência, considerando que obriga as empresas europeias a competir sob diferentes regras e envolve elevados custos de cumprimento. Estas e outras situações em que os impostos afectam a concorrência serão analisados neste estudo. Apesar dos obstáculos que os impostos frequentemente representam para a concorrência, o autor acredita que os impostos devem também ser considerados um aliado, na medida em que eles podem fomentar a concorrência, assim como ser utilizados para corrigir graves falhas de mercado, alguns dos principais objectivos da política da concorrência. Esse é o caso, por exemplo, de impostos que fomentam concorrência em mercados monopolistas, regimes fiscais próprios para direitos de propriedade intelectual e até mesmo impostos ambientais. Através destes e de outros exemplos, o autor irá tentar sustentar que os efeitos negativos e positivos que os impostos têm na concorrência são dois lados da mesma moeda. Uma vez que os impostos são mais frequentemente um inimigo do que um aliado, é necessário, de uma perspectiva da política da concorrência, eliminar os obstáculos que os impostos criam para a concorrência. Portanto, neste trabalho o autor contribui com uma lista de recomendações para os decisores políticos da UE, na expectativa de que no futuro elas estejam reflectidas no direito fiscal europeu.

Dissertação de Mestrado em Energia para a Sustentabilidade apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra
O consumo de energia final no sector residencial em Portugal tem aumentado desde há duas décadas, contra a tendência da maioria dos países da União Europeia. A actual legislação portuguesa sobre o desempenho térmico dos edifícios (RCCTE) também considera os aspectos da Qualidade do Ar Interior (QAI). A taxa mínima regulamentar é de 0,6 renovações horárias mas persiste a incerteza da sua magnitude nos edifícios novos e existentes. Devido aos esforços para melhorar o isolamento da envolvente exterior dos edifícios residenciais, a renovação do ar interior tornou-se um mecanismo relevante de dissipação de energia. Pretende-se a avaliação das taxas de infiltração de ar no sector residencial, em condições de ventilação natural, para uma melhor caracterização do parque habitacional e para a delineação de estratégias de melhoria do desempenho energético dos edifícios e de poupança de energia. Realizaram-se várias medições de campo em 20 residências do Distrito do Porto, em condições de ocupação regular, utilizando as técnicas transientes do método dos gases traçadores e o CO2 metabólico dos residentes como gás traçador. As taxas de infiltração de ar obtidas variaram entre 0,15h-1 e 0,46h-1. Para a amostra estudada, as taxas regulamentares actuais de renovação do ar variam entre 0,87h-1 e 1,2h-1, e entre 0,3h-1 e 2,65h-1 no futuro regulamento. Neste último, algumas das habitações de uma só fachada não cumprem a nova taxa mínima regulamentar (0,4h-1) por inibirem a ventilação cruzada. As restantes não cumprem a taxa de referência do novo regulamento (0,6h-1) por se considerarem muito permeáveis ao ar mas verifica-se uma sobrestimação da pressão dinâmica do vento nas fachadas. Não se obteve qualquer correlação com a extensão linear das caixilharias, possivelmente devido à sua fraca permeabilidade ao ar. Excepto em três habitações, as concentrações máxima absolutas de CO2 interiores são inferiores a 1500ppmv apesar de mais de metade das habitações não cumprir os caudais de referência de ar novo por ocupante (30m3.h-1 para salas de estar e quartos de edifícios residenciais, definidos no Regulamento dos Sistemas Energéticos de Climatização em Edifícios-RSECE). Considera-se haver condições ideais para a promoção e implementação de soluções inovadoras de ventilação natural controlada baseadas em critérios exigenciais definidos pelos ocupantes residenciais, embora também seja necessária uma pesquisa sobre a QAI percepcionada através de métodos indirectos.
Final energy use in households in Portugal has been increasing for the last two decades, against the tendency in most EU countries. The current Portuguese regulation on the thermal performance of buildings (RCCTE) also considers Indoor Air Quality aspects (IAQ). The regulatory minimum infiltration rate is 0,6 air exchanges per hour but some uncertainty persists about its magnitude in the existing and newly built houses. Due to the efforts carried out to better insulate the envelopes of buildings, the indoor air renovation became a relevant mechanism of energy dissipation. The aim of this study is the assessment of air infiltration rates in the naturally ventilated residential buildings in order to design the strategies to improve energy performance and promote energy savings. Several series of trials were performed to measure the infiltration rate at 20 dwellings in the Oporto District, under regular occupation, using the tracer gas method by the metabolic CO2 of the residents as tracer gas. The obtained air infiltration rates varied between 0,15h-1 and 0,46h-1. For the studied sample, the regulatory air change rates rates vary between 0,87h-1 and 1,2h-1 and between 0,3h-1 and 2,65h-1 in the current and the future regulation, respectively. In the last one, some dwellings with a single facade do not meet the new minimum regulatory rate (0,4h-1) because they inhibit the cross ventilation. The others do not meet the reference air change rate of the future regulation (0,6h-1) because they are considered little airtight but there is an overestimation of the wind dynamic pressure on the facades. There is no correlation between the obtained infiltration rates and the window frame length factor, possibly due to its good air tightness. Except in three dwellings, the maximum indoor CO2 concentrations were lower than 1500ppmv, although more than half of the dwellings do not reach the reference fresh air flow rate per occupant (30m3.h-1 for living rooms and bedrooms in residential buildings, defined in the Regulation of Energy Systems for Climate Control in Buildings - RSECE). There are ideal conditions for the promotion and implementation of innovative solutions about demand controlled natural ventilation applied to the residential buildings, set up by their occupant’s requirements, although also a post-occupancy survey on the perceived IAQ through indirect methods is required.

This collection of short stories spans subjects and characters from all around this world and the next. From Himalayan moth girls to swamp princesses and alligator wrestlers, The Ballad of Sparrowfoot offers a unique glimpse inside real and imagined communities and the people who live there. Search for pirate treasure on a magical island, join the cast of fairy tale princesses being raised in a convent, and experience the tribulations of the a bird-footed girl in Louisiana as she searches for her genealogical roots.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Engenharia Civil apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
Hoje em dia, devido às maiores necessidades de conforto térmico exigidas pelos utilizadores dos edifícios, existe uma maior preocupação pela redução das perdas energéticas dos mesmos. Uma das medidas de melhoria consiste em diminuir as infiltrações de ar da envolvente e, consequentemente, aumentar a estanquidade dos edifícios. Porém, aumentar a estanquidade dos edifícios conduz a uma degradação da qualidade do ar interior (QAI). De modo a encontrar um ponto de equilíbrio entre a eficiência energética o conforto térmico e a QAI, começaram a ser introduzidos sistemas de ventilação natural que aumentam as taxas de renovação de ar e ventilam o edifício de forma controladaMesmo com os avanços tecnológicos dos sistemas de ventilação, estimar a taxa de ventilação do edifício é complexo, pois esta depende de parâmetros que são variáveis ao longo do tempo e devido às incertezas associadas com o desempenho das várias componentes relacionadas com a ventilação. Assim sendo, é importante analisar de entre os vários parâmetros, quais os que têm mais influência na ventilação e, através de uma campanha experimental, caraterizar componentes e dispositivos que têm impacto na estimativa da ventilação natural dos edifícios através de ensaios laboratoriais segundo normas referenciadas. Os parâmetros analisados incluem variáveis tais como a região, classe de exposição ao vento, presença de obstáculos, localização da fração no prédio, classe de permeabilidade ao ar das janelas, etc. A campanha experimental compreende ensaios de determinação de caudais de ar de aberturas fixas com diferentes secções, numa abertura com uma grelha fixa instalada e em duas portas (nomeadamente com grelhas acopladas). Inclui uma parte em que se avalia os equipamentos utilizados. Avaliou-se também o impacto da incerteza de medições, nomeadamente de grelhas fixas e portas e janelas, na estimativa das taxas de renovações horárias de edifícios.
Nowadays, due to the bigger thermal needs required by users of buildings, there has been a greater demand for the reduction of energy losses in buildings. One of the solutions is to reduce the air leakage of the envelope and, consequently, increase the airtightness of buildings. However, increasing the tightness of buildings leads to a deterioration of indoor air quality, IAQ, which brings several problems for the occupants and to the building itself.To find a balance between energy efficiency, thermal comfort and IAQ, natural ventilation systems were developed to increase the air renewal rates and to ventilate the building without compromising the airtightness of buildings. But even with the advances of the ventilation systems, estimating the rate of ventilation of the building as a whole is a difficult and complex process because it depends on parameters that are not constant throughout the year and due to the uncertainties associated with the performance of various components related to ventilation. It is necessary then, through experimental campaign, characterize components and devices that have an impact on the estimate of the natural ventilation of buildings through laboratory tests according to referenced standards. The parameters analyzed include variables such as region, wind exposure class, the presence of obstacles, location of the building, air permeability class of windows, etc.The experimental campaign comprises tests for determination of air flow rates of fixed openings with different sections, in an opening with a fixed grid installed and of two doors (in particular with coupled grids). Includes a part on which evaluates equipment used.Also evaluated the impact of uncertainty of measurements, in particular of fixed grilles and doors and windows, in the estimation of hourly rates of renewals of buildings.

This study emanates from the worldwide issue of climate change, as well as the need for all nations to make an effort to reduce their carbon emissions and move towards greener economies. It delves into South Africa's current command-and-control environmental enforcement regime and highlights the pitfalls that allow major air polluters to avoid sanction of any form in many instances. This poor environmental enforcement and compliance effectively means that South Africa is unlikely to be capable of meeting targets set under international agreements. The study confirms that environmental enforcement is inadequately addressed in South Africa. This is attributable to the inherent shortcomings of command-and-control approaches, including that they are inflexible and offer few incentives for firms to modify behaviour to reduce emissions. Poor enforcement of environmental legislation results in negative externalities caused by air pollution being borne by people who did not create such pollution. The study therefore advocates the use of market-based mechanisms as an alternative to traditional command-and-control approaches to environmental enforcement. In light of the South African government's recent publication of the Draft Carbon Tax Bill, carbon taxes as a subset of market-based environmental enforcement mechanisms have the potential to better enforce the polluter pays principle. Mexico, arguably the most forward-thinking developing nation in terms of climate change mitigation, has taken numerous steps towards meeting international commitments, including the implementation of a carbon tax. While South Africa's proposed carbon tax does differ from Mexico's in some respects, the basic premise remains the same and some comparisons can be made in this regard, with accompanying lessons to be learned. Such lessons include that it is imperative that the carbon tax must be set at a high enough rate to meet international commitments whilst at the same time avoiding adverse economic effects, maintaining social welfare and stabilising economic output levels. The proposed carbon tax, while unable to achieve this on its own, is a good place to start and should be utilised in conjunction with the Draft Climate Change Bill to effectively and efficaciously bring about the required change. The proposed carbon tax undoubtedly has the potential to better hold major air polluters responsible for their CO2 and other GHG emissions.
Private Law
LL. M.

Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Civil
Atualmente, o consumo de energia, a nível mundial, é bastante elevado, o que faz com que haja uma crescente necessidade de recursos energéticos. Sendo estes, em grande parte, dependentes de fontes de energia não renováveis, originam consequências nefastas para o ambiente. Posto isto, nos anos 1970, deu-se a primeira crise energética a nível mundial, levando a uma consciencialização da necessidade de reduzir os consumos energéticos. Essa necessidade, trouxe consequências diretas na qualidade do ambiente interior nos edifícios, uma vez que, conduziu ao aumento da estanquidade ao ar da envolvente destes e, consequentemente, a redução da taxa de renovação de ar. Posto isto, a presente dissertação avaliou a evolução das necessidades energéticas e relacionou as taxas de renovação de ar, de acordo com a regulamentação térmica nacional, ou seja, o RCCTE:1990, o RCCTE:2006 e o REH:2013, sendo estes regulamentos fundamentais para assegurar a qualidade do ar interior e o conforto térmico de edifícios residenciais. Para a realização deste estudo, foram analisados três edifícios de habitação unifamiliar, representativos dos edifícios abrangidos pelos três regulamentos anteriormente referidos. Do estudo realizado, foi possível concluir-se que, em Portugal, tem existido uma grande evolução na regulamentação térmica, sendo esta cada vez mais exigente. Com os resultados obtidos nesta dissertação, verificou-se que, desde 1990 até aos dias de hoje, as necessidades energéticas dos edifícios têm vindo a diminuir. Isto deve-se ao maior nível de isolamento térmico e estanquidade ao ar da envolvente, o que permite que estes reduzam as trocas de energia com o exterior. Apesar dos edifícios serem termicamente eficientes, a maior estanquidade ao ar faz com que as taxas de renovação de ar no seu interior sejam menores, podendo desta forma comprometer a qualidade do ar interior.
At present, world energy consumption is quite high, which makes the growing need for energy resources indispensable. Since they are largely dependent on non-renewable energy sources, they have harmful consequences for the environment. That said, in the 1970s, the world's first energy crisis took place, leading to an awareness of the need to reduce energy consumption. This necessity has had direct consequences on the quality of the indoor environment in buildings since it has led to an increase in the air tightness of the envelope and, consequently, the reduction of the air change rate. Thus, the present work evaluated the evolution of energy needs and related air change rates, according to the Portuguese thermal regulation, that is, the RCCTE:1990, the RCCTE:2006 and the REH:2013, that aimed to ensure the indoor air quality and the thermal comfort of residential buildings. In order to carry out this study, three single-family buildings, representative of the buildings built during the three previously mentioned regulations, were analysed. From the study carried out, it was possible to conclude that, in Portugal, there has been a significant evolution in the thermal regulation, these being more and more demanding. With the results obtained in this work, it was possible to verify that, from 1990 to the present, the buildings’ energy needs have been reduced. This is due to the increased thermal insulation levels and airtightness of the envelopes, which allows the reduction on the heat exchange through the envelope. Although the more thermally efficient buildings, the higher air tightness means that the air change rates are lower, which could compromise the indoor air quality.

Diplomová práce přináší příspěvek k problematice inspirace historické prózy devatenáctého století odbornou dějepisnou literaturou. Jejím úkolem je zhodnocení provázanosti Palackého husitské koncepce s vybranými dvěma povídkami Josefa Kajetána Tyla, jejichž děj je situován do první poloviny patnáctého století v Čechách. První část diplomové práce uvádí stručnou charakteristiku obou autorů a jejich tvorby s historickou tematikou. Následující teoretická kapitola je věnována pohledu na husitství v devatenáctém století. Druhá část práce je zaměřena prakticky, neboť vedle srovnání výkladu dějin oběma autory také obsahuje subjektivní interpretaci literárních kvalit postav a okolností, jež si Tyl domýšlí.