Academic literature on the topic 'Aid Relief Workers'

Aid workers operating in war zones are susceptible to mental health problems that could develop into stress and acute traumatic stress. This study examined the relationships between burnout, job satisfaction (compassion satisfaction), secondary traumatic stress (compassion fatigue), and distress in 53 Sudanese and international aid workers in Darfur (mean age = 31.6 years). Measures used were the Professional Quality of Life Questionnaire (ProQOL; Stamm, 2005), the Relief Worker Burnout Questionnaire (Ehrenreich, 2001), and the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg & Williams, 1991). Results showed that burnout was positively related to general distress and secondary traumatic stress, and negatively related to compassion satisfaction. Sudanese aid workers reported higher burnout and secondary traumatic stress than did international workers. Results are discussed in light of previous findings. It was concluded that certain conditions might increase aid workers' psychological suffering and relief organizations need to create positive work climates through equipping aid workers with adequate training, cultural orientation, and psychological support services.

When social scientists enumerate the reasons behind the vast expansion of the U.S. welfare state during the New Deal, they commonly cite pressure from unemployed workers, the Keynesian ideology of Roosevelt's policy advisors, and the political compromise between southern congressionalDixiecrats and northern Democrats which enabled the programs that extended relief to the needy (Schlesinger 1958; Conkin 1967: chap. 3; Alston and Ferrie 1985; Goldfield 1989; Kimeldorf and Stepan-Norris 1992; Alston and Ferrie 1993; Quadagno 1994: 20–22; Fleck 1999a).While it is uncontroversial that the working class played some part in the formation of New Deal policy, it would seem that American farmers, particularly the mostly black southern tenantry, had little or no direct role in the distribution of federal relief.

Purpose – Natural disasters, occurring with increasing frequency are mobilizing humanitarian agencies to provide relief response. Current protocols that rely heavily on donated clothing as clothing aid are neither effective nor efficient. The purpose of this paper is to investigate survivors’ clothing needs during the relief phase of a natural disaster in order that current protocol might be improved. The focus is on clothing use from the perspectives of survivors who will wear it, relief workers and aid agencies that will disperse it. Design/methodology/approach – This qualitative study included needs analysis focus groups with survivors, interviews with relief aid workers and senior humanitarian agency administrators. All respondents were residents of and/or impacted by the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan. Questions focused on relief aid protocol, clothing needs and mandatory requirements for a design solution. Findings – Data gathered revealed a myriad of design priorities and participants emphasized that garments be culturally and climatically appropriate and universal in design. Based on these criteria, a prototype (named Survival Plus) was created using the Functional, Expressive and Aesthetic design framework as proposed by Lamb and Kallal (1992). Research limitations/implications – Further research may be undertaken to field test proposed Survival Plus prototype to evaluate the design and subsequent findings be incorporated in its design. Originality/value – Academic knowledge about this aspect of disaster management and response is scarce. This participatory study of clothing needs of survivors is of particular benefit to emergency preparedness initiatives and humanitarian aid providers in their delivery of clothing aid.

AbstractThis article investigates the imperial origins of international humanitarianism in the British and international relief mission to Russia during the famine of 1921–1922. The famine triggered the first large-scale international humanitarian mission beyond the scope of the European and American empires. Imperial expertise and knowledge became central to the British as well as international humanitarian response to relieve hungry Russia. From international coordination to national campaigns, British politicians and voluntary aid workers relied on imperial tools and thought. The British involvement in the relief mission to Russia thus provides a fresh perspective on the development of internationalist and nationalist humanitarian projects in the interwar period and their relationship to imperial legacies. Through humanitarian aid, Britain assumed a new role on a global stage. By retooling imperial expertise, humanitarian ethics became part of a project of global governance. Furthermore, with the advice of former colonial experts, a “mixed economy” of voluntary and state aid underlay the collaboration between voluntary and international agencies throughout the famine and after. The history of famine relief provides a case study in the emergence of humanitarian governance in the twentieth century.

Relief and development workers have not seen themselves as doing peacebuilding until recently, and have noted the negative impact of aid in many cases. This article suggests how the Local Capacities for Peace Project (LCPP) model can be informed by conflict resolution practice to create relief and development interventions leading to peace.

Abstract The previously unstudied records of the Japanese Red Cross Society (JRCS) narrate the heroic tale of the Red Cross personnel who carried out the organisation’s emergency response in the immediate aftermath of the nuclear detonations in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. Aid workers began relief activities on the day of the bombings, while many themselves were suffering from injuries and radiation sickness. They treated civilians, soldiers, and Allied POWs without discrimination. Why did these aid-givers choose to work for the Red Cross in the face of such extreme risk? Why were they willing to walk into ground zero to render aid to survivors? JRCS records make clear that, as well-trained nurses and doctors, most aid workers understood the mortal dangers they faced from radioactive poisoning. This article argues that their actions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were attributable to strict quasi-military training, which transcended the ideology of the JRCS as an imperialist institution. Their emergency responses demonstrate the extent to which Red Cross workers had internalised their professional mission as medical aid-givers and eventually emerged as exemplars of the humanitarian relief ideal.

AbstractIntroduction:In the aftermath of the Earthquake and Tsunami in Southeast Asia, many relief organizations sent medical aid to affected areas.Objective:The aim of this paper is to examine the mix of healthcare workers resulting from an influx of aid to Meulaboh, Indonesia, and how they met local healthcare needs.Methods:Data were collected from the registration center for relief organizations in Meulaboh and daily hospital meetings on healthcare needs and available workers.Results:Prior to the Tsunami, there were 14 doctors and 120 nurses in the hospital. By the third week after the Tsunami, there were 21 surgeons performing 10 surgeries daily, and >20 non-surgical doctors in the 90-bed hospital. There were <70 nurses available during the month after the Tsunami, which was insufficient for the needs of the hospital. In the town of Meulaboh, the number of doctors exceeded the number of nurses, while public health workers comprised <5% of the healthcare workers.Conclusion:An initial disaster-coordinating agency, formed by the United Nations (United Nations) in conjunction with affected countries, should link actively with relief organizations. This will optimize help in meeting local needs, and direct relief to where it is needed most.

AbstractIntroduction:Many organizations rally to areas to provide assistance to a population during a disaster. Little is known about the ability of the materials and services provided to meet the actual needs and demands of the affected population. This study sought to identify the perceptions of representatives of the international organizations providing this aid, the international workers involved with the delivery of this aid, the workers who were employed locally by the international organizations, the recipients, and the local authorities. This study sought to identify the perceptions of these personnel relative to the adequacies of the supplies in meeting the needs and demands of the population during and following the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina.Methods:Structured interviews were conducted with representatives of international organizations and workers providing aid and with locally employed workers, recipients of the assistance, and the authorities of the areas involved. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to assist in the analysis of the data.Results:Eighty-eight interviews were conducted. A total of 246 organizations were identified as providing assistance within the area, and 54% were involved with health-related activities including: 1) the provision of medications; 2) public health measures; and 3) medical equipment or parts for the same. Internationals believed that a higher proportion of the needs were being met by the assistance (73.4 ±16.4%) than did the nationals (52.1 ±23.3%; p <0.001). All groups believed that approximately 50% of the demands of the affected population were being addressed. However, 87% of the international interviewees believed that the affected population was requesting more than it actually needed.While 27% of the international participants believed that ≥25% of what was provided was unusable, 80% of the recipients felt that ≥25% of the provisions were not usable. Whereas two-thirds of the international participants believed that ≥25% of the demands for assistance by the affected community could not be justified, only 20% of the recipients and authorities believed ≥25% of the demands were unjustified.Conclusions::Many organizations are involved in the provision of medical assistance during a disaster. However, international organizations and workers believe their efforts are more effective than do the recipients.

This thesis presents how humanitarian aid workers were attracted, motivated, recruited, and prepared for fieldwork, and how they reported their work experience directly from the field and when they returned home. Data were derived from interviews with experienced aid workers, focus group discussions with presumptive aid workers, analysis of letters from aid workers in the field on MSFs homepages in Europe, and from interviews with recruitment officers at some of the main humanitarian organisations. Health professionals were attracted by the positive images of humanitarian action. They wished to work in teams with like-minded people, and to make a difference in the world. However, this image was not supported by the recruitment officers, or experienced aid workers, who described a complex reality in humanitarian action. The experienced aid workers instead had realised they learned more than they contributed. The recruitment system for relief workers would benefit from a more holistic approach, where personalities of the aid workers are more in focus. More time must be spent with the applicants, both recruited and returning aid workers, in order to improve the system. A socialisation approach could help identify the right personnel and to motivate current personnel to continue.

Aid relief workers active in complex humanitarian emergencies often develop mental health issues, due to the complex context of these settings and several workplace stressors. In order to cope with these problems, aid relief workers rely on organizational preparation and support, and social support. However, there is a gap between the needs for and availability of preparation and support, which has negative effects on their mental health. This qualitative study provides a phenomenological review of the experiences of aid relief workers active in these complex humanitarian emergencies, with regard to mental health issues, levels of preparation, organizational support and social support. For this study, interviews with five aid relief workers in different fields were conducted to research the effects of working in complex humanitarian emergencies on their mental health, and how preparation and support, or the lack thereof, influences their psychological resilience. The results show that organizational preparation and support, and social support have a positive impact on the psychological resilience of aid relief workers. However, the availability of and access to adequate preparation and support often lacks, which has negative consequences for their mental health. Therefore, this study provides recommendations to humanitarian NGO’s to improve their mental health support, and explores how the psychological resilience of aid relief workers in complex humanitarian emergencies can be improved.

This dissertation explores the changing organization of work in the transnational humanitarian aid sector. I specifically examine aid localization: a sector-wide strategy to increase the role of local labor in humanitarian aid projects. What does the aid sector’s localization look like in practice? What are the effects of localization on local labor? To answer these questions, I conducted a qualitative study of aid operations in Jordan, a major global aid hub. I find that localization creates a particular structure of work in which tasks, resources, and expectations are formally and informally organized and premised upon particular meanings associated with ‘the local’ as a category. This structure subsequently creates new forms of precarious labor and challenging work conditions for national employees under the framing of humanitarian aid, and also shapes how workers make sense of their own positions within the aid labor hierarchy. These effects are indicative of the tensions and contradictions embedded in conceptualizations of ‘the local’ in the aid sector. It is these tensions and ambiguities that subsequently become sources of productivity for aid employers: a space to generate new forms and relations of work that ensure successful project outcomes. I subsequently contend that localization ruptures and reinscribes Global North-Global South inequalities through ambivalent constructions of who local workers are, and how they should and can provide value to their organizations.

Even though peeing is something we all do several times a day, it is still a taboo subject. From an early age, we are taught to master our urinary urges and to use decent words for this most necessary physiological activity. This paradox has not gone unnoticed by artists through the ages. For this Relief, Much Thanks! Peeing in Art is a journey through time and space, stopping along the way to look at many different art forms. The reader-viewer will see how peeing figures - men and women, young and old, human and angelic - have been depicted over the centuries. You will be amazed to discover how often, even in famous works of art, you can find a man quietly peeing in a corner or a putto who is 'irrigating' some grassy field. A detail you will never have seen before, but one that you will never forget when confronted with those same art works in future! Artists have portrayed pee-ers in a variety of different ways and for a variety of different reasons: serious, frivolous, humorous, to make a protest, to make a statement... Whatever their purpose, these works of art always intrigue, not least because of their secret messages and symbolic references, which sometimes can only be unravelled by an expert - like the author of this book. The extensive background information about the artists and their work also gives interesting insights into the often complex origins of the different art forms. In short, a fascinating voyage of discovery awaits you!

AbstractSince the Oregon Death with Dignity Act was adopted in 1997, an increasing number of people have requested euthanasia, showing that life has become unbearable for them. However, a person who expresses the wish to die by euthanasia is not saying that he/she prefers death to life, but rather that death seems preferable to life under the actual circumstances. In order to respond to a person’s suffering, we need to understand the nature of that suffering, as they experience it. Suffering may be physical, psychological, relational, spiritual, or existential; frequently these different aspects overlap or intermingle, particularly in a serious illness. Euthanasia does not improve life—it ends it by giving death. But when the response involves listening and accepting the person in his/her present situation, it becomes possible to work together with the person to see what can be done to help reduce suffering. We can look for means of relief for the person’s individual, unique suffering, in partnership with the patient and his/her family and friends, using the resources of both medical knowledge and our shared humanity. The willingness to walk on this shared path with the sick person is in itself an affirmation of his/her human dignity.

Abstract This chapter examines the changing role of humanitarian organizations in Africa’s conflict zones and how humanitarianism has become a highly contested space on the battlefield. Through an analysis of several ongoing peace operations in Africa, this chapter demonstrates how the principles of humanitarian relief have been undermined by the major powers and the UN in their pursuit of ostensibly noble objectives. Organizations and donors have become complicit in compromising humanitarianism, especially in multi-mandated UN missions, by inserting humanitarian workers into the realm of both service delivery (associated with the process of building a state) and as a political tool to win “hearts and minds.” Peacebuilding will be better served, the chapter concludes, by restoring humanitarianism to its original role and ethos.

This chapter explores some of the complexities around economies of compassion and the politics of security in local spaces. On one hand, the emergence of migrant shelters demonstrates the ways local actors challenge the state and advocate for migrant rights through the creation of spaces of refuge. Yet at the same time, humanitarian aid shelters become points of contestation in local communities where migrants are feared as racialized and gendered others. The dynamics between priests, shelter workers, and local residents put into relief the ways moral imaginaries of charity, inclusion and justice are shaped by everyday economic and social realities of safety and security.

This chapter examines the relationship between humanitarian assistance and long-term development goals, including outlining the World Health Organization building blocks for health systems, how they can be impacted in emergencies, and how humanitarian programming can support, rather than hinder, their development. This chapter highlights the challenges of providing effective healthcare in a resource-poor context and emphasizes mechanisms to provide assistance which consider the long-term development goals of the country. It clarifies what humanitarian healthcare workers can do to ensure effective aid that delivers immediate healthcare relief to patients, which considers connections with the existing healthcare system, and provides performance standards which can be used to guide responses.

This chapter shows how social workers saw European immigrants as culturally inept but nonetheless imagined them as “objects of reform” and so included them in their early social welfare efforts. Moreover, they became their defenders before a sometimes hostile public. They refuted assertions that southeastern European immigrants were paupers and worked to forge a competing construction, marshaling “evidence” to prove that the new immigrants were hardworking, thrifty, sober, and self-sufficient. Part of their confidence in these immigrants rested on their firm conviction that southern and eastern Europeans were capable of economic and racial assimilation. Indeed, looking around, they would have found much evidence confirming these beliefs: from high naturalization rates to growing socioeconomic mobility, all facilitated by the racial, labor, and political context in which these immigrants lived. Social workers then lobbied against national origin quotas and tried to protect European immigrants from harsh immigration and deportation laws.

This chapter examines the extent of cyclical, seasonal, and casual unemployment from 1870 to 1914, and shows that reported unemployment rates greatly understate the probability of job loss faced by manual workers. It also reveals the public and private battles over relief for the unemployed. In the 1870s, cities abruptly curtailed granting outdoor relief to able-bodied males, and beginning in 1886 the Local Government Board encouraged municipalities to establish work relief projects during downturns. However, neither municipal relief projects nor the work relief established as a result of the 1905 Unemployed Workmen Act succeeded in assisting the temporarily unemployed—most of those employed on relief works were chronically underemployed laborers.

Herbert Hoover’s America was a dismal place in 1931. The president had failed to end or even mitigate the economic crisis, which began with the stock market crash of 1929. Unemployment had spiraled out of control; the number of jobless Americans had soared from 429,000 in 1929 to more than nine million in 1931. The Hoover White House had undermined its credibility in 1929 and 1930 by erroneously predicting economic recovery. But by late summer 1931 even some of the president’s closest congressional allies were glumly admitting that the end of the Depression was not in sight. Breadlines and shantytowns—dubbed “Hoovervilles” to mock the impotent president—had spread across the nation, grim testimony to the hunger and homelessness wrought by the Great Depression. Municipalities and private charities could not keep pace with the need of millions of unemployed Americans for economic assistance. Relief workers, local officials, and liberals on Capitol Hill in August 1931 called for a special session of Congress to legislate aid for the unemployed; they warned that without federal relief dollars, the coming winter would bring widespread starvation. That same month, as their elders in Washington fretted over how to ready themselves for another year of Depression, students at the University of California at Berkeley also began to prepare for the coming year. But for Berkeley students that preparation did not include discussions of hunger, poverty, or other Depression-related problems. As the fall 1931 semester began, fraternities arid football, sororities and parties, were the talk of the campus. In its opening editorial of the semester, the Daily Californian, Berkeley’s student newspaper, gave advice to new students, making it sound as if their most serious problems would be chosing the proper Greek house and deciding whether to participate “in sports, in dramatics or publications.” The editor also informed the freshmen that they were “fortunate to have a classmate in [football] coach Bill Ingram . . . [who will] bring back another ‘Golden Era’ for California athletics.”

This chapter looks at the emergence of the perception of a “Mexican dependency problem,” which gained early traction in Los Angeles. Prior to the 1920s, social workers in the city were cautiously optimistic that Mexicans could be assimilated, and they saw relief as one step in that process. As Mexicans made greater use of relief, however, social workers' initial optimism waned. By the mid-1920s, they became convinced that Mexicans were a dependent and diseased population, lacking in thrift and ambition. They decided that their efforts at Americanizing this group had failed. Concerned that charity funds were essentially subsidizing the agricultural industry, they came to believe that Mexicans represented an illegitimate economic and social burden to “American taxpayers.” Mexicans, they concluded, were racially inassimilable after all.

Water hammer in pipelines may cause serious accident. To solve the problem, three mechanical devices — rubber tube relief valve, metal plug relief valve and pressure-surge-proof valve actuator are developed. The first two devices are for controlling the surge after water hammer occurs, the last one is for preventing it from occurring at valve. When the monitored pressure increases at a rate higher than the setting rate, or the pressure reaches the setting maximum value, the relieve valve will release liquid to constrain strong surge from water hammer. The key part of one relieve valve is a rubber tube; the other is metal valve plug. Both of the relief valves could also be used as common relief valves. The pressure-surge-proof valve actuator works on the principle of damping the movement of the valve stem at the closing end of its travel. The key part is a two-stage-damping device, which is installed onto a valve actuator. When the valve stem goes into the last part of full travel the device provide damping action in two stages to weaken the surge from valve opening or closing.

As a safety concern, pressure relief valves play important roles in protecting a pressure vessel or pressurized system. The conditions of the pressure relief valves deteriorate day after day which depend on the operating conditions of process train such as variation of pressure and temperature, containment and frequency of relieving during operation. If the deteriorative relief valves failure to operate normally as required, a catastrophic event may occur while no other protective means provided. So, to prepare a plan of inspection and maintenance with suitable intervals based on the knowledge of the relations between the conditions of pressure relief valves and plant operation parameters, is a safety strategy to plant owner. With practical inspection and maintenance works of pressure relief valves performed in a process train, this paper collects the as-received pressure relief valves test results from current inspection intervals and presents the relationships between as-received test data and operation parameters based on analysis of variation (ANOVA) and analysis of correlation. With these analyses, one can get the relationships between the decay conditions of the pressure relieve valves and their operating parameters. A site survey of as-received test results will be used as a case study and the weighting factors corresponding to the operation parameters are also presented.

The currently still active age group (aged 50–64) faces a number of difficulties with the approaching retirement age, as their ability to work and adapt quickly to changing situations are constantly losing their effectiveness. With this, of course, we do not claim that an older worker will carry out his or her work less effectively than a younger worker, as the experience gained in a particular job can balance out the performance differences stemming from age. However, as we approach the retirement age, losing your job at an older age would pose serious challenges for those who would want to return to the group of economically active workers. It is unlikely that they will find a job that matches their qualifications, as their knowledge is less up-to-date and employers would prefer young people who could be relied on in the longer term, as opposed to those who need to be replaced within a few years. These potential difficulties are revealed by the widely distributed questionnaire, which seeks to identify the motivations and preparedness of different social strata for the changing challenges of a precarious age, based on the current economic situation and living conditions of the workers. Results: Through the questionnaire survey, we were able to gain insight into how aging workers are preparing for their approaching retirement years and what steps they can take to preserve their current labour market position, as well as what opportunities they might have for returning to the labour market after losing their jobs as a result of possible redundancies. Conclusion: Due to the aging national age structure, the situation of the aging workers is becoming an increasingly widespread problem, which, if we are not able to remedy in time, then will have to count on the degradation of the employability for the examined group in the near future. This will be mainly due to the constantly deteriorating health status of the individuals and the overwhelmed health care system that needs to provide for all age groups.

The following paper describes the work originated from a University exercise drill, made during the Restoration Lab of the architecture Department of the Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II. It shows the results of a relief and metric characterisation campaign of the ‘Masseria del Gigante' (Giant’s Farmhouse) Temple, in Cumae, in the Naples province. This is a rural building from the XVIII century, built and extended by incorporating the rests of the cell of an ancient temple from the Flavian Age, located at the eastern border of Cumae lower city’s Foro, that was called “del Gigante” (of the Giant), because a large Jupiter’s bust was found in its proximities. Well known in the world of antiquarian dealers, it was pictured in many drawings and landscape paintings since the end of the XVII century and the first half of the XVIII, the Masseria Temple taken into exam has been acquired by the public domain only at the end of the 1990, so only after this period the first archaeological investigations were made. Afterwards, between 1996 and 2002, conspicuous restoration and securing works were made. Today the structure is used as a temporary deposit for archaeological findings and it’s among the buildings included in a wider restoration and re-functionalization project that has been proposed by the Campi Flegrei Archaeological Park and that is now about to start. The following research was developed from the structure’s relief made with photo-modelling techniques and it aimed to identify the construction methodologies and the degrading phenomena in place, with special regards to the identification of the ancient parts of the Temple, of those pertaining the conversion in a farmhouse and, lastly,, those realised during the aforementioned restoration works.

The main control room (MCR) ventilation system has been designed to maintain habitability of the control room envelope both under normal condition and accident condition. The system adopting dual air intakes adds one more air intake for accidents at suitable position. During accidents, the air intake with lower contamination will be selected and the other with higher contamination will be isolated, to reduce the amount of radioactive substances entering MCR extremely and enhance the habitability of MCR envelop. This paper is devoted to research on the impact of switching time interval (STI) for dual intakes on workers in main control room during accidents. As the contamination condition varies, the switching action will be happened. Switching time interval (STI) referred in this paper means the time between two switching actions. When accidents occur, the air intake will operate and switch between two intakes automatically. The action of switching will be influenced by several parameters: the meteorological conditions of the site, the response features of the monitoring instruments and the source term released to the environment after accidents. Analysis of these parameters and their sensitivity analysis are performed, which show that the ventilation system cannot afford too frequent switching actions resulted from instantaneous sudden changes of intake’s activity. That’s the reason why it is necessary to set a minimum STI which means the contamination of one intake have to be lower than the other intake and this dominant position should be kept longer than the minimum STI, if not, the switching action will not be happened. As it is essential to set a minimum STI to prevent frequent switching of system, the analysis of its impact on the atmospheric relative concentrations and the doses of the workers in main control room are performed on basis of specific site meteorological condition and the response characteristic of dose monitoring instruments. Three kinds of accident release conditions are considered, which are relief valve release, containment leakage and elevated funnel release. The atmospheric relative concentrations and the doses of the workers in MCR are evaluated for every case and compared with the dose limits. Finally an acceptable minimum STI of dual air intakes is recommended.

Heat stress is a major problem for people who work or fight in hot environments while dressed in insulated or protective apparel. Such is the case for military personnel who must wear nuclear/biological/chemical (NBC) protective clothing or HAZMAT personnel as well as civilian personnel such as industrial workers, firemen, and costumed characters in amusement or theme parks. Responding to a request in 1991 by the NAVY to develop simple and lightweight cooling garments for use beneath NBC (nuclear/biological/chemical) protective clothing, the investigators at Triangle Research and Development Corporation (TRDC) have developed PECS (Personal Environmental Control System) and COOLTECH apparel, that utilizes 3–4mm diameter macro-encapsulated phase change materials or MacroPCMs to provide 1–2 hours of comfort and relief from heat stress, while permitting the garment’s thermal recharging without refrigeration or freezers.

The paper investigates instable behavior of a poppet-type gas pressure relief valve operating at a big flow rate (more than 2 kg/s) under super critical pressure drop. Instability is experienced as noise and vibration and leads to severe damage of a seat and other elements. Significant and unsteady flow forces coupled with small inherent damping make it difficult to stabilize the system. In previous works, the analytical and experimental research was carried out to reveal the most essential factors influencing stability and dynamic properties of the valve. The impact of the pilot valve dynamics on the system behavior was studied for the purpose of obtaining required accuracy and stability in a wide range of flow rate. It was shown in some testing that unstable behavior of the main valve occurred when the pilot valve was stable. This paper considers inherent stability of the main valve in the gas flow. CFD software ANSYS FLUENT is employed to study the effect of the poppet geometry on aerodynamic lifting force and valve stability in axial and lateral direction. The results have been verified through comparison with experimental data.

The article provides information about the structure and condition of the lands of the Volzhsky municipal district of the Samara region. Gross and specific parameters of pollutants, waste water, and waste generation are shown (2014-2018). To improve the condition of land, projects are proposed to reduce emissions, waste, discharges, reduce the area of waterlogged land, audit abandoned hydraulic structures and put them on balance; organization of relief, Bank protection, anti-landslide and ravine protection works; reduction of areas of deflation-dangerous and washed away land; restoration and increase of forest cover of the territory.

Line balancing is a very resource-intensive and time consuming process which is highly reliant on the experience and expertise of a few employees. Line balancing is made even more complex due to the high level of option content in premium automobiles. The current phase of this study involves hands-on training on the automotive assembly line, precedence relationship mapping of all the tasks involved on a pilot assembly line, identification of constraints, and development of a strategy to manage option content and constraints. The second phase will include the generation of an optimal line balance through optimization on expected station utilization. The current line balancing process relies significantly on the experience level of the utility workers and team leaders. Although initially labor intensive, the precedence mapping exercise and option coding strategy will facilitate the development of a decision support system to aid the human decision-maker in making data-driven decisions about work distribution.

In Europe, tanks designed on different safety philosophies are used for transporting one and the same liquid dangerous goods (Krautwurst, 2011). Owing to this circumstance, the BAM was commissioned by the BMVBS to conduct a research project designed to analyse and assess the equipment of tanks. Furthermore in these project were researched some failure mechanism of pressure relief devices (PRD). Based on the knowledge gained, possible solutions were worked out under safety-relevant aspects that would benefit tank transport by providing a lower hazard potential. Besides looking at the mode of operation and the construction of PRV, their blow-off characteristics and total flow rate are considered from a safety engineering point of view. Based on in-depth studies, a concept for and the further approach to examinations of the failure limits of PRD, especially of spring loaded relief valves, was developed and comprehensively described in the report “The use of safety devices, particularly safety valves, on transport containers” (Pötzsch, Reich, & Jochems, 2011). The purpose of this study was to investigate failure causes of safety valves by normal modes and accidental fire heat loads. A series of investigations for different influences using safety valves for tanks were obtained. Testing vibration modes and corrosion presents some design limits. Experimental study of a pressure vessel engulfing in fire identify significant design limits. The complete set of results provides direct information of fail-safe modes and discusses the usage.

Emergency Relief (ER) is a Department of Social Services (DSS) funded program, delivered by 197 community organisations (ER Providers) across Australia, to assist people facing a financial crisis with financial/material aid and referrals to other support programs. ER has been playing this important role in Australian communities since 1979. Without ER, more people living in Australia who experience a financial crisis might face further harm such as crippling debt or homelessness. The Emergency Relief National Coordination Group (NCG) was established in April 2020 at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic to advise the Minister for Families and Social Services on the implementation of ER. To inform its advice to the Minister, the NCG partnered with the Institute for Governance at the University of Canberra to conduct research to understand the issues and challenges faced by ER Providers and Service Users in local contexts across Australia. The research involved a desktop review of the existing literature on ER service provision, a large survey which all Commonwealth ER Providers were invited to participate in (and 122 responses were received), interviews with a purposive sample of 18 ER Providers, and the development of a program logic and theory of change for the Commonwealth ER program to assess progress. The surveys and interviews focussed on ER Provider perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, future challenges, and areas of improvement for current ER provision. The trend of increasing case complexity, the effectiveness of ER service delivery models in achieving outcomes for Service Users, and the significance of volunteering in the sector were investigated. Separately, an evaluation of the performance of the NCG was conducted and a summary of the evaluation is provided as an appendix to this report. Several themes emerged from the review of the existing literature such as service delivery shortcomings in dealing with case complexity, the effectiveness of case management, and repeat requests for service. Interviews with ER workers and Service Users found that an uplift in workforce capability was required to deal with increasing case complexity, leading to recommendations for more training and service standards. Several service evaluations found that ER delivered with case management led to high Service User satisfaction, played an integral role in transforming the lives of people with complex needs, and lowered repeat requests for service. A large longitudinal quantitative study revealed that more time spent with participants substantially decreased the number of repeat requests for service; and, given that repeat requests for service can be an indicator of entrenched poverty, not accessing further services is likely to suggest improvement. The interviews identified the main strengths of ER to be the rapid response and flexible use of funds to stabilise crisis situations and connect people to other supports through strong local networks. Service Users trusted the system because of these strengths, and ER was often an access point to holistic support. There were three main weaknesses identified. First, funding contracts were too short and did not cover the full costs of the program—in particular, case management for complex cases. Second, many Service Users were dependent on ER which was inconsistent with the definition and intent of the program. Third, there was inconsistency in the level of service received by Service Users in different geographic locations. These weaknesses can be improved upon with a joined-up approach featuring co-design and collaborative governance, leading to the successful commissioning of social services. The survey confirmed that volunteers were significant for ER, making up 92% of all workers and 51% of all hours worked in respondent ER programs. Of the 122 respondents, volunteers amounted to 554 full-time equivalents, a contribution valued at $39.4 million. In total there were 8,316 volunteers working in the 122 respondent ER programs. The sector can support and upskill these volunteers (and employees in addition) by developing scalable training solutions such as online training modules, updating ER service standards, and engaging in collaborative learning arrangements where large and small ER Providers share resources. More engagement with peak bodies such as Volunteering Australia might also assist the sector to improve the focus on volunteer engagement. Integrated services achieve better outcomes for complex ER cases—97% of survey respondents either agreed or strongly agreed this was the case. The research identified the dimensions of service integration most relevant to ER Providers to be case management, referrals, the breadth of services offered internally, co-location with interrelated service providers, an established network of support, workforce capability, and Service User engagement. Providers can individually focus on increasing the level of service integration for their ER program to improve their ability to deal with complex cases, which are clearly on the rise. At the system level, a more joined-up approach can also improve service integration across Australia. The key dimensions of this finding are discussed next in more detail. Case management is key for achieving Service User outcomes for complex cases—89% of survey respondents either agreed or strongly agreed this was the case. Interviewees most frequently said they would provide more case management if they could change their service model. Case management allows for more time spent with the Service User, follow up with referral partners, and a higher level of expertise in service delivery to support complex cases. Of course, it is a costly model and not currently funded for all Service Users through ER. Where case management is not available as part of ER, it might be available through a related service that is part of a network of support. Where possible, ER Providers should facilitate access to case management for Service Users who would benefit. At a system level, ER models with a greater component of case management could be implemented as test cases. Referral systems are also key for achieving Service User outcomes, which is reflected in the ER Program Logic presented on page 31. The survey and interview data show that referrals within an integrated service (internal) or in a service hub (co-located) are most effective. Where this is not possible, warm referrals within a trusted network of support are more effective than cold referrals leading to higher take-up and beneficial Service User outcomes. However, cold referrals are most common, pointing to a weakness in ER referral systems. This is because ER Providers do not operate or co-locate with interrelated services in many cases, nor do they have the case management capacity to provide warm referrals in many other cases. For mental illness support, which interviewees identified as one of the most difficult issues to deal with, ER Providers offer an integrated service only 23% of the time, warm referrals 34% of the time, and cold referrals 43% of the time. A focus on referral systems at the individual ER Provider level, and system level through a joined-up approach, might lead to better outcomes for Service Users. The program logic and theory of change for ER have been documented with input from the research findings and included in Section 4.3 on page 31. These show that ER helps people facing a financial crisis to meet their immediate needs, avoid further harm, and access a path to recovery. The research demonstrates that ER is fundamental to supporting vulnerable people in Australia and should therefore continue to be funded by government.

This qualitative study was undertaken as part of the work of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) funded Inclusion Works programme which aims to improve inclusive employment for people with disabilities in four countries: Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, Bangladesh. When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged early in 2020 the work of this consortium programme was adapted to focus on pandemic relief and research activities, while some other planned work was not possible.

This qualitative study was undertaken as part of the work of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) funded Inclusion Works programme which aims to improve inclusive employment for people with disabilities in four countries: Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, Bangladesh. When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged early in 2020 the work of this consortium programme was adapted to focus on pandemic relief and research activities, while some other planned work was not possible.

The coronavirus pandemic has swept across a world unprepared to fight it, because countries had failed to choose policies to fight inequality. Only one in six countries assessed for the CRI Index 2020 were spending enough on health, only a third of the global workforce had adequate social protection, and in more than 100 countries at least one in three workers had no labour protection such as sick pay. As a result, many have faced death and destitution, and inequality is increasing dramatically. This third edition of the CRI Index report recommends that all governments adopt strong anti-inequality policies on public services, tax and labour rights, to radically reduce the gap between rich and poor. The international community must support them with Special Drawing Rights, debt relief and global solidarity taxes. See also the CRI Index website at www.inequalityindex.org

We measure the contribution of firm-embedded productivity to cross-country income differences. By firm-embedded productivity we refer to the components of productivity that differ across firms and that can be transferred internationally, such as blueprints, management practices, and intangible capital. Our approach relies on micro-level data on the cross-border operations of multinational enterprises (MNEs). We compare the market shares of the exact same MNE in different countries and document that they are about four times larger in developing than in high-income coun-tries. This finding indicates that MNEs face less competition in less-developed coun-tries, suggesting that firm-embedded productivity in those countries is scarce. We propose and implement a new measure of firm-embedded productivity based on this observation. We find a strong positive correlation between our measure and output per worker across countries. In our sample, differences in firm-embedded productivity account for roughly a third of the cross-country variance in output per worker.

This paper addresses COVID-19 in India, looking at how the interplay of inequality, vulnerability, and the pandemic has compounded uncertainties for poor and marginalised groups, leading to insecurity, stigma and a severe loss of livelihoods. A strict government lockdown destroyed the incomes of farmers and urban informal workers and triggered an exodus of migrant workers from Indian cities, a mass movement which placed additional pressures on the country's rural communities. Elsewhere in the country, lockdown restrictions and pandemic response have coincided with heatwaves, floods and cyclones, impeding disaster response and relief. At the same time, the pandemic has been politicised to target minority groups (such as Muslims, Dalits), suppress dissent, and undermine constitutional values. The paper focuses on how COVID-19 has intersected with and multiplied existing uncertainties faced by different vulnerable groups and communities in India who have remained largely invisible in India's development story. With the biggest challenge for government now being to mitigate the further fall of millions of people into extreme poverty, the brief also reflects on pathways for recovery and transformation, including opportunities for rural revival, inclusive welfare, and community response. This brief is based on a review of existing published and grey literature, and 23 interviews with experts and practitioners from 12 states in India, including representation from domestic and international NGOs, and local civil society organisations. It was developed for the Social Science in Humanitarian Action Platform (SSHAP) by Justin Pickard, Shilpi Srivastava, Lyla Mehta (IDS), and Mihir R. Bhatt. Some of the cases draw on ongoing research of the TAPESTRY project, which explores bottom-up transformations in marginal environments across India and Bangladesh.

This qualitative study was undertaken as part of the work of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) funded Inclusion Works programme which aims to improve inclusive employment for people with disabilities in four countries: Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, Bangladesh. When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged early in 2020 the work of this consortium programme was adapted to focus on pandemic relief and research activities, while some other planned work was not possible. The Institute of Development Studies (IDS) led a piece of qualitative research to explore the experiences and perceptions of the pandemic and related lockdowns in each country, using a narrative interview approach, which asks people to tell their stories, following up with some further questions once they have identified their priorities to talk about. 10 people with disabilities who were involved in Inclusion Works in each country were purposively selected to take part, each being invited to have two interviews with an interval of one or two months in between, in order to capture changes in their situation over time. The 10 interviewees had a range of impairments, were gender balanced and were various ages, as well as having differing living and working situations.

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.

Effective programs that avert new HIV infections among sex workers and their partners, and hence the general population, are critical components of national HIV-prevention strategies. Prevention efforts have frequently relied on interventions that reach members of these vulnerable groups as individuals, such as condom promotion and STI management. Now, many researchers and program implementers are increasingly turning to “environmental-structural” interventions that address the physical, social, and political contexts in which individual behavior takes place. A recent Horizons study conducted jointly with two Dominican NGOs—Centro de Orientación e Investigación Integral and Centro de Promoción e Solidaridad Humana—and the National Program for the Control of STDs and AIDS assessed the impact of two environmental-structural models in reducing HIV-related risk among female sex workers in the Dominican Republic and compared their cost-effectiveness. As detailed in this brief, the models, built on years of experience gained from sex worker peer education programs, drew from the strengths of both community solidarity and government policy initiatives and engaged community members in both program and policy development.