Journal articles on the topic 'Agriculture – Italy – 20th Century'
To see the other types of publications on this topic, follow the link: Agriculture – Italy – 20th Century.
Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles
Consult the top 50 journal articles for your research on the topic 'Agriculture – Italy – 20th Century.'
Next to every source in the list of references, there is an 'Add to bibliography' button. Press on it, and we will generate automatically the bibliographic reference to the chosen work in the citation style you need: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver, etc.
You can also download the full text of the academic publication as pdf and read online its abstract whenever available in the metadata.
Browse journal articles on a wide variety of disciplines and organise your bibliography correctly.
1
Ferrario, Viviana. "Learning from Agricultural Heritage? Lessons of Sustainability from Italian “Coltura Promiscua”." Sustainability 13, no. 16 (August 9, 2021): 8879. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13168879.
Full textAbstract:
Agricultural heritage is gaining increasing importance as a repository of lessons to be learned for more sustainable agriculture in the future. Among the forgotten European agricultural heritage, the Italian grapevine “coltura promiscua,” which integrates agroforestry and intercropping, survives only in a few regions in the form of relics. Based on geographic, historic, agricultural literature published on the subject between 16th and 20th century with a focus on North eastern Italy, on previous fieldwork research, and on the analysis of recent candidacies to the Italian National register, this contribution identifies five principles that can be considered today as lessons of sustainability in agriculture: vertical intensification, spatial multifunctionality, resilience through crop diversity, labour-intensive production, personal/familiar/community attachment. Taken together, these principles describe a new rationality that seems to adapt to changed global and local conditions and can suggest new strategies to design new sustainable agricultural systems. The research suggests that sustainability principles can be found both by studying relics of agriculture heritage, and by carefully reading the literature that described them in the past, well before the concept of sustainability itself appeared in the scientific debate. Finally, this paper highlights some difficulties in practicing these lessons in modern agroforestry systems and suggests directions for future research.
2
Andreoni, Luca. "Oilseed Cakes in Italy and France: Opportunities and Difficulties of a Market (late 19th and first half of the 20th Century)." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 62, no. 1 (April 30, 2021): 129–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2021-0006.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract This paper addresses the trade and commercialisation of oilseed cakes (residues from the extraction of oils) and press cakes in Italy and France during the last decades of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. It tries to demonstrate that the diffusion of oilseed cakes for livestock, a distinctive sign of the intensification of breeding that involved all of Europe, or as organic fertilisers, took place at the crossroads of multiple dynamics. Trade policy of the states, industrial choices and development paths of the different rural worlds help to explain the variations in timing, spatial scale and methods used. The spread of oilseed cakes confirms that the modernisation of European agriculture happened on different and interrelated fronts.
3
Bazzocchi, G., F. Casadei, and G. Gianquinto. "Green spaces in Italy from subsistence agriculture to public parks: the city of Bologna from 13th to 20th century." Acta Horticulturae, no. 1279 (June 2020): 39–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2020.1279.6.
Full text
4
De Vita, Pasquale, Loredana Matteu, Anna Maria Mastrangelo, Natale Di Fonzo, and Luigi Cattivelli. "Effects of breeding activity on durum wheat traits breed in Italy during the 20th century." Italian Journal of Agronomy 2, no. 4s (December 21, 2007): 451. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/ija.2007.4s.451.
Full text
5
Limoncelli, Massimo, and Giuseppe Scardozzi. "La ricostruzione tridimensionale e il restauro virtuale di una tomba etrusca dipinta dell’Etruria meridionale interna: la “Grotta Dipinta” di Pranzovico (Viterbo)." Virtual Archaeology Review 4, no. 8 (November 20, 2015): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/var.2013.4285.
Full textAbstract:
<p>The paper concerns the 3D reconstruction and virtual restoration of a painted rock-cut chamber tombs located in the interior of Southern Etruria (Viterbo Province, Central Italy). The tomb was discovered in 1901 in a place named Pranzovico and it dates from the mid-fifth century BC; it has a cross plan with central atrium (decorated with paintings) and three chambers in which there are the rock-cut funerary beds. The paintings have been largely destroyed by illegal excavators in the days immediately following the discovery; during the 20th century it was damaged due to agricultural works in the surroundings and now it is partially filled up. Its 3D reconstruction is based on the scarce remains preserved, the plan and drawings of paintings made at the time of discovery and the comparison with other tombs from Tarquinia and Chiusi.</p>
6
Lazrus, Paula Kay. "Land Use and Social Dynamics in Early 19th Century Bova, Calabria." Land 11, no. 10 (October 18, 2022): 1832. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land11101832.
Full textAbstract:
While interest in land use in the prehistoric periods in Italy has received attention, that cannot be said of the Post-Medieval period. The general view is that all activities and objects from the last 300–500 years or so are so indecipherable from their contemporary counterparts and that there is no need to study them. There is, in fact, very little Post-Medieval archaeological work done in the south of Italy, which is the focus of this paper. The landscape of southern Calabria has changed radically over the centuries. The distribution of dense macchia forests was diminished in the late 18th and 19th centuries for building railroads and ships, and more recently, arson has been used as social or political revenge. The removal of the macchia led to erosional landscapes and the loss of archaeological footprints. This paper explores agricultural practices and forest exploitation in the early 19th and 20th centuries by the citizens of Bova to better understand the social and economic dynamics that continue to influence the lives of people living in the community. It utilizes cadastral records, archival documents from the early 1800–1900s, and spatial analysis to better understand the potential economic and social dynamics in this community. Consideration is also given to how social status and power, represented by Church-owned vs. lay citizen-owned properties, was reflected in local land use. The overall paucity of archaeological materials from this period across the landscape supports and complicates the overall picture while also supporting an interpretation of a very local and insular community poorly integrated into the greater Italian economy of the day.
7
Vidović, Jelena, Rafał Nawrot, Ivo Gallmetzer, Alexandra Haselmair, Adam Tomašových, Michael Stachowitsch, Vlasta Ćosović, and Martin Zuschin. "Anthropogenically induced environmental changes in the northeastern Adriatic Sea in the last 500 years (Panzano Bay, Gulf of Trieste)." Biogeosciences 13, no. 21 (November 1, 2016): 5965–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-5965-2016.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract. Shallow and sheltered marine embayments in urbanized areas are prone to the accumulation of pollutants, but little is known about the historical baselines of such marine ecosystems. Here we study foraminiferal assemblages, geochemical proxies and sedimentological data from 1.6 m long sediment cores to uncover ∼ 500 years of anthropogenic pressure from mining, port and industrial activities in the Gulf of Trieste, Italy. From 1600 to 1900 AD, normalized element concentrations and foraminiferal assemblages point to negligible effects of agricultural activities. The only significant anthropogenic activity during this period was mercury mining in the hinterlands of the gulf, releasing high amounts of mercury into the bay and significantly exceeding the standards on the effects of trace elements on benthic organisms. Nonetheless, the fluctuations in the concentrations of mercury do not correlate with changes in the composition and diversity of foraminiferal assemblages due to its non-bioavailability. Intensified agricultural and maricultural activities in the first half of the 20th century caused slight nutrient enrichment and a minor increase in foraminiferal diversity. Intensified port and industrial activities in the second half of 20th century increased the normalized trace element concentrations and persistent organic pollutants (PAH, PCB) in the topmost part of the core. This increase caused only minor changes in the foraminiferal community because foraminifera in Panzano Bay have a long history of adaptation to elevated trace element concentrations. Our study underlines the importance of using an integrated, multidisciplinary approach in reconstructing the history of environmental and anthropogenic changes in marine systems. Given the prolonged human impacts in coastal areas like the Gulf of Trieste, such long-term baseline data are crucial for interpreting the present state of marine ecosystems.
8
Yancheva, Svetla, Boryana Ivanova, and Hristina Yancheva. "Agricultural education in Bulgaria – traditions and future." Agricultural Sciences 13, no. 29 (June 7, 2021): 6–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.22620/agrisci.2021.29.001.
Full textAbstract:
The foundations of Bulgarian higher agricultural education date back to 1921. Until then, agricultural university graduates were trained in France, Germany, Italy and other European countries. In 1945, based on the Regents’ Council Decree No 180 of August 4th, published in the State Gazette on August 20th, the Ordinance setting up a state university located in Plovdiv was enacted. Nowadays, the Agricultural University (AU) is the successor of that first university situated outside the capital Sofia. The history and traditions of this higher educational establishment have invariably followed the social and cultural development of the country, which has gone through difficult and complicated political and economic times. Even today, the Agricultural University in Plovdiv is the only specialized state university in Bulgaria in the area of agricultural and related sciences of national, European, and international high prestige. The purpose of the present review is to present the traditions and challenges in agricultural education in Bulgaria. The University draws strength from the rich tradition but looks to the future and global problems to provide accurate decisions to the challenges of the twenty-first century in agricultural education, science, and safe food production for a better quality of life.
9
Klein, Igor, Arturo Cocco, Soner Uereyen, Roberto Mannu, Ignazio Floris, Natascha Oppelt, and Claudia Kuenzer. "Outbreak of Moroccan Locust in Sardinia (Italy): A Remote Sensing Perspective." Remote Sensing 14, no. 23 (November 29, 2022): 6050. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14236050.
Full textAbstract:
The Moroccan locust has been considered one of the most dangerous agricultural pests in the Mediterranean region. The economic importance of its outbreaks diminished during the second half of the 20th century due to a high degree of agricultural industrialization and other human-caused transformations of its habitat. Nevertheless, in Sardinia (Italy) from 2019 on, a growing invasion of this locust species is ongoing, being the worst in over three decades. Locust swarms destroyed crops and pasture lands of approximately 60,000 ha in 2022. Drought, in combination with increasing uncultivated land, contributed to forming the perfect conditions for a Moroccan locust population upsurge. The specific aim of this paper is the quantification of land cover land use (LCLU) influence with regard to the recent locust outbreak in Sardinia using remote sensing data. In particular, the role of untilled, fallow, or abandoned land in the locust population upsurge is the focus of this case study. To address this objective, LCLU was derived from Sentinel-2A/B Multispectral Instrument (MSI) data between 2017 and 2021 using time-series composites and a random forest (RF) classification model. Coordinates of infested locations, altitude, and locust development stages were collected during field observation campaigns between March and July 2022 and used in this study to assess actual and previous land cover situation of these locations. Findings show that 43% of detected locust locations were found on untilled, fallow, or uncultivated land and another 23% within a radius of 100 m to such areas. Furthermore, oviposition and breeding sites are mostly found in sparse vegetation (97%). This study demonstrates that up-to-date remote sensing data and target-oriented analyses can provide valuable information to contribute to early warning systems and decision support and thus to minimize the risk concerning this agricultural pest. This is of particular interest for all agricultural pests that are strictly related to changing human activities within transformed habitats.
10
Karp, Sławomir. "Karp Familly from Rekijow in Samogitia in 20th century. A contribution to the history of Polish landowners in Lithuania." Masuro-Warmian Bulletin 303, no. 1 (May 15, 2019): 77–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.51974/kmw-134970.
Full textAbstract:
The article concerns the fate of Felicjan Karp’s family, one of the richest landowners of Samogitia (Lithuania) in the first two decades of the 20th century. After his father, he inherited approximately 40,163 hectares. The history of this family perfectly illustrates the changes that this social class has undergone in the past century. The end of their existence was the end of the landowner’s existence. The twilight of the Samogitian Karps took place quite quickly, for only a quarter of a century from July 28, 1914, the date of the outbreak of World War I to the Soviet invasion of the Republic of Lithuania on June 15, 1940. Over the course of these years - on a large scale two-fold - military operations, changes in the political and economic system, including agricultural reform initiated in the reborn Lithuanian state in 1922 and deportations to Siberia in 1940 brutally closed the last stable chapter in the life of Rekijów’s owners, definitively exterminating them after more than 348 years from the land of their ancestors. Relations between the Karp family and the Rekijów estate should be dated at least from September 21, 1592. In addition to the description of the family, it is also necessary to emphasize their significant economic and political importance in the inhabited region. These last two aspects gained momentum especially from the first years of the 19th century and were reflected until 1922. At that time, representatives of the Karp family jointly owned approximately 70,050 ha and provided the country with two provincial marshals (Vilnius, Kaunas) and two county marshals (Upita, Ponevezys). The author also presents their fate during World War II in the Siberian Gulag, during the amnesty under the Sikorski–Majski Agreement of July 30, 1941, joining the formed Polish Army in the USSR (August 14, 1941), the soldier’s journey through Kermine in Uzbekistan, Krasnovodsk, Caspian Sea, Khanaqin in Iraq, Palestine to the military camp near Tel-Aviv and then Egypt and the entire Italian campaign, that is the battles of Monte Cassino, Loreto and Ancona. After the war, leaving Italy to England (1946), followed by a short stay in Argentina and finally settling in Perth, Australia.
11
Muzzillo, Rosalba, Livia Emanuela Zuffianò, Enzo Rizzo, Filomena Canora, Luigi Capozzoli, Valeria Giampaolo, Giorgio De Giorgio, Francesco Sdao, and Maurizio Polemio. "Seawater Intrusion Proneness and Geophysical Investigations in the Metaponto Coastal Plain (Basilicata, Italy)." Water 13, no. 1 (December 29, 2020): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13010053.
Full textAbstract:
The Metaponto coastal plain extends about 40 km along the Ionian coast, between the Sinni and Bradano Rivers (southern Italy). During the 20th century, the increases in modern irrigation systems, land reclamation works, the overexploitation of wells, and agricultural and industrial activities have deeply modified land use and groundwater availability and quality along the plain. These modifications negatively impacted the natural systems in terms of groundwater and soil salinization, magnifying the risks due to seawater intrusion. In this study, we explored the proneness to seawater intrusion, testing a multidisciplinary approach based on hydrochemical and geophysical investigations. A significant portion of the coastal plain was selected for this purpose. A set of 49 groundwater samples was analyzed to define the chemical characteristics of the water and geoelectrical measurements were recorded along three long profiles. The geoelectrical surveys showed in detail the aquifer bottom pattern where it is deeply incised by paleovalleys, defining the main hydrostratigraphic features, as it is necessary to prevent seawater intrusion worsening. The hydrochemical data highlighted areas with higher seawater intrusion proneness. The acquired measurements show the high proneness to seawater intrusion, especially where the aquifer bottom is very deep below the sea level, also far from the coast, and the relevance of the detailed knowledge of the aquifer bottom in supporting any kind of management.
12
Faccini, F., F. Luino, A. Sacchini, L. Turconi, and J. V. De Graff. "Geohydrological hazards and urban development in the Mediterranean area: an example from Genoa (Liguria, Italy)." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 15, no. 12 (December 9, 2015): 2631–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-15-2631-2015.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract. The metropolitan area and the city of Genoa has become a national and international case study for geohydrological risk, mainly due to the frequency of floods. In 2014, there were landslides again, as well as flash floods that have particularly caused casualties and economic damage. The weather features of the Gulf of Genoa and the geomorphological–environmental setting of the Ligurian coastal land are the predisposing factors that determine heavy rains and their resulting effects on the ground. This study analysed the characteristics of the main meteorological disasters that have hit Genoa since the start of the 20th century; changes in the rainfall regime are evaluated and the main stages of urbanization of the area are detailed, with the resulting changes to the drainage network, in order to identify the main causes of this high geohydrological risk. To this end, scientists have used climate data recorded at the station of Genoa University, in operation since 1833, and at Ponte Carrega station, located in the middle reach of the Bisagno stream, a well-known watercourse because of its frequent floods. Urban sprawl was evaluated through a multi-temporal mapping comparison, using maps available from the beginning of the 19th century up to the current regional technical maps. The average air temperature in Genoa shows a statistically significant increase, while the number of rainy days displays an equally clear decrease over time. The total annual rain value does not seem to indicate rather noticeable changes. The intensity of rain in Genoa expressed as rainfall rate, i.e.~the ratio of annual rainfall and number of rainy days, shows statistically significant growth. The geohydrological vulnerability in Genoa has increased over time due to urban development which has established modifications in land use, from agricultural to urban, especially in the valley floor. Waterways have been confined and reduced to artificial channels, often covered in their final stretch; in some cases they have even been totally removed. These actions should be at least partially reversed in order to reduce the presently high hydrological risk.
13
Barbero, S. "Daily waste." Journal of AMD 22, no. 4 (November 2019): 238. http://dx.doi.org/10.36171/jamd19.22.4.09.
Full textAbstract:
In the early 20th century, in the rural economy of Italy, the idea of wasting food was unheard of, and about 50% of income was spent providing food. Today food only involves 10% of average income, but we have forgot how to deal with what we eat. Consumerism, which also affects our behavior towards food, is a cultural attitude based on which people feel more or less realized solely on the basis of their purchasing possibilities. If we separate food from necessity, health, needs of everyone; we separate the production from the times of the seasons, from nature and from the possibilities that the land has to regenerate its resources; if we separate the act of eating from that of knowing what we eat; if all the phases of the production chain lose the connection between them, then the waste is not only inevitable, but even pursued because it is functional to the criterion of maximum profit. A lesser evil to the detriment of our planet, which leads us to a further waste: a waste of health. We therefore need a change of pace that concerns regulations, energy choices, basic culture, ecology education; we also need profound changes in the value scales, in individual and collective behavior. We must return to considering family, traditional and small-scale agriculture, with its integrated systems and its productive capacities commensurate with the needs of communities and natural resources, as a driving force on which to base the change towards a relationship with food that meets our needs without compromising those of other living beings, current and future. KEY WORDS food; waste; consumerism; environment; health.
14
Bengtson, John D. "The Anthropological Context of Euskaro-Caucasian." Iran and the Caucasus 21, no. 1 (March 15, 2017): 75–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573384x-90000008.
Full textAbstract:
The hypothesis that the Basque language is genetically related to languages in the Caucasus region was developed in the 20th century by respected scholars including C. C. Uhlenbeck, Georges Dumézil, and René Lafon, but has recently fallen into disfavour. The author defends the Euskaro-Caucasian hypothesis in a refined model in which Basque (Euskara) is most closely related to the North Caucasian language family (but not “South Caucasian” = Kartvelian). It is maintained that this hypothesis is not only linguistically convincing, supported by hundreds of basic etymologies, sound correspondences, and shared morphology, but is also consistent with recent results in archaeology and human genetics. Among the Euskaro-Caucasian etymologies is a significant number involving small and large cattle, swine, dairying, grain and pulse crops, and tools and methods of processing crops. These lexical fields are consistent with the spread of agriculture and animal husbandry to Western Europe by means of colonisation by bearers of the Cardial (Impressed Ware) Culture who came from the Anatolian (or possibly Balkan) region, and spoke a language related to Proto-North Caucasian. The well-known genetic distinctiveness of the Basques is a result of centuries of low population size, genetic drift and endogamy, rather than purely Paleolithic ancestry. The present-day Basque people represent a genetic amalgam of the Cardial colonists with indigenous hunter-gatherers, but their Euskaro-Caucasian language is colonial, not indigenous, in origin. Basque is the sole remaining descendant of the Euskaro-Caucasian family in Western Europe, but there is evidence (in the form of substratum words) that this colonial language was formerly more widely spread in other nearby regions (Sardinia, parts of Iberia, France, the Alps, Italy, the Balkans, and perhaps beyond).
15
Fogazzi, G. "Italy, 20th century. The first percutaneous renal biopsies in Italy." Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 14, no. 2 (February 1, 1999): 507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/14.2.507.
Full text
16
Dewaele, Leonard, Olivier Lambert, and Stephen Louwye. "A late surviving Pliocene seal from high latitudes of the North Atlantic realm: the latest monachine seal on the southern margin of the North Sea." PeerJ 6 (October 9, 2018): e5734. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5734.
Full textAbstract:
Background The family of true seals, the Phocidae, is subdivided into two subfamilies: the southern Monachinae, and the northern Phocinae, following the subfamilies’ current distribution: extant Monachinae are largely restricted to the (sub-)Antarctic and the eastern Pacific, with historical distributions of the monk seals of the genus Monachus in the Caribbean, the Mediterranean and around Hawaii; and Phocinae to the northern temperate and Arctic zones. However, the fossil record shows that Monachinae were common in the North Atlantic realm during the late Miocene and early Pliocene. Until now, only one late Pliocene record is known from the Mediterranean, Pliophoca etrusca from Tuscany, Italy, but none from farther north in the North Atlantic. Methods We present the description of one partial phocid humerus collected in the early 20th century from the Antwerp area (Belgium), with an assessment of its stratigraphic origin using data from the literature. Results The studied humerus was recovered during construction works at the former Lefèvre dock in the Antwerp harbour (currently part of the America dock). Combining the information associated to the specimen with data from the literature and from local boreholes, the upper Pliocene Lillo Formation is ascertained as the lithological unit from which the specimen originates. Morphologically, among other features the shape of the deltopectoral crest and the poor development of the supinator crest indicates a monachine attribution for this specimen. The development of the deltopectoral crest is closer to the condition in extant Monachinae than in extinct Monachinae. Discussion The presented specimen most likely represents a monachine seal and a literature study clearly shows that it came from the latest early to late Pliocene Lillo Formation. This would be the first known monachine specimen from the latest early to late Pliocene of the North Sea, and more broadly from the northern part of the North Atlantic realm. This humerus differs from the humerus of P. etrusca and suggests a higher diversity of Monachinae in the latest early to late Pliocene than previously assumed.
17
Paniga, Massimiliano. "Public Health Institutions in Italy in the 20th Century." Athens Journal of Mediterranean Studies 8, no. 2 (March 15, 2022): 117–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajms.8-2-3.
Full textAbstract:
Only recently studied by Italian historiography, public health is one of the most important sectors of a modern Welfare system. During the Twentieth century Italy faced the hygienic and sanitary problem often with different ways and tools than other European countries. The aim of this article is to understand better the attitude and the development of the main public health institutions, both at the central and peripheral level, during the three great phases that marked the history of Italy in the last century: the liberal age, fascism and the Republic, as well as to highlight the organisations, men and structures that exercised decisive functions in the bureaucratic and administrative State machine. The essay focuses on the most significative legislative measures (for example, the “Testi Unici” of 1907 and 1934) and the turning points that have changed the sector on the institutional plan, from the creation of the Directorate-General for Public Health inside the Ministry of the Interior, and destined to remain for the entire Fascist period, to the birth, in the post-war years, of the High Commission for Hygiene and Public Health, then replaced by the Ministry of Health, until the establishment of the National Health Service in 1978. Keywords: Welfare State, social policies, public health, assistance, institutions
18
Manfredini, Matteo, Marco Breschi, Alessio Fornasin, Stanislao Mazzoni, Sergio De lasio, and Alfredo Coppa. "Maternal Mortality in 19th- and Early 20th-century Italy." Social History of Medicine 33, no. 3 (February 5, 2019): 860–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/shm/hkz001.
Full textAbstract:
Summary Although dramatically reduced in Western and developed countries, maternal mortality is still today one of the most relevant social and health scourges in developing countries. This is the reason why high levels of maternal mortality are always interpreted as a sign of low living standards, ignorance, poverty and woman discrimination. Maternal mortality represents, therefore, a very peculiar characteristic of demographic systems of ancien regime. Despite this important role in demographic systems, no systematic study has been addressed to investigate the impact of maternal mortality in historical Italy. The aim of this article is to shed some light on such a phenomenon by investigating its trend over time and the determinants in some Italian populations between the 18th and the early 20th centuries. The analysis will make use of civil and parish registers linked together by means of nominative techniques, and it will be, therefore, carried out at the micro level.
19
Ward, R. Gerard. "Reflections on Pacific Island agriculture in the late 20th century∗." Journal of Pacific History 21, no. 4 (October 1986): 217–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223348608572544.
Full text
20
Oliver, Stuart. "20th-century urban landslides in the Basilicata region of Italy." Environmental Management 17, no. 4 (July 1993): 433–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02394659.
Full text
21
Viganò, Enrico, and Richard Mattessich. "Accounting research in Italy: second half of the 20th century." Review of Accounting and Finance 6, no. 1 (February 27, 2007): 24–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14757700710725449.
Full text
22
Hornbeck, Richard. "Nature versus Nurture: The Environment's Persistent Influence through the Modernization of American Agriculture." American Economic Review 102, no. 3 (May 1, 2012): 245–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.3.245.
Full textAbstract:
Technological innovation in agriculture was substantial during the 20th century. Is “modern” technological control of the environment replacing a “primitive” dependency on natural advantages and disadvantages, or has agricultural production remained persistently dependent on the environment? This paper estimates how the 20th century modernization of United States Plains' agriculture changed the impact of environmental characteristics on agricultural land values. Despite substantial technological innovation and rising land values from 1945 to 2002, counties' environmental characteristics largely maintained influence on land values. Environmental change has become no less costly, as technological innovation has not reduced the importance of natural advantages or disadvantages.
23
Cuaz, Marco. "Catholic Alpinism and Social Discipline in 19th- and 20th-century Italy." Mountain Research and Development 26, no. 4 (November 2006): 358–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26[358:caasdi]2.0.co;2.
Full text
24
Ciravegna, Luciano. "Forms of enterprise in 20th century Italy. Boundaries, structures and strategies." Business History 53, no. 3 (June 2011): 462–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2011.563556.
Full text
25
Kłusek, Mirosław. "Archiwalia Państwowego Banku Rolnego jako źródło do badań nad historią gospodarczą polskiej wsi i rolnictwa w I poł. XX w." Archeion, no. 121 (2020): 271–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/26581264arc.20.010.12967.
Full textAbstract:
Archival materials of the Polish Agricultural Bank as a source for research on the economic history of the Polish countryside and agriculture in the first half of the 20th c. The body of work of historians regarding the Polish countryside and agriculture in the first half of the 20th century is relatively extensive. The majority of studies on farming primarily address the post-war period, discuss the interwar period to a lesser degree, with barely touching upon the Nazi occupation. The situation is similar when it comes to publications regarding particular areas of agriculture and the means of production. Unfortunately, what those publications have in common is that none of them uses materials connected to agricultural banking. The objective of the article is to encourage those who study or intend to study the economic history of the Polish countryside and agriculture of the first half of the 20th century to research the records of the State Agricultural Bank (1919–1949) kept by the National Archives. Analysis of the publications related to the State Agricultural Bank (hereinafter the PBR) and the archive materials connected with its activity, kept by the National Archives, suggests that: 1. The BPR had a key role in implementing the farming policy of the national authorities and was crucial to the development of agriculture and the countryside; 2. the legacy of the PBR in the National Archives is remarkably vast (tens of thousands of archive units) and covers a wide range of issues, from banking through the development of farming to the situation in the countryside in the first half of the 20th century; 3. the vast credit records of the PBR kept by the National Archives offer a wide range of possibilities for the researchers focused on the economic history of the Polish countryside and agriculture, as they provide a plethora of interesting information on the situation of agriculture and farmers between 1919 and 1949.
26
Kłusek, Mirosław. "Archiwalia Państwowego Banku Rolnego jako źródło do badań nad historią gospodarczą polskiej wsi i rolnictwa w I poł. XX w." Archeion, no. 121 (2020): 271–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/26581264arc.20.010.12967.
Full textAbstract:
Archival materials of the Polish Agricultural Bank as a source for research on the economic history of the Polish countryside and agriculture in the first half of the 20th c. The body of work of historians regarding the Polish countryside and agriculture in the first half of the 20th century is relatively extensive. The majority of studies on farming primarily address the post-war period, discuss the interwar period to a lesser degree, with barely touching upon the Nazi occupation. The situation is similar when it comes to publications regarding particular areas of agriculture and the means of production. Unfortunately, what those publications have in common is that none of them uses materials connected to agricultural banking. The objective of the article is to encourage those who study or intend to study the economic history of the Polish countryside and agriculture of the first half of the 20th century to research the records of the State Agricultural Bank (1919–1949) kept by the National Archives. Analysis of the publications related to the State Agricultural Bank (hereinafter the PBR) and the archive materials connected with its activity, kept by the National Archives, suggests that: 1. The BPR had a key role in implementing the farming policy of the national authorities and was crucial to the development of agriculture and the countryside; 2. the legacy of the PBR in the National Archives is remarkably vast (tens of thousands of archive units) and covers a wide range of issues, from banking through the development of farming to the situation in the countryside in the first half of the 20th century; 3. the vast credit records of the PBR kept by the National Archives offer a wide range of possibilities for the researchers focused on the economic history of the Polish countryside and agriculture, as they provide a plethora of interesting information on the situation of agriculture and farmers between 1919 and 1949.
27
Stoner, Allan, and Kim Hummer. "19th and 20th Century Plant Hunters." HortScience 42, no. 2 (April 2007): 197–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.42.2.197.
Full textAbstract:
The latter part of the 19th and the first several decades of the 20th century can be described as a “golden age” for plant exploration and collecting. During the initial years of this period, agricultural scientists from the United States and elsewhere devoted considerable resources to collecting potential new crops for farmers as well as superior plants or cultivars of the species that farmers were already growing. Over time, there was a shift toward collecting unadapted germplasm, or raw material that possessed traits that plant breeders and other scientists could use for cultivar improvement and other types of research. Although many institutions and individuals were involved in plant collecting during this period, the creation of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Office of Seed and Plant Introduction in 1898, resulted in the largest single program devoted to plant exploration. This office employed many individuals, including David Fairchild, P.H. Dorsett, Frank Meyer, Walter Swingle, and Wilson Popenoe. These and many other individuals collected—and introduced into the United States—seeds and plants of thousands of fruits, vegetables, nuts, ornamentals, cereals, forages, oilseeds, and other types of crops. Although the mission of most of the plant explorations during this period was to collect any plants that appeared interesting or potentially useful, others focused on collecting targeted species. Much of the material collected during this era is still maintained by the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), and much more of it shows up in the pedigrees of cultivars grown by farmers and gardeners today. In addition to collecting plants for immediate and future use, scientists of this era, such as Nicolai I. Vavilov and Jack Harlan, contributed greatly to the understanding of the evolution of plants and plant genetic diversity, and the interdependence of plants and civilization.
28
Derr, Jennifer L. "LABOR-TIME: ECOLOGICAL BODIES AND AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN 19TH- AND EARLY 20TH-CENTURY EGYPT." International Journal of Middle East Studies 50, no. 2 (May 2018): 195–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743818000028.
Full textAbstract:
AbstractBeginning in the second decade of the 19th century, Egyptian agriculture began a process of transformation from basin to perennial irrigation. This shift facilitated the practice of year-round agriculture and the cultivation of summer crops including cotton whose temporalities did not match that of the annual Nile flood. One facet of the perennially irrigated landscape was an increase in the prevalence of the parasitic diseases bilharzia (schistosomiasis) and hookworm, the symptoms of which came to constitute normative experiences of the body among those engaged in perennially irrigated agriculture. Male agricultural laborers, who most often performed the work of irrigation, were at the greatest risk of infection. This article considers the significance of agricultural labor in the continuous making and maintenance of perennially irrigated agriculture and the role of parasitic disease in producing temporal experiences of this labor.
29
Leporiere, Lorenzo. "Mediums and Science in Early 20th Century Europe." Nuncius 33, no. 1 (January 23, 2018): 104–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18253911-03301005.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract This paper investigates and contextualizes the contribution made by the Italian physiologist Filippo Bottazzi (1867–1941) to research on mediumistic phenomena in Europe at the beginning of the 1900s, focusing on his investigation of the claims of Eusapia Palladino’s powers, a well-known Italian physical medium who inspired the “conversion” of Cesare Lombroso. Bottazzi’s work, conducted between 1906 and 1909, is compared to that of colleagues in Italy and elsewhere and analysed in the light of the scientific methodology that he used in his research as a physiologist. This paper will review the events that led Bottazzi to take an interest in mediumship, and analyse how he designed and conducted his experiments and the conclusions that he drew from them. Particular attention will be focused on the methods and the scientific instruments that he used in his psychical research, which were in keeping with his Positivist epistemological views, as is shown by an essay on the scientific method that he wrote in the same period.
30
Mann, Vivian, and Daniel Chazin. "Printing, Patronage and Prayer: Art Historical Issues in Three Responsa." IMAGES 1, no. 1 (2007): 91–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187180007782347557.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract"Printing, Patronage and Prayer: Art Historical Issues in Three Responsa" presents texts from 16th-century Italy, 17th-century Bohemia, and 20th-century Russia that explore the following issues: the impact of the new technology of printing on Jewish ceremonial art and limits to the dedication and use of art in the synagogue.
31
Garrett, Martin A. "Mules in Southern Agriculture: Revisited." Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 33, no. 3 (December 2001): 583–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1074070800021027.
Full textAbstract:
AbstractThis article provides additional empirical evidence concerning the choice of the mule as the dominant draft animal in southern agricultural production in the latter 19th and early 20th century. While the mule was uniquely suited to the crops and climate of the region, two divergent arguments have been presented as to why the mule was the dominant draft animal in southern agricultural production. This research reevaluates these arguments and provides evidence that it was, in fact, the characteristics of this hybrid that made it the preferred draft animal for the South.
32
Padrielli, L. "Women in Astronomy - Italy." Highlights of Astronomy 10 (1995): 95–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1539299600010388.
Full textAbstract:
Let me start with a short historical excursion, taking the Bologna University as an example. The Bologna University was founded in 1088, but only at the beginning of 1700, when a deep transformation in the tradition and female behaviour model occurred, women started to approach the academic life mostly in humanities. There were also examples of scientist women, often without a real academic title working side by side with men (generally fathers or husbands).During the 19th century the female presence in the italian universities slowly increased, becoming a reality at the beginning of the 20th century. In the time interval from 1884 to 1900, 224 degrees were assigned to women in Italy (less than 10% of the total): 68.9% in Literature and Philosophy,7.8% in Mathematics, 11.7% in Natural Science, 9.3% in Medicine, and 2.3% in Law. Women were mostly involved in fields related to educational activities, however six out of 224 got a chair at the Universities, five of which in scientific fields.
33
Ljubin, V. P. "RUSSIAN EMIGRANTS IN ITALY IN THE 20TH CENTURY: THE NEW REREARCH WORK." Russia and the Contemporary World, no. 1 (2018): 233–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.31249/rsm/2018.01.16.
Full text
34
Stalmaszczyk, Piotr. "Celtic Studies in Poland in the 20th century: a bibliography." ZCPH 54, no. 1 (April 30, 2004): 170–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zcph.2005.170.
Full textAbstract:
Introduction Celtic Studies are concerned with the languages, literature, culture, mythology, religion, art, history, and archaeology of historical and contemporary Celtic countries and traces of Celtic influences elsewhere. The historical Celtic countries include ancient Gaul, Galatia, Celtiberia, Italy, Britain and Ireland, whereas the modern Celtic territories are limited to Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Isle of Man, Cornwall and Brittany. It has to be stressed that Celtic Studies are not identical with Irish (or Scottish, Welsh, or Breton) Studies, though they are, for obvious reasons, closely connected.
35
Abdimavlyanovich Usarov, Umidjon. "Irrigation System Of Turkestan In The Second Half Of 19th Century And Early 20th Century." American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations 03, no. 06 (June 17, 2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajssei/volume03issue06-01.
Full textAbstract:
This article describes the state of irrigated agriculture in Turkestan, water sources, classification of major rivers and their tributaries, geographical location, irrigation system, sources of water supply, types of traditional irrigation methods used by the local population in the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. Moreover, an attempt is made to reveal the participation of local people in the construction, repair, cleaning of irrigation facilities, the implementation of centuries-old rules of irrigation, the rights of local people to use water through a number of sources, statistical collections, scientific literature and research works in the article.
36
Gellatly, A. F., C. Smiraglia, J. M. Grove, and R. Latham. "Recent variations of Ghiacciaio del Calderone, Abruzzi, Italy." Journal of Glaciology 40, no. 136 (1994): 486–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022143000012351.
Full textAbstract:
AbstractResults of a detailed topographic survey of Ghiacciaio del Calderone, Italy, the southernmost in Europe, are described and compared with those of surveys made in earlier years. Recession and thinning, much affected by micro-climate, have been the predominant state of health during the 20th century. Between 1916 and 1990, volume is estimated to have been reduced by about 90% and area by about 68%.
37
Gellatly, A. F., C. Smiraglia, J. M. Grove, and R. Latham. "Recent variations of Ghiacciaio del Calderone, Abruzzi, Italy." Journal of Glaciology 40, no. 136 (1994): 486–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0022143000012351.
Full textAbstract:
AbstractResults of a detailed topographic survey of Ghiacciaio del Calderone, Italy, the southernmost in Europe, are described and compared with those of surveys made in earlier years. Recession and thinning, much affected by micro-climate, have been the predominant state of health during the 20th century. Between 1916 and 1990, volume is estimated to have been reduced by about 90% and area by about 68%.
38
Deryugina, I. V. "THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF KAZAKHSTAN AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION AT THE TURN OF THE 19TH–20TH CENTURIES." Journal of the Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, no. 1 (11) (2020): 240–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.31696/2618-7302-2020-1-240-254.
Full textAbstract:
The paper explores the evolution of agriculture in Kazakhstan during its accession to the Russian Empire. At this time, two independent sectors were established in the uniform agricultural mechanism of Kazakhstan: The arable farming, which developed due to the colonization policy of the Russian government, and the livestock sector, based on the traditional cattle breeding, originating in Kazakh steppe. The focus of the research is specifically determined by the fact that the agrarian reforms in Kazakhstan in the 21st century are based on the coexistence of these two independent sectors in agriculture. The article thus looks at three main issues. Firstly, according to the sources of the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, the migration policy of the Russian government, initiating a vast territorial expansion of the Russian speaking population, and economic transformations in agriculture on Kazakhstan territory. Secondly, the transformation of the livestock sector in Kazakhstan is analyzed in historical retrospect. The author argues that the classic type of nomadic cattle breeding began to change from the turn of the 18th–19th centuries, but the most noticeable changes in the composition of the herd and the type of nomadism were observed from the beginning of the 20th century. Thirdly, the formation of the arable farming, the impetus for the development of which was given by Russian colonization, is studied. The beginning of arable farming among nomads in the Kazakh steppe dates to the beginning of the 19th century, but it was fully developed at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries due to the allotment of lands to peasants from Central Russia. Arable farming is most widespread in Akmola, Turgay, Semirechensk and Syr Darya regions. Thus, the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, considered in the paper, proved to be the beginning of the Kazakhstan agricultural split into two independent sectors: Arable farming and livestock farming. Simultaneously the ethnic factor came to the fore, manifested in the division of the spheres of activity, where autochthon population was engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, and Russian immigrants were mostly engaged in seminatural agriculture.
39
Ennis, Juan Antonio. "Italian-Spanish Contact in Early 20th Century Argentina." Journal of Language Contact 8, no. 1 (December 17, 2015): 112–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/19552629-00801006.
Full textAbstract:
This article attempts to provide a general approach to the exceptional language contact situation that took place in Argentina from the end of the 19thcentury until the first decades of the 20thcentury, in which an enormous immigration flow drastically modified the sociolinguistic landscape. This was most evident in urban environments—and among them especially the Buenos Aires area—and led the local ruling elites to set up a complex and massive apparatus for the nationalisation of the newcomers, which included a language shift in the first stage. Given that the majority of immigrants came from Italy, the most widespread form of contact was that between the local varieties of Spanish and the Italian dialects spoken by the immigrants, which led to the creation of a contact variety called Cocoliche that arose, lived then perished. Although this contact variety did not survive the early years, at least not as a full-fledged variety, the history of its emergence and the ways in which it can be studied today nevertheless make it an object of special interest for research perspectives oriented around the question of the early years of language contact. This article gives an account of this history so as to provide an analysis of a series of documents that, in a highly mediated way, can be used as an unreliable but nonetheless interesting corpus for the study of language and culture contact.
40
Станкевич, С. В. "ПОЛЬСЬКИЙ ПЕРІОД ІСТОРІЇ АГРАРНОЇ ОСВІТИ СЛОБОЖАНЩИНИ (1816–1914 РР.)." Spiritual-intellectual upbringing and teaching of youth in the 21st century, no. 4 (2022): 839–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.34142//2708-4809.siuty.2022.209.
Full textAbstract:
The historical aspects of the formation of agricultural education in Ukraine from the beginning of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century are described: starting with the founding of the Institute of Agricultural Economy in Poland in 1816 and the transfer of the New Alexandria Institute of Agriculture and Forestry to Kharkiv in 1914 and the creation in 1921 Kharkiv Institute of Agriculture and Forestry
41
Adachi, Yoshihiro. "N. Taniguchi, Lessons from the Experiments of Socialist Agriculture in the 20th Century." Journal of Rural Problems 36, no. 1 (2000): 47–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.7310/arfe1965.36.47.
Full text
42
BONDEAU, ALBERTE, PASCALLE C. SMITH, SÖNKE ZAEHLE, SIBYLL SCHAPHOFF, WOLFGANG LUCHT, WOLFGANG CRAMER, DIETER GERTEN, et al. "Modelling the role of agriculture for the 20th century global terrestrial carbon balance." Global Change Biology 13, no. 3 (March 2007): 679–706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01305.x.
Full text
43
Parman, John. "Good schools make good neighbors: Human capital spillovers in early 20th century agriculture." Explorations in Economic History 49, no. 3 (July 2012): 316–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2012.04.002.
Full text
44
Bernardo, G., and L. Palmero Iglesias. "Architecture and materials in the first half of the 20th century in italy." International Journal of Heritage Architecture: Studies, Repairs and Maintence 1, no. 4 (January 15, 2017): 593–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.2495/ha-v1-n4-593-607.
Full text
45
Cangiano, Mimmo. "Money and modernism: The rise of a theme in early 20th-century Italy." Forum Italicum: A Journal of Italian Studies 54, no. 2 (November 13, 2019): 591–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0014585819887356.
Full textAbstract:
The primary purpose of this article is to examine how the theme of money developed in the work of the key early 20th-century Italian modernist writers Giovanni Papini, Aldo Palazzeschi, Giovanni Boine, and Carlo Michelstaedter. It also studies the connection between the theme of money and two central concepts in modernist literature: the crisis in the concept of objectivity, and the interpretation of reality as a continuous flow that rejects every possible conceptualization. I argue that money was a metaphor for the crisis of objective truth, a symbol for an existence that had lost all perspective from which to judge and order reality.
46
Manfredini, Matteo. "The effects of nutrition on maternal mortality: Evidence from 19th-20th century Italy." SSM - Population Health 12 (December 2020): 100678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100678.
Full text
47
Jonibek, Butayev. "THE STATE OF HORTICULTURE IN THE SAMARKAND REGION IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY – THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY." CURRENT RESEARCH JOURNAL OF HISTORY 03, no. 04 (April 1, 2022): 16–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/history-crjh-03-04-04.
Full textAbstract:
During the colonial period, gardening was one of the most important areas of agriculture in the Samarkand region. The article reveals the reforms of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries in the field of horticulture in the Samarkand region, statistical data on the yield of grapes, the influence of grape varieties and the expansion of horticulture on agriculture. An assessment is also given of the impact of changes and innovations carried out by the Russian administration in this area in the historical period when the region was called the Zeravshan district, and then the Samarkand region. At the same time, statistics on vineyards and yields in the region were compared with neighboring regions.
48
Ivanova, A. A. "Image of a Woman in Social Advertising in Italy." Nauchnyi dialog 11, no. 2 (March 19, 2022): 198–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2022-11-2-198-220.
Full textAbstract:
The problems of the formation of a woman image and the development of a gender approach in social advertising in Italy are studied. The relevance of the study is due to the high importance of social advertising in modern society and the increased interest in gender studies. The author considered examples of visual-graphic and visual-cinematic advertising. Examples of political manifestos and campaign posters are analyzed that precede the phenomenon of social advertising and are very close to it in their purpose. The results of the study make it possible to judge the late gender orientation of socially important messages. The following stages of representation of the female image in social advertising have been identified. From the middle of the 19th century to the second half of the 20th century, the image of Tower Italy was used on posters. During the First and Second World Wars, the role of women in society was rethought, the image of a woman-inspirer, a woman-mother, a homemaker appeared on campaign posters. The selection of a woman as a direct addressee of socially significant messages occurs after the end of the Second World War, which reflects the progress in the development of women’s rights and freedoms and is simultaneously associated with the emergence of a gender approach in advertising. Since the second half of the 20th century, the traditional image of a woman-mother and a housewife has been used in social advertising, the thematic range of advertising addressed to a female audience has expanded significantly. Since the beginning of the 21st century, social advertising has paid great attention to the problem of domestic violence and discrimination against women, which is reflected in the videos and posters of public, charitable and commercial organizations.
49
Ferri, Enrico. "The Armenian Diaspora in Italy." Oriente Moderno 95, no. 1-2 (August 7, 2015): 277–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22138617-12340082.
Full textAbstract:
Taking inspiration from some analytical paths in a recent book by Agop Manoukian—Presenza Armena in Italia. 1915-2000, Milano, Guerini e Associati, 2014)—the author traces some significant moments of the Armenian diaspora in Italy during the 20th century including its complex relations with socio-political Italy, in context with Middle Eastern and international relations, which during the World Wars also involves the United States. In particular, the author considers the relations of the Italian Armenian diaspora with the kingdom of Italy in the first instance and then with the fascist regime, during the period when racial laws involved the small Armenian community. Then the author focuses on the new realities of Republican Italy and the Socialist Republic of Armenia and the debate that developed during the second half of last century, between those who believed it possible to preserve the Armenian identity and those in the diaspora who supported a political initiative in favour of the re-conquest of Armenia’s historic lands. Particular attention is reserved for the genocide of 1915 and the new entity of the Republic of Armenia.
50
Antunes, Gonçalo, and Caterina Francesca Di Giovanni. "Housing policies in Portugal and Italy." Debater a Europa, no. 25 (December 28, 2021): 99–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/1647-6336_25_5.
Full textAbstract:
This study analyzes the housing policies enacted in the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century in Portugal and Italy to understand whether the comparison between the two countries’ housing domains reflects a divide between the “center” and the “periphery,” or, on the contrary, can be observed as “between peripheries.” This article stems from a comprehensive literature review on the topic, which is divided into a theoretical discourse on housing, a general European housing scenario, and a historical and contemporary framework of housing policies in Portugal and Italy. The literature review seeks to identify the economic and sociocultural singularities of the two countries through official laws and statistical data. Within a fundamentally theoretical comparative observation, this work aims to identify whether Italy and Portugal are contrasting realities within the housing domain—that is, with housing characteristics typical of the center (Italy) or the periphery (Portugal)—or represent two similar realities that integrate the peripheral context of Europe.