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1
Allen, Robert C. "American Exceptionalism as a Problem in Global History." Journal of Economic History 74, no. 2 (May 16, 2014): 309–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002205071400028x.
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The causes of the United States’ exceptional economic performance are investigated by comparing American wages and prices with wages and prices in Great Britain, Egypt, and India. American industrialization in the nineteenth century required tariff protection since the country's comparative advantage lay in agriculture. After 1895 surging American productivity shifted the country's comparative advantage to manufacturing. Egypt and India could not have industrialized by following American policies since their wages were so low and their energy costs so high that the modern technology that was cost effective in Britain and the United States would not have paid in their circumstances.
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Popović, Goran, Ognjen Erić, and Jelena Bjelić. "Factor Analysis of Prices and Agricultural Production in the European Union." ECONOMICS 8, no. 1 (June 1, 2020): 73–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/eoik-2020-0001.
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AbstractCommon agricultural policy (CAP) is a factor of development and cohesion of the European Union (EU) agriculture. The fundamentals of CAP were defined in the 1950s, when the Union was formed. Since then, CAP has been reforming and adapting to new circumstances. Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union defines the goals of CAP: stable (acceptable) prices of agricultural products, growth, productivity and technological progress in agriculture, growth in farmers’ income and supplying the common market. Factor analysis of the prices and production goals of CAP directly or indirectly involves the following variables: prices of agricultural and industrial products, indices of the prices of cereals, meat and milk, indices of the prices of agricultural products in France and Great Britain, agricultural GDP and EU GDP. The analysis results come down to 2 factors. The first – “internal factor” is a set of indicators homogenous in terms of greater impact of CAP on their trends (the prices of agricultural products in France, income from agriculture, the prices of agricultural products in EU and Great Britain and the milk price index). The second - “external factor” is made of general and global indicators (cereals prices, EU GDP and prices in industry). Factor analysis has confirmed high correlation of goals: production growth, productivity and technological progress in agriculture as well as “reasonable” prices in agriculture. The analysis shows high correlation between agricultural and industrial products, indices of the prices of cereals, meat and milk, indices of the prices of agricultural products in France and Great Britain, agriculture GDP and EU GDP (classified into internal and external factors). In general, the results of the factor analysis justify the existence of CAP, while the EU budget support brings wider social benefits.
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Schwartz, Robert M. "Rail Transport, Agrarian Crisis, and the Restructuring of Agriculture." Social Science History 34, no. 2 (2010): 229–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0145553200011226.
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During the late nineteenth century the transport revolution and growing agricultural output, especially in North America, engendered an agrarian crisis (1878–96) when intensifying international competition in foodstuffs led to dramatic price declines, particularly in wheat and other cereals. This comparative study of the process in Britain and France examines regional and local patterns of rural change in relation to the expansion of railways, the agrarian crisis, and the responses to the crisis by the governments and farmers of the two countries. Using spatial statistics and geographically weighted regression (GWR) to identify spatially varying relationships, it offers a new approach and results. Case studies of Dorset County in England and the Allier Department in France show that railways facilitated the shift from cereal production to livestock and dairy farming during the era of agrarian crisis. In Dorset the analysis using GWR provides an explanation for patterns of the agricultural depression that a pioneering article identified but could not explain and thus illustrates the promise of blending narrative and spatial history. Further, it argues that in France railway expansion and the construction of a secondary network reduced regional disparities in rail service and likely in agricultural productivity, too. More broadly, it concludes that the differing political economies of Britain and France led to different trade and railway policies during the crisis and to different agrarian outcomes in which agricultural productivity declined in Britain and improved in France.
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Martin, John. "The role of nitrogen in transforming British agricultural productivity production prior to and during the First World War." Global Environment 13, no. 3 (October 1, 2020): 583–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.3197/ge.2020.130304.
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This paper explores the reasons why artificial or mineral sources of nitrogen, which were more readily available in Britain than in other European countries, were only slowly adopted by farmers in the decades prior to and during the First World War. It considers why nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia, a by-product of coal-gas (town-gas) manufacture, was increasingly exported from Britain for use by German farmers. At the same time Britain was attempting to monopolise foreign supplies of Chilean nitrate, which was not only a valuable source of fertiliser for agriculture but also an essential ingredient of munitions production. The article also investigates the reasons why sulphate of ammonia was not more widely used to raise agricultural production during the First World War, at a time when food shortages posed a major threat to public morale and commitment to the war effort.
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Pardey, Philip G., and Julian M. Alston. "Unpacking the Agricultural Black Box: The Rise and Fall of American Farm Productivity Growth." Journal of Economic History 81, no. 1 (March 2021): 114–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050720000649.
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Has the golden age of U.S. agricultural productivity growth ended? We analyze the detailed patterns of productivity growth spanning a century of profound changes in American agriculture. We document a substantial slowing of U.S. farm productivity growth, following a late mid-century surge—20 years after the surge and slowdown in U.S. industrial productivity growth. We posit and empirically probe three related explanations for this farm productivity surge-slowdown: the time path of agricultural R&D-driven knowledge stocks; a big wave of technological progress associated with great clusters of inventions; and dynamic aspects of the structural transformation of agriculture, largely completed by 1980.
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Evett, Steven R., Paul D. Colaizzi, Freddie R. Lamm, Susan A. O’Shaughnessy, Derek M. Heeren, Thomas J. Trout, William L. Kranz, and Xiaomao Lin. "Past, Present, and Future of Irrigation on the U.S. Great Plains." Transactions of the ASABE 63, no. 3 (2020): 703–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.13031/trans.13620.
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Highlights Irrigation is key to the productivity of Great Plains agriculture but is threatened by water scarcity. The irrigated area grew to >9 million ha since 1870, mostly since 1950, but is likely to decline. Changes in climate, water availability, irrigated area, and policy will affect productivity. Adaptation and innovation, hallmarks of Great Plains populations, will ensure future success. Abstract. Motivated by the need for sustainable water management and technology for next-generation crop production, the future of irrigation on the U.S. Great Plains was examined through the lenses of past changes in water supply, historical changes in irrigated area, and innovations in irrigation technology, management, and agronomy. We analyzed the history of irrigated agriculture through the 1900s to the present day. We focused particularly on the efficiency and water productivity of irrigation systems (application efficiency, crop water productivity, and irrigation water use productivity) as a connection between water resource management and agricultural production. Technology innovations have greatly increased the efficiency of water application, the productivity of water use, and the agricultural productivity of the Great Plains. We also examined the changes in water stored in the High Plains aquifer, which is the region’s principle supply for irrigation water. Relative to other states, the aquifer has been less impacted in Nebraska, despite large increases in irrigated area. Greatly increased irrigation efficiency has played a role in this, but so have regulations and the recharge to the aquifer from the Nebraska Sand Hills and from rivers crossing the state. The outlook for irrigation is less positive in western Kansas, eastern Colorado, and the Oklahoma and Texas Panhandles. The aquifer in these regions is recharged at rates much less than current pumping, and the aquifer is declining as a result. Improvements in irrigation technology and management plus changes in crops grown have made irrigation ever more efficient and allowed irrigation to continue. There is good reason to expect that future research and development efforts by federal and state researchers, extension specialists, and industry, often in concert, will continue to improve the efficiency and productivity of irrigated agriculture. Public policy changes will also play a role in regulating consumption and motivating on-farm efficiency improvements. Water supplies, while finite, will be stretched much further than projected by some who look only at past rates of consumption. Thus, irrigation will continue to be important economically for an extended period. Sustaining irrigation is crucial to sustained productivity of the Great Plains “bread basket” because on average irrigation doubles the efficiency with which water is turned into crop yields compared with what can be attained in this region with precipitation alone. Lessons learned from the Great Plains are relevant to irrigation in semi-arid and subhumid areas worldwide. Keywords: Center pivot, Crop water productivity, History, Sprinkler irrigation, Subsurface drip irrigation, Water use efficiency.
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Abdullah, Shahino Mah. "Human Capital Development in the Age of Artificial Intelligence." ICR Journal 9, no. 2 (April 15, 2018): 245–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.52282/icr.v9i2.128.
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Improvement in standards of living can be attributed to emerging innovations and technological changes. Innovations in farming methods, for example, triggered the Agricultural Revolution in Britain, which then set off the Industrial Revolution in 1750. Back then, the coal-powered steam engine significantly benefitted the iron industry, textile trade, and transportation. Since then, a series of innovations have emerged and successfully solved certain human inefficiencies and increased overall productivity. Although the British initially prohibited the export of technology and skilled workers, the Industrial Revolution nevertheless spread to other European countries and the United States.
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Jackson, Christine E. "The Ward family of taxidermists." Archives of Natural History 45, no. 1 (April 2018): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2018.0478.
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Three generations of Ward taxidermists practised their craft both in Britain and abroad. The grandfather, John, had a daughter Jane Catherine, and two sons, James Frederick and Edwin Henry, both of whom went to North America to collect birds (Henry with John James Audubon). Edwin Henry's own two sons, Edwin and Rowland, became two of the best known taxidermists in Great Britain. Edwin emigrated to California, where he taught his skills to his three sons. Rowland was the most famous, successful and wealthy member of the family, becoming world-renowned as a taxidermist.
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Li, Bozhong, and Jan Luiten van Zanden. "Before the Great Divergence? Comparing the Yangzi Delta and the Netherlands at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century." Journal of Economic History 72, no. 4 (December 14, 2012): 956–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050712000654.
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This article tests recent ideas about the long-term economic development of China compared with Europe on the basis of a detailed comparison of structure and level of GDP in part of the Yangzi delta and the Netherlands in the 1820s. We find that Dutch GDP per capita was almost twice as high as in the Yangzi delta. Agricultural productivity there was at about the same level as in the Netherlands (and England), but large productivity gaps existed in industry and services. We attempt to explain this concluding that differences in factor costs are probably behind disparities in labor productivity.
10
Zhou, Xun. "Re-examining the History of the Great Famine in China through Documentary Evidence." East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies 3, no. 2 (September 10, 2016): 133. http://dx.doi.org/10.21226/t2pc70.
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This paper examines documentary evidence that has emerged from the Chinese state archives showing that from the outset, the Great Leap Forward failed as a method for improving agricultural productivity; that its failure was quickly evident and purposefully ignored; and that the level of human suffering and death was greater than has been suggested. In addition, in contrast to the image of a strictly disciplined communist society in which errors at the top cause the entire machinery to grind to a halt, the portrait that emerges from archival documents is one of a society in deliquescence, as people resort to every means available to get by as well as they can.
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Nagayev, Viktor, and Tetiana Gerliand. "The Technological Basis of Training Future Teachers of Agricultural Disciplines in Higher Education Institutions: Pedagogical Experience of Great Britain." Educational Challenges 27, no. 2 (October 17, 2022): 138–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.34142/2709-7986.2022.27.2.10.
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The article aims to develop a comprehensive pedagogical model for training future teachers of agrarian disciplines in the context of implementing a three-level pedagogical technology for educational process management (EPM). The pedagogical experience of Great Britain is under review, which can be used to improve the technological process of forming the professional competence of teaching specialists.
The research methodology was determined by a set of methodological approaches (system, activity, competence, technological, personal development) and was based on a pedagogical experiment that included ascertaining, formative and control stages.
Results. The theoretical and methodological foundations of the introduction into the educational environment of the three-level pedagogical technology of educational process management in the conditions of training future teachers of agricultural disciplines in higher education institutions are analysed. An applied model of educational process management for the training of future teachers of agricultural disciplines is proposed on the example of the first (bachelor) level of education in the conditions of introducing a SMART-educational communicative environment.
The structure of the readiness of future teachers of agricultural disciplines for professional activity (motivational-cognitive, practical-active, creative-developmental levels) is determined.
The technological stages of the process of professional training of future teachers of agricultural disciplines in institutions of higher education in the context of the pedagogical experience of Great Britain (motivational-orientational, planning, cognitive-transformative, control-analytical, regulatory-developmental) are considered. The didactic methods, forms and means of the proposed pedagogical technology for managing the educational process are substantiated.
Conclusions. The results of the experimental work demonstrate a significant increase in the quality indicators of the professional training of future teachers of agricultural disciplines in higher education institutions (motivation, creative activity, productivity) in the conditions of the implementation of the three-level pedagogical technology of the EPM.
The implementation of a three-level pedagogical technology in the educational process management system allows for boosting students’ creative activity, increasing the level of their internal motivation, and deepening the level of independence and individualisation of learning, which eventually is determined by a high level of readiness for professional pedagogical activity.
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Crook, D. P. "Peter Chalmers Mitchell and antiwar evolutionism in Britain during the Great War." Journal of the History of Biology 22, no. 2 (1989): 325–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00139517.
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Menard, Russell R. "Plantation Empire: How Sugar and Tobacco Planters Built Their Industries and Raised an Empire." Agricultural History 81, no. 3 (July 1, 2007): 309–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00021482-81.3.309.
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Abstract This essay develops an American approach to the rise of the English Atlantic during the seventeenth century. It argues that productivity gains in plantation agriculture fueled an extraordinary expansion of commerce as planters raising tobacco, sugar, and rice improved their efficiency and were able to lower prices. Lower prices made the products of American plantations affordable to an ever-growing number of European consumers. The increased consumption fueled the expansion of the American plantation colonies, transformed the Atlantic into an English inland sea, and led to the creation of the first British Empire; one of the great commercial successes of the Early Modern Era. The essay also interrogates the concept of productivity gains in a slave economy, arguing that what are often interpreted as improvements in productivity were in fact increases in labor inputs as planters squeezed slaves harder. This raises the question, then, of whether productivity gains (or increased labor inputs) signal that planters were forward-looking entrepreneurs or backward seigneurs?
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McCloskey, Deirdre Nansen. "Fukuyama Was Correct: Liberalism Is the Telos of History." Journal of Contextual Economics – Schmollers Jahrbuch 139, no. 2-4 (April 1, 2019): 285–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.3790/schm.139.2-4.285.
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Liberalism, as Fukuyama assured in 1989, is the end the telos of history. “Liberalism” is to be understood as a society of adult non-slaves, liberi in Latin. It arose for sufficient reasons in northwestern Europe in the 18th century, and uniquely denied the hierarchy of agricultural societies hitherto. It inspired ordinary people to extraordinary acts of innovation, called the Great Enrichment. How “great:” a stunning 3,000 percent increase in real GDP for the poorest people, from 1800 to the present, and now spreading to China, India and the rest of the world. It was equalizing. For it to happen, there had to be an ideological liberalization à la Walter Lippmann. And yet it was opposed by a rising ideology of statism, from the New Liberals in Britain to the right and left populists today. We need to defend a liberalism that causes humans to flourish, and resist its proliferating enemies on the left, right, and center.
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Moore, P. G. "The Lochbuie Marine Institute, Isle of Mull, Scotland." Archives of Natural History 40, no. 1 (April 2013): 45–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2013.0135.
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The Lochbuie Marine Institute on the Isle of Mull (Inner Hebrides), established in 1886, had links with the short-lived National Fish Culture Association of Great Britain and Ireland (inaugurated 1882). Its amalgamation with the Scottish Marine Station at Granton (Edinburgh) was informally suggested in 1887, but it ceased to exist about this time.
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Dance, S. Peter. "Savouring The edible mollusks of M. S. Lovell." Archives of Natural History 34, no. 1 (April 2007): 192–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2007.34.1.192.
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M. S. Lovell's The edible mollusks of Great Britain and Ireland has been largely ignored and the identity of its author misconstrued. The history of this scarce publication is reviewed and the significant differences between the first edition of 1867 and the second of 1884 are indicated. The recently resolved mystery of its authorship is discussed.
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Schwartz, Robert M. "The Transport Revolution on Land and Sea: Farming, Fishing, and Railways in Great Britain, 1840-1914." HoST - Journal of History of Science and Technology 12, no. 1 (September 1, 2018): 106–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/host-2018-0005.
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Abstract The introduction and expansion of rapid rail transportation in Great Britain helped transform sea fishing and make fresh fish a new commodity of mass consumption. In agriculture the rail network greatly facilitated the shift from mixed cereal farming to dairy farming. To demonstrate the timing and extent of these changes in food production this article blends history and geography to create a spatial history of the subject. Using the computational tools of GIS and text mining, spatial history charts the expanding geography and size of the fresh fish industry and documents the growing concern among fishermen of over-fishing. In agricultural, huge flows of cheap wheat from the United states caused a crisis in British wheat farming, forcing many farmers to convert arable land to pasture for use in dairy farming. Given the growing demand for fresh milk in cities and increased availability of rapid rail transport in rural areas, dairy farming replaced wheat farming in outlying counties such as Wiltshire, the example examined here.
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JANET. "Duck decoys, with particular reference to the history of bird ringing." Archives of Natural History 20, no. 2 (June 1993): 229–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.1993.20.2.229.
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The Dutch decoy of the sixteenth century is described. It was a sophisticated device for catching ducks that depended, for its effectiveness, upon the mobbing response that swimming wildfowl show to mammalian predators such as dogs and foxes. A great decline in the use of decoys for obtaining dead ducks for market occurred during the last century; however, in 1907, a decoy in Denmark was used for the first time as a trap to catch birds in order to release them individually ringed. The majority of ducks ringed in Britain have been caught in decoys, starting at Orielton in 1934. The results obtained have been valuable, and our knowledge of wildfowl migrations would be far less advanced had decoys not been available.
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Ferguson, Dean T. "Nightsoil and the ‘Great Divergence’: human waste, the urban economy, and economic productivity, 1500–1900." Journal of Global History 9, no. 3 (October 13, 2014): 379–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1740022814000175.
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AbstractThe use of nightsoil, a Victorian euphemism for human faeces and urine, has for some time been recognized as an important feature of Chinese and Japanese agricultural practice. The importance of the work of nightsoil men and women in early modern and modern cities in other parts of the world has not been the subject of much attention, however, nor has the significance of the differential use of human waste. This article explores the varied ways in which nightsoil men and women organized their work in cities around the world in the period from 1500 to 1900. It also examines the ways in which East Asian and South Asian conservancy systems and the consequent development of markets in human manure contributed materially to Asian advantages in agriculture, sanitation, and textile production. European urban authorities, reformers, and scientists initially responded to this challenge with similar efforts to conserve human waste and use it in farming, but these efforts remained small-scale, and in the nineteenth century Europeans turned to chemically synthesized fertilizers.
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Chen, Yixin. "Cold War Competition and Food Production in China, 1957–1962." Agricultural History 83, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 51–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00021482-83.1.51.
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Abstract This article examines how Mao’s grand strategy for Cold War competition inflicted a catastrophic agricultural failure in China and victimized tens of millions of Chinese peasants. It argues that Khrushchev’s 1957 boast about the Soviet Union surpassing the United States in key economic areas inspired Mao to launch an industrialization program that would push the People’s Republic past Great Britain in some production categories within fifteen years. Beginning in 1958 Mao imposed unrealistic targets on Chinese grain production to extract funds from agriculture for rapid industrial growth. Maoists placed relentless pressure on communist cadres for ruthless implementation of the Great Leap Forward. Contrary to Maoist plans, China’s grain output in 1959-1960 declined sharply from 1957 levels and rural per capita grain retention decreased dramatically. Throughout China, party cadres’ mismanagement of agricultural production was responsible for the decline in grain output, and the communist state’s excessive requisition of grain caused food shortages for the peasants. But the key factor determining the famine’s uneven impact on the peasantry in the provinces was the degree to which provincial leaders genuinely and energetically embraced Maoist programs. This is illustrated by a close examination of the Great Leap famine in Anhui Province.
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Ryan, Raymond. "The anti-annuity payment campaign, 1934–6." Irish Historical Studies 34, no. 135 (May 2005): 306–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021121400004491.
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The retention by the Fianna Fáil government of the land annuities in 1932 and the consequent trade dispute with Great Britain, the ‘economic war’, is a subject extensively covered in the existing historiography, both in terms of the diplomatic and economic facets of the dispute. Opposition by the opponents of Fianna Fáil to the collection of land annuities has been well documented in the context of the political conflict between supporters and opponents of the treaty. Another trend in the historiography has emphasised, as the central characteristic of the anti-annuity payment campaign, the opposition by farmers to the payment of annuities on economic and social rather than on political grounds. Paul Bew and others have argued that large farmers supported the Blueshirts during the ‘economic war’ for material reasons; Mike Cronin has argued that the crisis of the ‘economic war’ encouraged opposition to de Valera’s policies among farmers, rather than pro-Treaty political considerations; and Andrew Orridge has also argued that the anti-annuity payment campaign included both a political element, in the form of Blueshirt hostility to Fianna Fáil, and a non-political element, on the part of farmers protesting at how their dependence on agricultural exports to Britain was threatened by Fianna Fáil policies.
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Morton, Brian. "The Great Barrier Reef Expedition's “Coral Corroboree”, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 10 July 1928: an historical portent." Archives of Natural History 38, no. 1 (April 2011): 88–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2011.0007.
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On their arrival in Brisbane from Great Britain, biological members of the Great Barrier Reef Expedition were invited to a welcoming dinner on 10 July 1928. The copy of C. M. Yonge's (the expedition's leader) dinner menu survives and is signed by, presumably, all attendees. At first glance, the menu appears to comprise exotic Australian seafood courses but closer examination suggests these are mostly amusing epithets for basic fare perhaps to create bonhomie. Queensland interest in the expedition's aims was concerned with the fisheries potential of the reef and its waters and the dinner menu may thus have also represented a more subtle enjoinder to the British guests. Other guests at the dinner hosted by H. C. Richards, Chairman of the Great Barrier Reef Committee, have been identified from their signatures and, in addition to expedition members, comprise representatives of the committee, senior scientists from the University of Queensland, State officials and local dignitaries. Expedition members departed for Low Isles on the following morning.
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READ, CHARLES. "THE ‘REPEAL YEAR’ IN IRELAND: AN ECONOMIC REASSESSMENT." Historical Journal 58, no. 1 (February 9, 2015): 111–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x14000168.
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AbstractMost of the existing literature on the ‘Repeal Year’ agitation in Ireland explains the rise in popularity of the 1842–3 campaign for repeal of the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland in political and religious terms. This article argues that, in addition, the British government's economic policy of reducing tariffs in 1842 damaged Ireland's agricultural economy and increased popular support for the Repeal movement. Using both qualitative and quantitative analysis, this article shows that the tariff reductions and import relaxations of the 1842 budget had an immediate negative impact on Irish real incomes by reducing agricultural prices. A negative relationship between these prices and the Repeal rent, together with the economic rhetoric of Repeal in favour of protection, indicate a link between the economic downturn and the rise in the popularity of Repeal. This article concludes that Peel's trade policy changes of 1842 should therefore be added to the traditional religious and political explanations as a cause behind the sudden surge in popularity of the Repeal movement between 1842 and 1843.
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Page, Arnaud. "“The greatest victory which the chemist has won in the fight (…) against Nature”: Nitrogenous fertilizers in Great Britain and the British Empire, 1910s–1950s." History of Science 54, no. 4 (November 29, 2016): 383–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0073275316681801.
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This paper analyses the rise of synthetic nitrogen in Great Britain and its empire, from the First World War to the aftermath of the Second World War. Rather than focus solely on technological innovations and consumption statistics, it seeks to explain how nitrogen was a central element in the expansion of a form of agricultural governance, which needed simplified, stable, and seemingly universal input/output formulae. In the first half of the twentieth century, nitrogen was thus gradually constructed as a global indicator of development, as it was particularly adapted to scientific and political regimes increasingly relying upon abstraction and quantification. Yet, the history of nitrogenous fertilizers in the interwar years also shows that this cannot be reduced to a simple story of triumphant modernity, as their development and globalization was imperfect, unstable, accompanied by resistance and the resilience or emergence of other models. Rather than assuming an all-powerful “state” project, the paper thus seeks to recover the multiplicity of actors, and attempts to account for the rise of nitrogenous fertilizers; not just as the progressive application of a technological breakthrough, but as a difficult process embedded in technological, financial, and military constraints, corporate strategies, political imperatives, and the changing institutional framework of agricultural research.
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Stevens, Chris J., and Dorian Q. Fuller. "Did Neolithic farming fail? The case for a Bronze Age agricultural revolution in the British Isles." Antiquity 86, no. 333 (September 2012): 707–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00047864.
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This paper rewrites the early history of Britain, showing that while the cultivation of cereals arrived there in about 4000 cal BC, it did not last. Between 3300 and 1500 BC Britons became largely pastoral, reverting only with a major upsurge of agricultural activity in the Middle Bronze Age. This loss of interest in arable farming was accompanied by a decline in population, seen by the authors as having a climatic impetus. But they also point to this period as the time of construction of the great megalithic monuments, including Stonehenge. We are left wondering whether pastoralism was all that bad, and whether it was one intrusion after another that set the agenda on the island.
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Palladino, Paolo. "Wizards and Devotees: On the Mendelian Theory of Inheritance and the Professionalization of Agricultural Science in Great Britain and the United States, 1880–1930." History of Science 32, no. 4 (December 1994): 409–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/007327539403200403.
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Harvey, Brian. "Changing fortunes on the Aran Islands in the 1890s." Irish Historical Studies 27, no. 107 (May 1991): 237–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002112140001052x.
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By the turn of the twentieth century the west of Ireland had become a geographical expression synonymous with poverty and destitution. Whilst in the eighteenth century Connacht was regarded as inaccessible, it was not considered to be overpopulated, hungry or poverty-stricken. Its economic and social condition began to change for the worse in the nineteenth century. From 1816-17 onwards the western seaboard was affected more and more severely by a series of famines and localised distress and typhus. Hardship on the islands off Mayo and Galway was so severe in 1822-3 that London philanthropists set up a committee to launch a large-scale relief programme. The committee blamed the distress on potato failure, ‘want of employment’, high rents and low agricultural prices.The deterioration in economic and social conditions is considered to have been exacerbated by the equalisation of the currencies of, and the removal of tariffs between, Ireland and Great Britain in the mid 1820s. Some rural industries, like textiles, glass and kelp-production, were wiped out. The resistance of the western economy to natural disaster was thereby severely weakened. The western isles were hit badly by the distress of 1835 and even more so by the Great Famine ten years later. Rents remained high whilst incomes fell.
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GARRIDO, SAMUEL. "Oranges or "Lemons"? Family Farming and Product Quality in the Spanish Orange Industry, 1870–1960." Agricultural History 84, no. 2 (April 1, 2010): 224–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00021482-84.2.224.
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Abstract In the early twentieth century California became a big exporter of some agricultural products that, until then, had only been grown on a large scale in the Mediterranean basin. As a result, exports of those products diminished or stagnated in Mediterranean countries, with important repercussions on their economies. The Spanish orange industry, however, continued to expand, despite the fact that a substantial percentage of Spanish oranges came from farms owned by (often illiterate) small peasants who, in comparison to the California growers, used a great deal of labor, small amounts of capital, and little science. This paper shows that Spanish farmers were in fact capable of growing high-quality oranges at prices that were more competitive than those in California, although instead they often preferred to satisfy the strong demand for middling fruit from Great Britain because it was a more profitable business. This, combined with a deficient use of brand names, gave the Spanish citrus industry serious reputation problems by the 1930s, from which, however, it recovered quickly.
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Atwell, William S. "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the “Great Depression” of the Mid-Fifteenth Century." Journal of Asian Studies 61, no. 1 (February 2002): 83–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2700190.
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During the fifteenth century, especially during its middle decades, “almost all parts of the then-known world [i.e., Europe, the Middle East, and the economically advanced regions of Asia] experienced a deep recession. By then, the ‘state of the world’ was at a much lower level than it had reached in the early fourteenth century. During the depression of the fifteenth century, the absolute level of inter-societal trade dropped, currencies were universally debased (a sure sign of decreased wealth and overall productivity), and the arts and crafts were degraded” (Abu-Lughod 1993, 85; see also Lopez and Miskimin 1962; Lopez, Miskimin, and Udovitch 1970; Postan 1973, 41–48; Wallerstein 1974, 21–38; Munro 1998, 38–39). In much of Eurasia, the worst years of this “depression” probably ended sometime during the 1460s or 1470s. Over the next six or seven decades, economic conditions in many parts of the world improved significantly, reflected in dramatic increases in agricultural and handicraft production; in the volume of interregional and international trade; and, except for the western hemisphere where Afro-Eurasian diseases decimated native populations during the early sixteenth century, in demographic growth.
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Hawkes, Kristen. "Cognitive consequences of our grandmothering life history: cultural learning begins in infancy." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 375, no. 1803 (June 2020): 20190501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0501.
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Postmenopausal longevity distinguishes humans from our closest living evolutionary cousins, the great apes, and may have evolved in our lineage when the economic productivity of grandmothers allowed mothers to wean earlier and overlap dependents. Since increased longevity retards development and expands brain size across the mammals, this hypothesis links our slower developing, bigger brains to ancestral grandmothering. If foraging interdependence favoured postmenopausal longevity because grandmothers' subsidies reduced weaning ages, then ancestral infants lost full maternal engagement while their slower developing brains were notably immature. With survival dependent on social relationships, sensitivity to reputations is wired very early in neural ontogeny, beginning our lifelong preoccupation with shared intentionality. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Life history and learning: how childhood, caregiving and old age shape cognition and culture in humans and other animals’.
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Cole, Ella F., and John L. Quinn. "Shy birds play it safe: personality in captivity predicts risk responsiveness during reproduction in the wild." Biology Letters 10, no. 5 (May 2014): 20140178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0178.
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Despite a growing body of evidence linking personality to life-history variation and fitness, the behavioural mechanisms underlying these relationships remain poorly understood. One mechanism thought to play a key role is how individuals respond to risk. Relatively reactive and proactive (or shy and bold) personality types are expected to differ in how they manage the inherent trade-off between productivity and survival, with bold individuals being more risk-prone with lower survival probability, and shy individuals adopting a more risk-averse strategy. In the great tit ( Parus major ), the shy–bold personality axis has been well characterized in captivity and linked to fitness. Here, we tested whether ‘exploration behaviour’, a captive assay of the shy–bold axis, can predict risk responsiveness during reproduction in wild great tits. Relatively slow-exploring (shy) females took longer than fast-exploring (bold) birds to resume incubation after a novel object, representing an unknown threat, was attached to their nest-box, with some shy individuals not returning within the 40 min trial period. Risk responsiveness was consistent within individuals over days. These findings provide rare, field-based experimental evidence that shy individuals prioritize survival over reproductive investment, supporting the hypothesis that personality reflects life-history variation through links with risk responsiveness.
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Moreira, Cristina, and Jari Eloranta. "Importance of «weak» states during conflicts: Portuguese trade with the United States during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars." Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 29, no. 3 (August 11, 2011): 393–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0212610911000139.
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AbstractThis paper focuses on the analysis of weak states in the international trading system during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic crises, especially on Portugal's trade relations with the United States. We argue that the previous studies of the trade flows during these conflicts have not paid enough attention on smaller actors. Even though the Peninsular War caused severe disruption of agricultural production in Portugal, the United States, despite its strained relations with an ally of Portugal, Great Britain, became a key supplier for the Portuguese market. Clearly, the threatened position of the peninsula, and the need to supply the troops, awarded the Portuguese some room to manoeuvre in the international markets. Total war was not a constraint for all states — economic necessities trumped political and diplomatic concerns during the era of the first real-world wars. This situation was a temporary one, only to change after the conflict.
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Shrestha, Mamata, and Saugat Khanal. "Future prospects of precision agriculture in Nepal." Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5, no. 3 (September 25, 2020): 397–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.0503023.
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Precision agriculture is a management system based on information and technology which analyses the spatial and temporal variability within the field and addresses them systematically for optimizing productivity, profitability, and environmental sustainability. It is an emerging concept of agriculture that implies a precise application of inputs at the right place, at the right time, and in the right amount to minimize the production cost, to boost profitability and reduce risks. The three main elements of precision agriculture are data and information, technology, and decision support systems. This system of management is known as ‘Site-specific management’ which makes use of technologies like global positioning system, global information system, remote sensors, yield monitors, guidance technology, variable-rate technology, hardware, and software. Agriculture is the mainstay of Nepal but still is not proficient enough to appease the daily consumption needs. The ongoing system of farming practices in Nepal is deemed insufficient to explore the available resources in its optimum potential. Many cultivable lands in the country are still a virgin, and many indigenous crop varieties have remained unexplored in their wilderness that is rich in biodiversity. These possibilities embark great room for increasing agricultural productivity through the precision farming system if adopted the technology on a large scale within the country. The national economy can be flustered and the environment can also be conserved using precision agriculture. It can address all agricultural and environmental issues. It is a technically sophisticated system and requires great technical knowledge for successful adoption and implementation. This study examines the history, global scenario, scope of precision agriculture, and its importance, opportunities, threats, and challenges in Nepal.
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ALLEN, D. E. "Walking the swards: medical education and the rise and spread of the botanical field class." Archives of Natural History 27, no. 3 (October 2000): 335–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2000.27.3.335.
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Physic gardens expressly for teaching medical students to recognise herbs in the living state originated in northern Italy in 1543 and became a facility to which Europe's leading universities increasingly aspired. In default of one, the practice arose of taking students into the countryside instead; but that depended on there being a teacher who was also a keen field botanist. In the seventeenth century Paris, London and Edinburgh replaced Montpellier and Basle as the principal centres of this more informal approach, which eventually had one or two commercial imitators as well. When stricter qualifications governing medical practice in Britain induced a great expansion of medical schools there after 1815 student excursions were taken in Scotland to new heights of popularity and ambitiousness. Having originated in a need to protect future practitioners from being duped by their suppliers, field classes ended up by generating the publication of floras, a market for botanical collecting equipment and, above all, a simpler model for local associations of naturalists which liberated them from an inherited organisational straitjacket.
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Jackson, Jeremy B. C. "The future of the oceans past." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365, no. 1558 (November 27, 2010): 3765–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0278.
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Major macroevolutionary events in the history of the oceans are linked to changes in oceanographic conditions and environments on regional to global scales. Even small changes in climate and productivity, such as those that occurred after the rise of the Isthmus of Panama, caused major changes in Caribbean coastal ecosystems and mass extinctions of major taxa. In contrast, massive influxes of carbon at the end of the Palaeocene caused intense global warming, ocean acidification, mass extinction throughout the deep sea and the worldwide disappearance of coral reefs. Today, overfishing, pollution and increases in greenhouse gases are causing comparably great changes to ocean environments and ecosystems. Some of these changes are potentially reversible on very short time scales, but warming and ocean acidification will intensify before they decline even with immediate reduction in emissions. There is an urgent need for immediate and decisive conservation action. Otherwise, another great mass extinction affecting all ocean ecosystems and comparable to the upheavals of the geological past appears inevitable.
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deJong-Lambert, William. "Hermann J. Muller, Theodosius Dobzhansky, Leslie Clarence Dunn, and the Reaction to Lysenkoism in the United States." Journal of Cold War Studies 15, no. 1 (January 2013): 78–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws_a_00309.
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This article outlines the response of three U.S. geneticists—Hermann Muller, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and Leslie Dunn—to the anti-genetics campaign launched by the Soviet agronomist Trofim Lysenko. The Cold War provided a hospitable environment for Lysenko's argument that genetics was racist, fascist science. In 1948, at a session of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lysenko succeeded in banning genetics in the USSR. The movement against genetics soon spread to Soviet-allied states around the globe. Efforts to rebut Lysenkoism were launched in the United States, Great Britain, and other Western countries by scientists who saw Lysenko as a pseudo-scientific charlatan. Muller, Dobzhansky, and Dunn were among the biologists most active in this counter-campaign. The history of their campaign reveals the challenges scientists faced at an important moment in the field of biology, with the recent synthesis of genetics and Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, as well as the difficulties of engaging in politics and persuading a lay audience to support their ideas.
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Badgley, Catherine, and John A. Finarelli. "Diversity dynamics of mammals in relation to tectonic and climatic history: comparison of three Neogene records from North America." Paleobiology 39, no. 3 (2013): 373–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1666/12024.
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In modern ecosystems, regions of topographic heterogeneity, when compared with nearby topographically homogeneous regions, support high species densities of mammals and other groups. This biogeographic pattern could be explained by either greater diversification rates or greater accommodation of species in topographically complex regions. In this context, we assess the hypothesis that changes in landscape history have stimulated diversification in mammals. Landscape history includes tectonic and climatic processes that influence topographic complexity at regional scales. We evaluated the influence of changes in topographic complexity and climate on origination and extinction rates of rodents, the most diverse clade of mammals.We compared the Neogene records of rodent diversity for three regions in North America. The Columbia Basin of the Pacific Northwest (Region 1) and the northern Rocky Mountains (Region 2) were tectonically active over much of the Cenozoic and are characterized by high topographic complexity today. The northern Great Plains (Region 3) have been tectonically quiescent, with low relief, throughout the Cenozoic. These three regions have distinctive geologic histories and substantial fossil records. All three regions showed significant changes in diversification and faunal composition over the Neogene. In the montane regions, originations and extinctions peaked at the onset and close, respectively, of the Miocene Climatic Optimum (17–14 Ma), with significant changes in faunal composition accompanying these episodes of diversification. In the Great Plains, rodents showed considerable turnover but infrequent diversification. Peak Neogene diversity in the Great Plains occurred during cooling after the Miocene Climatic Optimum. These histories suggest that climatic changes interacting with increasing topographic complexity intensify macroevolutionary processes. In addition, close tracking of diversity and fossil productivity with the stratigraphic record suggests either large-scale sampling biases or the mutual response of diversity and depositional processes to changes in landscape history.
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Steiner, Philippe. "Wealth and Power: Quesnay's Political Economy of the “Agricultural Kingdom”." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 24, no. 1 (March 2002): 91–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10427710120115846.
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The Physiocrats “New Science” of Political Economy is often represented as unrelated to the pursuit of national power. A recent study (Fourquet 1989), which rests on the approaches of Fernand Braudel (1979) and Immanuel Wallerstein (1980), has radicalized the thesis already propounded by Edmond Silberner (1939) who claimed that Quesnay was profoundly ignorant of military matters and failed to understand the power struggles being played out on the seas and in the colonies. Did not Quesnay propose turning back to an agricultural economy, banishing industry, trade, and the navy—in short, all the active forces thanks to which Great Britain had snatched domination of the world economy from Holland and thanks to which she would prevent France from obtaining it?Yet this thesis is weak. It must be remembered that Quesnay's first economic writings date from 1756–57, that is to say a period when confrontation between France and England was at a peak, with the start of the Seven Years' War. How could an author who claims to de ne the economic government ofan agricultural nation ignore the military problems which were so crucial in this period? Even if he wanted to, how could he succeed in doing so once he came to deal with taxes and the highly sensitive question of finance? How could he make himself understood by his contemporaries with a political theory that set aside all the burning issues of the day? How could he find an audience among those developing the science of commerce who always accorded great importance to the pursuit of power?Under scrutiny the traditional thesis appears inaccurate. After recalling the writings of some of his contemporaries, whom Quesnay knew and read (section 1), I shall show that articles drafted between 1756 and 1757, like published or unpublished works which Mirabeau and Quesnay elaborated between 1757 and 1760, give significant room to the nation's military power, particularly when the economic government is in question (section 2). From the years 1763–64 the idea of a natural order does not lead Quesnay to neglect the pursuit of power (section 3). These links between power and wealth in the work of the founder of Physiocracy will lead finally to some remarks on political economy as a form of rationalization of politics.
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COLES, ALEC. "PRESTON, CD. Pondweeds of Great Britain and Ireland (BSBI Handbook No. 8). Botanical Society of the British Isles, London: 1995, reprinted 1996. Price £16.00. ISBN 0-0901158-24-0." Archives of Natural History 25, no. 3 (October 1998): 456. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.1998.25.3.456.
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Sharpe, Pamela. "The Women's Harvest: Straw-Plaiting and the Representation of Labouring Women's Employment, c. 1793–1885." Rural History 5, no. 2 (October 1994): 129–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793300000637.
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Increasing attention has recently been given by historians to the many informal ways in which women made economic contributions to rural labouring households in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Both Jane Humphries and Peter King have shown how important the exploitation of common rights, by gleaning for example, could be to the family economy. This is not to overlook the fact that certain types of women's and children's employment, such as lace-making and straw-plaiting were formally established in some rural communities. The research which has been carried out into straw-plaiting the hand twisting of straw for use in hat making – in certain agricultural counties of southern England, has shown that the plait work of wives and children could provide a substantial financial boost to the household income of poorly paid agricultural labourers. Indeed there were times when their combined earnings could far outstrip those of the man. Single plaiters were also reputed to be able to collect something of a dowry to put towards their marriages out of their plait earnings. Industries such as straw-plaiting, which employed mainly women and children are, not before time, beginning to be considered as sources of the gain in productivity potential of Britain in the Industrial Revolution era. It seems likely that the income earned in these industries will, at last, be included in measurements of labouring family budgets and standards of living.
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Kye, Seung Bum. "Uses of the Little Ice Age Theory in the Korean Academia of Korean History." Korean Society of the History of Historiography 46 (December 30, 2022): 11–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.29186/kjhh.2022.46.11.
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With emphasis on the question of why the 1600s and 1700s, well known as the age of chronic natural disasters caused by the Little Ice Age in Korean history, did not witness a decrease in population or a steady decline in the rate of population growth but rather underwent a rapid increase of population, this review article examines the preexisting studies that employed the Little Ice Age theory to explain the socioeconomic crisis in the late Joseon dynasty. In a premodern society, population growth is generally a byproduct of either a long-term increase in agricultural productivity or a steady influx of wealth through international trade. When such an economic growth is prolonged, a sort of population pressure takes place. If a society fails to breakthrough population pressure with either a new economic power or a new land for outmigration, it could stop economic growing or fall into poverty as we can see the case of nineteenth-century Qing China. During the so-called Little Ice Age in Korea, covering from the turn of the 1600s to the mid-1700s, let alone China and Japan, population grew remarkably in spite of chronic natural disaster and great famine, suggesting that the impact of the Little Ice Age on Korean society in a long term view was somewhat exaggerated. In this review article I challenge the current uses of the Little Ice Age theory in Korean academia of history.
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Dejong-Lambert, William. "From Eugenics to Lysenkoism: The Evolution of Stanisław Skowron." Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 39, no. 3 (2009): 269–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/hsns.2009.39.3.269.
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This article describes the relationship between Polish geneticist Stanisław Skowron's views on eugenics during the interwar period, his experiences in Nazi concentration camps during World War II, and his response to Trofim D. Lysenko's ban on genetic research in Soviet-allied states after 1948. Skowron was educated at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow and received funding from the Rockefeller Foundation to study in the United States, Italy, Denmark, and Great Britain from 1924 to 1926. His exposure to research being conducted outside of Poland made him an important figure in Polish genetics. During this time Skowron also began to believe that an understanding of biological principles of heredity could play an important role in improving Polish society and became a supporter of eugenics. In 1939 he was arrested along with other faculty members at the Jagiellonian and sent to Sachsenhausen and Dachau. In 1947 he published the first book updating Polish biologists on recent developments in genetics; however, after learning of the outcome of the 1948 session of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Moscow, Skowron emerged as one of the most vocal advocates for Michurinism. I argue that Skowron's conversion to Lysenkoism was motivated by more than fear or opportunism, and is better understood as the product of his need to rationalize his own support for a theory he could not possibly have believed was correct.
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HAFFER, J. "The origin of modern ornithology in Europe." Archives of Natural History 35, no. 1 (April 2008): 76–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/e0260954108000077.
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During the nineteenth century and into the early twentieth century, ornithology was deeply subdivided into systematic ornithology and field ornithology (natural history of birds). In the early 1920s, Erwin Stresemann (1889–1972) in Berlin, Germany, initiated the integration of both branches into a unified New Avian Biology through a change of the editorial policy of Journal für Ornithologie and through the publication of his large volume Aves (1927–1934) in Handbuch der Zoologie which became the founding document of modern ornithology in central Europe (“Stresemann revolution”). It was quickly recognized that birds are well suited for studies into the problems of functional morphology, physiology, ecology, behaviour, and orientation of animals. The “Stresemann revolution” went unnoticed in Great Britain, where the established editorial policy of the leading ornithological journal, The Ibis, from the 1920s to the mid-1940s was to publish articles based on a traditional definition of science, fact-gathering rather than answering open questions. Several authors who had published biological studies since 1900 remained on the fringes of British ornithology. One of these was David Lack (1910–1973) who, during the mid-1940s, was able to introduce the New Avian Biology to the United Kingdom against the resistance of the majority of conservatively minded older British ornithologists. As his own contributions to the New Avian Biology, Lack added the broad fields of evolutionary ecology and population biology of birds which, under his leadership, became the major research topics of the Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology at the University of Oxford.
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Nekrasov, S. A. "Electricity Consumption Growth in Russian Regions as a Factor of Their Socio-Economic Development." Economy of Region 18, no. 2 (2022): 509–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.17059/ekon.reg.2022-2-15.
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The indicator of specific (per capita) electricity consumption (SEC) is stabilising in developed countries and increasing in developing economies. At least since the mid-2000s, the difference between the two groups of countries in terms of available power has been decreasing. In contrast to this trend, the transition of Russia to a market economy is characterised by the divergence of regions in terms of SEC. SEC of regions, being on average similar to that of the Netherlands, France, Germany, Great Britain, began to differ by 20 times. The technocenosis theory shows the need to change this negative trend. The low electricity consumption of developing countries depends on their inability to increase its production. In Russia, the problem is due to the low potential of the consumption sector, primarily in regions with SEC below 4 MWh/person per year. The solution of this macroeconomic problem, namely, the reduction of the existing differentiation in regional specific electricity consumption will help maintain the structural stability of the Russian economy and ensure its functioning in the context of external environment changes. Creation of conditions for the energy consumption development in industrial and agricultural enterprises is not a sectoral task of the electric power industry. Considering the sanctions imposed on Russia, structural stability of the national economy can be increased by improving the investment climate resulting from a decline in electricity prices for new non-residential consumers in regions with SEC below the level of developing countries. For these subsidy depending “outsider” regions, an increase in the availability of electricity, rather than the construction of new energy facilities, stimulates the labour productivity growth, re-industrialisation, and emergence of growth points.
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Cleveland, David A. "Migration in West Africa: a savanna village prespective." Africa 61, no. 2 (April 1991): 222–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1160616.
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AbstractLocal migration in response to population pressure is part of the history of northeast Ghana. First by physical coercion, then by economic coercion, colonialism drastically changed the pattern of migration to one of long-distance movement from north-east Ghana and the northern savannas in general to southern Ghana. Migration in turn affected social organisation, agriculture and population dynamics n i savanna communities. While colonial policy was not always consistent, one dominant and ultimately effective strategy seems evident: to break up locally self-sufficient economies and societies in order to stimulate the temporary migration of labour from largely subsistence agriculture to work in commercial agriculture, mining and public works in the south. These sectors were directly tied to the European economy for the benefit of Britain. Low wages and poor working conditions encouraged most migrants to return to their savanna villages when they were sick, injured or too old to work.When Ghana gained its political independence from Britain this new pattern of migration had become firmly established and was maintained by changes in the social, economic and transport systems. Data from Zorse and the Upper Region show that migration at any one time takes about 50 per cent of working-age males and 15 per cent of working-age females to southern Ghana for periods of a year or more. Significantly increased dependency ratios mean that as a result of this migration each four remaining working-age adults must support themselves plus four dependants, instead of supporting only three dependants, as would be the case without migration. Since remittances by Zorse migrants are equal to only a small fraction of the value of their lost productive labour, the net effect of migration on the food consumption level of those remaining in the village will be determined by the balance between the increased output required of each remaining working-age adult and the decreased yield required of the total area of arable land. While I do not have all the quantitative data needed to resolve this question, statements by Zorse residents, evidence of chronic undernutrition, a long-term decrease in land productivity due to erosion and lack of organic matter, and serious labour shortages during periods of critical farm activity, suggest that the net effect of migration on Zorse is negative. That is, neither labour productivity nor land productivity is likely to compensate for the higher dependency ratio.While it may be true that migrants vote with their feet, the choice of paths is often determined by forces in the larger system beyond their control. The good news is that indigenous agricultural and demographic knowledge and practices in Africa may provide the starting point for a sustainable future if the patterns established by colonialism and reinforced by ‘modern’ economic development can be changed.
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BROWN, D. S. "BENTON, M. J. and SPENCER, P. S. Fossil reptiles of Great Britain. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Geological Review Series, Volume 10. Chapman & Hall, London: 1995. Pp xii, 386. Price £75.00. ISBN 0-412-62040-5." Archives of Natural History 23, no. 1 (February 1996): 150–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.1996.23.1.150a.
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Cochran, Thomas C. "The Culture of Technology: An Alternative View of the Industrial Revolution in the United States." Science in Context 8, no. 2 (1995): 325–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0269889700002040.
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The ArgumentThe purpose of this essay is revisionist on two counts: first, that the American colonies and early United States republic kept pace with Great Britain in reaching a relatively advanced stage of industrialization by the early nineteenth century and second, that the Middle Atlantic States shared equally with New England the innovative role in creating America's industrial revolution. In both cases the industrial leaders achieved their preeminence by different routes. By concentrating on the importance of the sources of machine power as the defining characteristic of industrialism, scholars have overlooked alternative paths to industrial change. In Britain steam power and the textile industry were the foundations of an industrial revolution. But in American colonies the use of water power and the growth of industries such as woodworking and building led to an equally revolutionary change in the production of machine-made products. Benign geography in colonial America provided abundant wood and water power and an excellent transportation system based on navigable rivers and a hospitable coastline. But the crucial factors were cultural: the compelling urge to do things with less human work, the open reception to new immigration, a younger and more venturesome population, a favorable legal and fiscal environment for enterpreneurs. In the American context the tendency of scholars to emphasize the leadership of New England was largely a result of the greater local availability of manufacturing records. But recent research has demonstrated that Philadelphia, the largest port of entry in the eighteenth century, was quite naturally a center of innovation in construction materials, woodworking machinery and shipbuilding to meet the needs of the expanding agricultural hinterland and the coastal trade. In sum, the values of an expanding, youthful, skilled population replenished by fresh and venturesome sources from abroad helped shape cultural values that were particularly favorable in the geographic environment of North America for alternative paths of rapid industrial growth.
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Kaverin, Alexandr V., Nadezhda A. Kaverina, Dmitry A. Masserov, Ilya S. Ushakov, and Darya A. Yanina. "Historical analysis of agricultural development and use of the territory of Mordovia (from the Neolithic to the present day)." Finno-Ugric World 12, no. 2 (August 7, 2020): 151–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.15507/2076-2577.012.2020.02.151-161.
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Introduction. From an environmental point of view, the article considers the appearance of agriculture and its development on the territory of Mordovia. Materials and Methods. The authors, focusing on a historical analysis of the processes of agricultural development and use of landscapes on the territory of Mordovia, came to the conclusion that lack of knowledge how to transform nature in the development process can lead to serious economic and environmental miscalculations, negatively affects the most important natural properties of socio-ecological systems, and above all, their productivity. A graphic model of the equilibrium state of the ecosystems of the natural-territorial complex of Mordovia was developed for the purpose of detailed consideration of the issue by N. F. Reimers’ method. Results and Discussion. Agricultural activities on the territory of the Republic of Mordovia, as well as in other regions of the Finno-Ugric peoples’ residence, have become the main cause of the disturbance of the ecological balance, its impact on soil, atmosphere, water, energy and biotic components of natural systems. It caused deep and large-scale processes of degradation of the natural environment. The destruction of natural vegetation, primarily woody vegetation, has had a great impact on the water balance: due to deforestation and plowing of land, erosion processes have sharply increased and droughts have become more frequent. The authors prove the predominant role of forest landscapes in the restoration and preservation of the region’s ethnoecosystem. Conclusion. The historical analysis made it possible to conclude that the history of agricultural development of the territory of Mordovia, as well as other Finno-Ugric regions of Russia, can be called the history of deforestation. All this raises with new force questions about the return to the Finno-Ugric regions of their natural forests and the intensification of scientific research in the field of optimal forest cover.
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Khan, Bilal Ahmad. "Demography of Jammu and Kashmir in Historical Perspective." Asian Review of Social Sciences 7, no. 3 (November 5, 2018): 143–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.51983/arss-2018.7.3.1453.
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At the time of the birth of India and Pakistan, the state of J&K with a population of four million people, most of it concentrated in the fertile valley of the Jhelum River of the Indus River system, was one of the least developed regions in the Indian sub-continent. The economy of the state was overwhelmingly rural and agricultural in character. Nearly 90 percent of people lived in villages and derived their livelihood from agricultural and related pursuits using traditional and low productivity techniques. The extreme backwardness of the state was reflected by the abysmal mass poverty, low literacy, high birth and death rate, low life expectancy, low population density etc. The size of population and its growth have a direct bearing on the economic development, social well being and political stability of a region. The history of population growth in the Jammu and Kashmir State is a record of constant impulses of immigration from the north-west, west-south and east directions. The main objective of the paper is to look the nature and trends of population change since the birth of Jammu and Kashmir and also examine thedemographic trends in view of historical perspectives of Jammu & Kashmir State. The State has great diversity in its terrain, climatic conditions and resource base which resulted uneven distribution of population.
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Gavrilov, Artem Vyacheslavovich. "Historiography of agricultural modernization problem of Russia from the second part of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century." Samara Journal of Science 6, no. 2 (June 1, 2017): 186–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201762220.
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The Russian history from the second part of 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century is a very significant period for the development of the country. One can say that at that time peasant community faced globalization challenge. Agricultural problem was a key issue, which penetrated the whole period bringing up political controversies, ideological strives, success in economical development, starvation in 1891, reforms and revolutions 80-90th of the 19th century were critical for the whole epoch as unsolved peasant issue at that moment was one of the reasons of revolutionary upheavals of the 20th century. For the last twenty-five years the study of different sides of peasant community life has progressed really far and has broken new ground. It is necessary to single out that this progress has been done due to extensive capabilities, which started in the soviet time as well as to the prerevolutionary study of this question. We single out following areas of focus in modern researches which form the problem of modernization of the agricultural sphere from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Firstly, it is the policy to peasant community and race because of the governmental deal. Then it is a huge amount of works dedicated to social-economical village development - peasant autonomy, farming and landed property, land market development, productivity of land, condition of labor force, cooperation problem and development of peasant industry, financial issue of the peasant community. Traditionally social-cultural development of the village is in the great demand including popular education, common law for peasants and the evolution of the peasant family.