Journal articles on the topic 'African elephant – Effect of poaching on'
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Farah, Naima, and John R. Boyce. "Elephants and mammoths: the effect of an imperfect legal substitute on illegal activity." Environment and Development Economics 24, no. 3 (February 27, 2019): 225–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x18000554.
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AbstractIn response to the CITES ban on trade in elephant ivory, mammoth ivory began to be produced in post-Soviet Russia. We investigate how this substitute to elephant ivory has affected the poaching of elephants. We argue that the early success of the 1989 ivory ban at increasing the African elephant population was driven in part by increasing supply of mammoth ivory. The more recent increases in poaching appear to be driven by increasing demand and falling African institutional quality. We find that absent the 80 tonnes of Russian mammoth ivory exports per annum 2010–2012, elephant ivory prices would have doubled from their $ 100 per kilogram level and that the current poaching level of 34,000 elephants per year may have increased by as many as 55,000 elephants per year on a population of roughly half a million animals.
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Foley, Charles A. H., and Lisa J. Faust. "Rapid population growth in an elephant Loxodonta africana population recovering from poaching in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania." Oryx 44, no. 2 (January 12, 2010): 205–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605309990706.
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AbstractWe studied the demography of a subpopulation of African elephants Loxodonta africana in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania, from 1993 to 2005. The Tarangire elephants had been affected by heavy poaching prior to 1993. We monitored 668 individually known elephants in 27 family groups. The population increased from 226 to 498 individuals, with mean group size increasing from 8.4 to 18.3. The average annual growth rate was 7.1% (range 2.0–16.9%). This approaches the maximal growth rate for African elephants, with corresponding minimal values for demographic parameters. The mean interbirth interval was 3.3 years, mean age of first reproduction 11.1 years, average annual mortality of elephants younger than 8 years 3%, and average annual mortality of adult females 1%. Probability of conceiving was positively correlated with annual rainfall. No significant density-dependent effects were recorded. Rapid growth was aided by high rainfall, low population density and release from the stresses of poaching. These results demonstrate that elephant populations are capable of rapid population increases for extended periods of time given the right ecological and social conditions. This has consequences for elephant conservation and management.
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Szott, Isabelle D., Yolanda Pretorius, Andre Ganswindt, and Nicola F. Koyama. "Physiological stress response of African elephants to wildlife tourism in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa." Wildlife Research 47, no. 1 (2020): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr19045.
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Abstract ContextWildlife tourism has been shown to increase stress in a variety of species and can negatively affect survival, reproduction, welfare, and behaviour of individuals. In African elephants, Loxodonta africana, increased physiological stress has been linked to use of refugia, rapid movement through corridors, and heightened aggression towards humans. However, we are unaware of any studies assessing the impact of tourism pressure (tourist numbers) on physiological stress in elephants. AimsWe used faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations to investigate whether tourist numbers in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa, were related to changes in physiological stress in elephants. MethodsWe repeatedly collected dung samples (n=43) from 13 individually identified elephants over 15 months. Using a generalised linear mixed model and a Kenward–Roger approximation, we assessed the impact of monthly tourist numbers, season, age, and sex on elephant fGCM concentrations. Key resultsHigh tourist numbers were significantly related to elevated fGCM concentrations. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased by 112% (from 0.26 to 0.55µgg−1 dry weight) in the months with the highest tourist pressure, compared to months with the lowest tourist pressure. ConclusionsManagers of fenced reserves should consider providing potential alleviation measures for elephants during high tourist pressure, for example, by ensuring that refuge areas are available. This may be of even higher importance if elephant populations have had traumatic experiences with humans in the past, such as poaching or translocation. Such management action will improve elephant welfare and increase tourist safety. ImplicationsAlthough tourism can generate substantial revenue to support conservation action, careful monitoring of its impact on wildlife is required to manage potential negative effects.
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Selier, Sarah-Anne Jeanetta, Rob Slotow, and Enrico Di Minin. "The influence of socioeconomic factors on the densities of high-value cross-border species, the African elephant." PeerJ 4 (October 27, 2016): e2581. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2581.
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Unprecedented poaching levels triggered by demand for ivory in Far East Asia are threatening the persistence of African elephantLoxodonta africana. Southern African countries make an important contribution to elephant conservation and could soon become the last stronghold of elephant conservation in Africa. While the ecological factors affecting elephant distribution and densities have extensively been accounted for, there is a need to understand which socioeconomic factors affect elephant numbers in order to prevent conflict over limited space and resources with humans. We used elephant count data from aerial surveys for seven years in a generalized linear model, which accounted for temporal correlation, to investigate the effect of six socioeconomic and ecological variables on the number of elephant at the country level in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (GMTFCA). Important factors in predicting elephant numbers were the proportion of total land surface under cultivation, human population density and the number of tourists visiting the country. Specifically, elephant numbers were higher where the proportion of total land surface under cultivation was the lowest; where population density was the lowest and where tourist numbers had increased over the years. Our results confirm that human disturbance is affecting elephant numbers, but highlight that the benefits provided by ecotourism could help enhance elephant conservation. While future studies should include larger areas and more detailed data at the site level, we stress that the development of coordinated legislation and policies to improve land-use planning are needed to reduce the impact of increasing human populations and agriculture on elephant.
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Peters, Anne. "Elephant Poaching and Ivory Trafficking as a Threat to the Peace." AJIL Unbound 108 (2014): 162–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2398772300002087.
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The two African states Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic have been struck by civil war enmeshed with military involvement of neighbouring states. The ongoing conflicts have been fuelled by the fight over the countries’ natural resources, ranging from diamonds over gold to ivory. Since the end of the 1990s, the UN Security Council and other UN bodies have been dealing with the conflicts in Congo, and have been trying to bring to an end and to sanction the serious violations of human rights and of IHL that have been committed by all sides in those conflicts. The international community’s attempt to come to grips with the so-called “blood diamonds”, inter alia through a multi-stakeholder process and certification scheme is well known. With two resolutions of January 2014, the UN Security Council addresses the destabilizing effects of the illegal exploitation of wildlife.
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Wiśniewska, Maggie, Ivan Puga-Gonzalez, Phyllis Lee, Cynthia Moss, Gareth Russell, Simon Garnier, and Cédric Sueur. "Simulated poaching affects global connectivity and efficiency in social networks of African savanna elephants—An exemplar of how human disturbance impacts group-living species." PLOS Computational Biology 18, no. 1 (January 18, 2022): e1009792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009792.
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Selective harvest, such as poaching, impacts group-living animals directly through mortality of individuals with desirable traits, and indirectly by altering the structure of their social networks. Understanding the relationship between disturbance-induced, structural network changes and group performance in wild animals remains an outstanding problem. To address this problem, we evaluated the immediate effect of disturbance on group sociality in African savanna elephants—an example, group-living species threatened by poaching. Drawing on static association data from ten free-ranging groups, we constructed one empirically based, population-wide network and 100 virtual networks; performed a series of experiments ‘poaching’ the oldest, socially central or random individuals; and quantified the immediate change in the theoretical indices of network connectivity and efficiency of social diffusion. Although the social networks never broke down, targeted elimination of the socially central conspecifics, regardless of age, decreased network connectivity and efficiency. These findings hint at the need to further study resilience by modeling network reorganization and interaction-mediated socioecological learning, empirical data permitting. The main contribution of our work is in quantifying connectivity together with global efficiency in multiple social networks that feature the sociodemographic diversity likely found in wild elephant populations. The basic design of our simulation makes it adaptable for hypothesis testing about the consequences of anthropogenic disturbance or lethal management on social interactions in a variety of group-living species with limited, real-world data.
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Mkuburo, Lameck, Cuthbert Nahonyo, Josephine Smit, Trevor Jones, and Edward Kohi. "Investigation of the effect of poaching on African elephant (Loxodonta africana) group size and composition in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania." Scientific African 9 (September 2020): e00490. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00490.
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Ishengoma, D. R. S., A. M. Shedlock, C. A. H. Foley, L. J. Foley, S. K. Wasser, S. T. Balthazary, and B. M. Mutayoba. "Effects of poaching on bull mating success in a free ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) population in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania." Conservation Genetics 9, no. 2 (May 15, 2007): 247–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10592-007-9332-0.
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Naha, Dipanjan, Suraj Kumar Dash, Abhisek Chettri, Akashdeep Roy, and Sambandam Sathyakumar. "Elephants in the neighborhood: patterns of crop-raiding by Asian elephants within a fragmented landscape of Eastern India." PeerJ 8 (July 2, 2020): e9399. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9399.
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Loss of forest cover, rise in human populations and fragmentation of habitats leads to decline in biodiversity and extinction of large mammals globally. Elephants, being the largest of terrestrial mammals, symbolize global conservation programs and co-occur with humans within multiple-use landscapes of Asia and Africa. Within such shared landscapes, poaching, habitat loss and extent of human–elephant conflicts (HEC) affect survival and conservation of elephants. HEC are severe in South Asia with increasing attacks on humans, crop depredation and property damage. Such incidents reduce societal tolerance towards elephants and increase the risk of retaliation by local communities. We analyzed a 2-year dataset on crop depredation by Asian elephants (N = 380) events in North Bengal (eastern India). We also explored the effect of landscape, anthropogenic factors (area of forest, agriculture, distance to protected area, area of human settlements, riverine patches and human density) on the spatial occurrence of such incidents.Crop depredation showed a distinct nocturnal pattern (22.00–06:00) and majority of the incidents were recorded in the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Results of our spatial analysis suggest that crop depredation increased with an increase in the area of forest patches, agriculture, presence of riverine patches and human density. Probability of crop depredation further increased with decreasing distance from protected areas. Villages within 1.5 km of a forest patch were most affected. Crop raiding incidents suggest a deviation from the “high-risk high-gain male biased” foraging behavior and involved proportionately more mixed groups (57%) than lone bulls (43%). Demographic data suggest that mixed groups comprised an average of 23 individuals with adult and sub adult females, bulls and calves. Crop depredation and fatal elephant attacks on humans were spatially clustered with eastern, central and western parts of North Bengal identified as hotspots of HEC. Our results will help to prioritize mitigation measures such as prohibition of alcohol production within villages, improving condition of riverine patches, changing crop composition, fencing agriculture fields, implement early warning systems around protected areas and training local people on how to prevent conflicts.
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Chakanyuka, Tatenda Leopold. "CITES and the African Elephant." Chinese Journal of Environmental Law 4, no. 1 (June 3, 2020): 44–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24686042-12340049.
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Abstract This article focuses on the impact of the ban of international trade of the ivory of the African elephant under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. This species is overpopulated in some countries and threatened in other countries. Overall, its current population and the level of decline suggest a species that is endangered. The population disparities have created misunderstandings in terms of how to address the issues. Controversy has surrounded the two instances of legal sales of ivory, and the continuing ban on ivory trade from 1989 has contributed to animosity between pro-ban Western ‘conservationists’ and anti-ban African countries, with accusations of ‘ecological imperialism’ being levelled at some of the protagonists. The article observes that the vast global ivory market has largely been sustained by countries that have failed to effectively enact laws and/or enforce them, as well as failing to deal with corruption and illegal markets within their jurisdictions. It is argued that identifying such culprit countries and their role in promoting elephant poaching and ivory trade, and identifying the reasons behind the poaching and illegal trade, is crucial in reducing the incidence of poaching. The article argues that with a better understanding of the illegal trade, CITES can take deliberate steps to assist countries involved in the ivory trade where they need that support.
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Chase, Michael J., Scott Schlossberg, Curtice R. Griffin, Philippe J. C. Bouché, Sintayehu W. Djene, Paul W. Elkan, Sam Ferreira, et al. "Continent-wide survey reveals massive decline in African savannah elephants." PeerJ 4 (August 31, 2016): e2354. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2354.
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African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are imperiled by poaching and habitat loss. Despite global attention to the plight of elephants, their population sizes and trends are uncertain or unknown over much of Africa. To conserve this iconic species, conservationists need timely, accurate data on elephant populations. Here, we report the results of the Great Elephant Census (GEC), the first continent-wide, standardized survey of African savannah elephants. We also provide the first quantitative model of elephant population trends across Africa. We estimated a population of 352,271 savannah elephants on study sites in 18 countries, representing approximately 93% of all savannah elephants in those countries. Elephant populations in survey areas with historical data decreased by an estimated 144,000 from 2007 to 2014, and populations are currently shrinking by 8% per year continent-wide, primarily due to poaching. Though 84% of elephants occurred in protected areas, many protected areas had carcass ratios that indicated high levels of elephant mortality. Results of the GEC show the necessity of action to end the African elephants’ downward trajectory by preventing poaching and protecting habitat.
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Maingi, John K., Joseph M. Mukeka, Daniel M. Kyale, and Robert M. Muasya. "Spatiotemporal patterns of elephant poaching in south-eastern Kenya." Wildlife Research 39, no. 3 (2012): 234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr11017.
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Context Poaching of the African elephant for ivory had been on the increase since 1997 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) allowed a one-off legal sale of ivory by several southern Africa countries. In Kenya, reports indicate continuous year-to-year increase in elephant poaching since 2003. Aims The goals of the study were to describe the temporal and spatial patterns of elephant poaching in south-eastern Kenya between 1990 and 2009, and examine relationships between observed patterns of poaching, and human and biophysical variables. The study aimed to answer the following questions: (1) how has elephant poaching varied seasonally and annually; (2) what are the spatial patterns of elephant poaching in the Tsavo Conservation Area (TCA); and (3) what are the relationships between observed patterns of poaching and human and biophysical variables? Methods The study used elephant-poaching data and various GIS-data layers representing human and environmental variables to describe the spatial and temporal patterns of elephant poaching. The observed patterns were then related to environmental and anthropogenic variables using correlation and regression analyses. Key results Elephant poaching was clustered, with a majority of the poaching occurring in the dry season. Hotspots of poaching were identified in areas with higher densities of roads, waterholes, rivers and streams. The Tsavo East National Park and the Tsavo National Park accounted for 53.7% and 44.8% of all poached elephants, respectively. The best predictors for elephant poaching were density of elephants, condition of vegetation, proximity to ranger bases and outposts, and densities of roads and rivers. Conclusions Predictor variables used in the study explained 61.5–78% of the total variability observed in elephant poaching. The location of the hotspots suggests that human–wildlife conflicts in the area may be contributing to poaching and that factors that quantify community attitudes towards elephant conservation may provide additional explanation for observed poaching patterns. Implications The poaching hotpots identified can be a used as starting point by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) to begin implementing measures that ensure local-community support for conservation, whereas on other hotspots, it will be necessary to beef-up anti-poaching activities. There is a need for Kenya to legislate new anti-poaching laws that are a much more effective deterrence to poaching than currently exist.
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Wasser, S. K., L. Brown, C. Mailand, S. Mondol, W. Clark, C. Laurie, and B. S. Weir. "Genetic assignment of large seizures of elephant ivory reveals Africa’s major poaching hotspots." Science 349, no. 6243 (June 18, 2015): 84–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa2457.
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Poaching of elephants is now occurring at rates that threaten African populations with extinction. Identifying the number and location of Africa’s major poaching hotspots may assist efforts to end poaching and facilitate recovery of elephant populations. We genetically assign origin to 28 large ivory seizures (≥0.5 metric tons) made between 1996 and 2014, also testing assignment accuracy. Results suggest that the major poaching hotspots in Africa may be currently concentrated in as few as two areas. Increasing law enforcement in these two hotspots could help curtail future elephant losses across Africa and disrupt this organized transnational crime.
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STILES, DANIEL. "The ivory trade and elephant conservation." Environmental Conservation 31, no. 4 (December 2004): 309–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892904001614.
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In response to significant elephant population declines in the 1970s and 1980s because of poaching for ivory, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) banned the international trade in Asian and African elephant species by listing them on Appendix I in 1973 and 1989, respectively. Many southern African countries disagreed with the African elephant trade ban and have continued to argue against it since the mid-1980s. They maintain that their governments practise sound wildlife management policies and actions and, as a consequence, their national elephant populations have reached unsustainable size. They argue that they should not be penalized because other countries cannot manage their wildlife. Further, they say they need the proceeds from ivory and other by-product sales to finance conservation efforts. In 1997, the CITES Conference of Parties voted to allow Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe to auction off 50 tonnes of government ivory stockpiles to Japanese traders on a one-off experimental basis, which took place in 1999. Ivory trade opponents allege that this sale stimulated ivory demand, resulting in a surge of elephant poaching. Nevertheless, CITES voted again in 2002 to allow Botswana, Namibia and South Africa to auction off another 60 tonnes of ivory after May 2004. Trade opponents have launched an active campaign to prevent the sales, warning that they could provoke a renewed elephant holocaust. This paper reviews available quantitative evidence on ivory trade and elephant killing to evaluate the arguments of the ivory trade proponents and opponents. The evidence supports the view that the trade bans resulted generally in lower levels of ivory market scale and elephant poaching than prevailed prior to 1990. There is little evidence to support claims that the 1999 southern African ivory auctions stimulated ivory demand or elephant poaching. Levels of elephant poaching and illegal ivory trading in a country are more likely to be related to wildlife management practices, law enforcement and corruption than to choice of CITES appendix listings and consequent extent of trade restrictions. Elephant conservation and public welfare can be better served by legal ivory trade than by a trade ban, but until demand for ivory can be restrained and various monitoring and regulation measures are put into place it is premature for CITES to permit ivory sales.
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Douglas-Hamilton, I. "African elephants: population trends and their causes." Oryx 21, no. 1 (January 1987): 11–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300020433.
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In 1985 many African elephant populations, which had been monitored for a decade or more, were either in rapid decline or down to a fraction of their former size. The author examines regional trends and information on key populations with reference to the critical factors affecting the survival of the African elephant, most significantly poaching and the illegal trade in ivory
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Wang, Shuokai, Zhen Cai, Yuxuan Hu, Giuseppe T. Cirella, and Yi Xie. "Chinese Resident Preferences for African Elephant Conservation: Choice Experiment." Diversity 12, no. 12 (November 28, 2020): 453. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d12120453.
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Despite passionate efforts to preserve African elephants worldwide, their numbers continue to decline. Some conservation programs have suspended operations because the funds provided by various governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) cannot cover the enormous expenses of countering poaching, habitat destruction, and illegal ivory trading. This study investigates Chinese resident preferences for African elephant conservation using a choice experiment model. Results indicated that two-thirds of our 442 respondents with relatively higher education and income levels were willing to donate to conserve African elephants. Respondents were willing to donate RMB 1593.80 (USD 231.65) annually to African elephant conservation. Chinese residents were willing to donate the most to anti-poaching RMB 641.25 (USD 93.20), followed by enhancing habitat quality RMB 359.07 (USD 52.22), combating the illegal trade in ivory RMB 355.63 (USD 51.69), and alleviating human–elephant conflicts RMB 237.85 (USD 34.57). Our results suggest that accepting public donations could be an efficient way for NGOs to better preserve African elephants.
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Barnes, R. F. W., M. Agnagna, M. P. T. Alers, A. Blom, G. Doungoube, M. Fay, T. Masunda, J. C. Ndo Nkoumou, C. Sikubwabo Kiyengo, and M. Tchamba. "Elephants and ivory poaching in the forests of equatorial Africa." Oryx 27, no. 1 (January 1993): 27–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300023929.
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Reconnaissance surveys were made of the forests of four central African countries to establish, for the first time, the status of forest-dwelling elephants. The results, when combined with information from previous surveys in other countries, provide a picture of the elephant situation in the forest zone, and especially the impact of poaching. About one-third of the forest elephant population of central Africa is to be found in Zaire, and about one-third in Gabon. The rest are in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and Congo. It is poaching for ivory, rather than the growth of human populations, which threatens the elephants of the equatorial forests.
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Campbell-Staton, Shane C., Brian J. Arnold, Dominique Gonçalves, Petter Granli, Joyce Poole, Ryan A. Long, and Robert M. Pringle. "Ivory poaching and the rapid evolution of tusklessness in African elephants." Science 374, no. 6566 (October 22, 2021): 483–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abe7389.
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Lose the tusks Harvest and poaching of wildlife have increased as the human population and our technology have grown. These pressures now occur on such a scale that they can be considered selective drivers. Campbell-Staton et al . show that this phenomenon has occurred in African elephants, which are poached for their ivory, during the 20-year Mozambican civil war (see the Perspective by Darimont and Pelletier). In response to heavy poaching by armed forces, African elephant populations in Gorongosa National Park declined by 90%. As the population recovered after the war, a relatively large proportion of females were born tuskless. Further exploration revealed this trait to be sex linked and related to specific genes that generated a tuskless phenotype more likely to survive in the face of poaching. —SNV
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Pretorius, Yolanda, Marion E. Garaï, and Lucy A. Bates. "The status of African elephant Loxodonta africana populations in South Africa." Oryx 53, no. 4 (April 15, 2018): 757–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605317001454.
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AbstractWith an increase in poaching of elephants Loxodonta africana across Africa, it is vital to know exactly how many elephants remain and where they occur, to ensure that protection and management are planned appropriately. From a nationwide survey we provide current population and distribution data for elephants in South Africa. We consider the viability of elephant populations in the country, as well as some of the management techniques implemented and how effective these are in controlling elephant numbers. According to our surveys there were 28,168 elephants in South Africa as of December 2015, with 78% of these occurring in Kruger National Park and reserves bordering and open to the Park. Of the country's 78 discrete reserves that host elephants, 77% have populations of < 100 elephants, which could mean they are not genetically viable. We discuss our findings in terms of the conservation value of South Africa's elephant reserves, and the animal welfare implications. We recommend that the fragmentation of elephant habitat in the country be addressed through a national elephant management strategy that promotes wildlife corridors between existing, neighbouring elephant reserves.
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Lemieux, A. M., and R. V. Clarke. "The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa." British Journal of Criminology 49, no. 4 (June 17, 2009): 451–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azp030.
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Santiapillai, Charles, Ajith Silva, Champika Karyawasam, Shameema Esufali, Salila Jayaniththi, Mano Basnayake, Vasantha Unantenne, and S. Wijeyamohan. "Trade in Asian elephant ivory in Sri Lanka." Oryx 33, no. 2 (April 1999): 176–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00041.x.
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AbstractElephants Elephas maximus have declined in range and number in the wild in Sri Lanka, from c. 12,000 at the turn of the nineteenth century to c. 4000 today. While in the distant past the decline in elephant numbers was due largely to indiscriminate killing by sportsmen and trophy hunters, today elephants are being killed primarily because they interfere with agriculture. Human-elephant conflicts have increased substantially in the recent past and ivory poaching has become a byproduct of such conflicts. Elephant tusks have been used traditionally in the ivory-carving industry in Sri Lanka since the time of the ancient kings. Until the turn of the century, very little ivory was imported from Africa because there was a plentiful supply of tuskers locally available. Sri Lankan ivory carvers started to use African ivory in 1910. Today ivory and fake-ivory products are sold openly to tourists in some 86 shops in the island. Before the listing of the African elephant in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the value of raw ivory in Sri Lanka used to be $US228–285 per kg. After the listing, the price fell to $US72 per kg, reflecting a drastic drop in the demand for ivory from tourists. Many ivory carvers have switched to other jobs or are using substitutes (such as bone and horn) to produce fake-ivory carvings. Only about 7.5 per cent of bulls in Sri Lanka are tuskers and they are under poaching pressure outside protected areas. Given the rarity of tuskers in Sri Lanka, promotion of trade in ivory products, even locally, may pose a serious threat to their long-term survival in the wild.
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Kuiper, Timothy, Blessing Kavhu, Nobesuthu A. Ngwenya, Roseline Mandisodza-Chikerema, and E. J. Milner-Gulland. "Rangers and modellers collaborate to build and evaluate spatial models of African elephant poaching." Biological Conservation 243 (March 2020): 108486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108486.
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Made Dwi Mahayuni Dharmayanti, Anak Agung Sagung Laksmi Dewi, and I. Nyoman Sutama. "Sanksi Pidana terhadap Pelaku Perburuan Gading Gajah di Indonesia." Jurnal Interpretasi Hukum 3, no. 1 (March 2, 2022): 164–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.22225/juinhum.3.1.4738.164-168.
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Humans as social beings have different behaviors, traits and attitudes from one another. Humans do various ways to meet their needs, one of which is hunting. Hunting for elephant tusks is one of the causes of the decline in the elephant population. Thus, criminal sanctions against the perpetrators are one of the things that need to be considered to keep the elephant population from becoming extinct. This research aims to reveal the form of criminal sanctions against perpetrators of poaching elephant ivory in Indonesia. The method used is a normative legal research method with an approach to legal norms in accordance with the applicable laws and regulations. Sources of data used in the form of primary, secondary and tertiary data. Data were analyzed by descriptive method. The analyzed data reveals that the legal regulation regarding the prohibition of hunting for elephant ivory in Indonesia is contained in Article 21 paragraph (2) of Law Number 5 of 1990 and Article 17 jo. Article 20 of Government Regulation Number 13 of 1994. Criminal sanctions against perpetrators of poaching elephant ivory are regulated in Article 40 of Law Number 5 of 1990. Law enforcers are expected to provide the fairest sanctions and can provide a deterrent effect to perpetrators so that perpetrators and potential perpetrators do not do the same thing.
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Goldenberg, Shifra Z., Iain Douglas-Hamilton, and George Wittemyer. "Inter-generational change in African elephant range use is associated with poaching risk, primary productivity and adult mortality." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1879 (May 23, 2018): 20180286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0286.
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Repeated use of the same areas may benefit animals as they exploit familiar sites, leading to consistent home ranges over time that can span generations. Changing risk landscapes may reduce benefits associated with home range fidelity, however, and philopatric animals may alter movement in response to new pressures. Despite the importance of range changes to ecological and evolutionary processes, little tracking data have been collected over the long-term nor has range change been recorded in response to human pressures across generations. Here, we investigate the relationships between ecological, demographic and human variables and elephant ranging behaviour across generations using 16 years of tracking data from nine distinct female social groups in a population of elephants in northern Kenya that was heavily affected by ivory poaching during the latter half of the study. Nearly all groups—including those that did not experience loss of mature adults—exhibited a shift north over time, apparently in response to increased poaching in the southern extent of the study area. However, loss of mature adults appeared to be the primary indicator of range shifts and expansions, as generational turnover was a significant predictor of range size increases and range centroid shifts. Range expansions and northward shifts were associated with higher primary productivity and lower poached carcass densities, while westward shifts exhibited a trend to areas with higher values of primary productivity and higher poached carcass densities relative to former ranges. Together these results suggest a trade-off between resource access, mobility and safety. We discuss the relevance of these results to elephant conservation efforts and directions meriting further exploration in this disrupted society of a keystone species.
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Rosen, Meghan. "Life & evolution: Ivory DNA tracks elephant poaching: Two African regions ID'd as centers of illegal trafficking." Science News 188, no. 2 (July 14, 2015): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/scin.2015.188002008.
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Chamaillé-Jammes, Simon, Hervé Fritz, and Ricardo M. Holdo. "Spatial relationship between elephant and sodium concentration of water disappears as density increases in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe." Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, no. 6 (October 29, 2007): 725–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467407004531.
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African elephants Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach) may profoundly affect vegetation and associated animal bio-diversity in savannas (Conybeare 2004, Skarpe et al. 2004). Understanding the patterns of habitat use by elephants is crucial to predict their impacts on ecosystems (Ben-Shahar 1993, Nelleman et al. 2002), particularly now that many populations are recovering from past culling events or poaching outbreaks (Blanc et al. 2007). Surface water is one of the major constraints on elephant distribution (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007, Stokke & du Toit 2002), and accordingly, elephant impacts are higher in the vicinity of water (Ben-Shahar 1993, de Beer et al. 2006). However, waterhole selection by elephant remains poorly understood. Weir (1972) showed in Hwange National Park (hereafter Hwange NP), Zimbabwe, that elephant numbers at waterholes over 24 h increased with the sodium concentration of water on nutrient-poor Kalahari sands. His work has become widely cited in elephant studies as it remains the only one, to the best of our knowledge, to have studied elephant use of waterholes in relation to the mineral concentration of water. Weir's work, however, took place when elephant densities in Hwange NP were low, likely below 0.5 elephants km−2 as estimated by aerial censuses (Williamson 1975). Since then, the elephant population has increased dramatically, particularly since the halt to culling operations in 1986 (Chamaillé-Jammes 2006, Cumming 1981). The present elephant density is much higher, estimated to be over 2 elephants km−2 (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007, in press), and is one of the highest in the world (Blanc et al. 2007). Increased density may modify ecological constraints and affect the hierarchy of habitat selection processes (Morris 2003), and the extent to which water-nutrient selection still constrains elephant distribution at high population density – when their impact on savanna vegetation is the highest – remains unknown.
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Valášek, Vojtěch, Kateřina Pachnerová Brabcová, Jitka Kufnerová, Mihály Molnár, and Ivo Světlík. "REFINING RADIOCARBON DATING OF IVORY." Radiation Protection Dosimetry 198, no. 9-11 (August 2022): 675–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncac118.
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Abstract Elephants are on the verge of extinction due to extensive poaching to obtain ivory and illegal income. According to international law, the trade in ivory of African elephants is outlawed, with a few exceptions, as for example in European Union for antique ivory obtained before 1947. There is basically only one physical method for determining the age of ivory and that is radiocarbon dating. The method uses artificially temporarily enhanced 14C content in the atmosphere to date relevant samples with high resolution. Since this advantage is slowly fading, the question arises of how to fill in the loss of the resolution. One possibility is exploiting the chronology of ivory. This work studies a whole elephant tusk and uses radiocarbon dating of samples obtained longitudinally and transversely from along the tusk to analyse the growth rate.
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Martin, Esmond. "The present-day Egyptian ivory trade." Oryx 34, no. 2 (April 2000): 101–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3008.2000.00105.x.
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AbstractThere are probably more illegal ivory items for sale in Egypt than anywhere else in Africa. The author visited the main tourist centres of Cairo, Luxor and Aswan in late 1998 and counted over 21,000 ivory items for sale. Most of the ivory has come from elephants hunted illegally in Central and West Africa. Traders still transport the raw tusks, by truck and on camels, through Sudan across the desert into Egypt. Since the 1990 CITES ban on the international commercial ivory trade, Egypt, a member state, has prohibited not only the import and export of ivory but domestic trade as well. Ivory sales continue openly, however, in the markets and hotels, and new ivory items are still being made. The main buyers are from France, Italy, Spain and Latin America. The Egyptian Government must enforce its legislation against this ivory trade to reduce the serious elephant poaching in the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan.
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Langbauer Jr., William R., Katharine B. Payne, Russell A. Charif, and Elizabeth M. Thomas. "Responses of captive African elephants to playback of low-frequency calls." Canadian Journal of Zoology 67, no. 10 (October 1, 1989): 2604–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z89-368.
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We conducted a series of playback trials with captive African elephants to identify behaviors that might indicate perception of calls by conspecifics. Our findings were as follows. (i) The elephants responded clearly to playbacks of prerecorded low-frequency elephant calls. Responses included, in rough sequence, lifting and stiffening of ears, vocalization, walking or running towards the concealed speaker, clustering in a tight group, and remaining motionless ("freezing"), with occasional scanning movements of the head. The occurrence of each of these behaviors increased substantially immediately after the playbacks. (ii) Elephants responded both to full-bandwidth playbacks and to playbacks of calls in which most of the energy above 25 Hz was filtered out, simulating the effect of frequency-dependent attenuation over distance. (iii) Elephants did not respond to a pure-tone control stimulus similar in frequency and intensity to the filtered elephant calls. Thus, the observed responses to elephant calls were not merely responses to an unexpected stimulus, but probably indicate recognition of a biologically meaningful signal.
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Western, David, and Lucy Vigne. "The deteriorating status of African rhinos." Oryx 19, no. 4 (October 1985): 215–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300025643.
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Rhinos have given conservationists cause for concern for many decades, and there have been regular reports in Oryx of their deteriorating status in several countries. Now the authors, former Chairman and Executive Officer, respectively, of the IUCN/SSC African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Group, give an up-to-date account of rhinos in Africa, their numbers, distribution, and descriptions of areas where they are particularly vulnerable, as well as those where conservation action is having a positive effect.
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Vijver, Claudius A. D. M. Van De, Charles A. Foley, and Han Olff. "Changes in the woody component of an East African savanna during 25 years." Journal of Tropical Ecology 15, no. 5 (September 1999): 545–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467499001017.
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Changes in density, structure and species composition of the woody component of the two predominant savanna types in Tarangire National Park, northern Tanzania, during a period of 25 y were investigated. The park is known for its large, increasing elephant numbers and high frequency of fires. In 1996 a study on woody species density, composition and age structure, which was first performed in 1971, was repeated, using the same transects and method. Access to the original data of 1971 allowed for a full comparison of the changes and an investigation whether these could be related to changes in elephant numbers and fire frequency. The total tree density declined during the 25 y, but the decline was not evenly distributed over the different height classes. Although the density of trees taller than 5 m declined significantly, the greatest decline occurred in the density of trees shorter than 1 m. The density of trees in the intermediate height class of 1–5 m did not decline. Although damage to trees by elephants increased during the 25-y period, c. 25% showed no browse damage and, except for some severely damaged trees, elephant damage was not found to reduce tree vigour. Elephants affected the size distribution of the savanna woody component much more than the density, while the data suggest no significant effect of fire on changes in tree density. The large decline in density of small trees was attributed to a severe drought in 1993. Based on large numbers of elephants during the past decades and on relatively low elephant impact on the total tree density, the present study suggests that the current elephant number of 2300 can be sustained in the park without causing detrimental effects, provided that their current range is maintained.
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Seaver, Kirsten A. "Desirable teeth: the medieval trade in Arctic and African ivory." Journal of Global History 4, no. 2 (July 2009): 271–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1740022809003155.
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AbstractThis article examines the Danish archaeologist Else Roesdahl’s hypothesis that, by the early fourteenth century, an abundance in Europe of elephant ivory from Africa caused a price drop that edged out walrus ivory, with a devastating economic impact on Norse Greenland that directly contributed to the colony’s collapse. While it seems clear that artisanal use of walrus ivory fell from the late fourteenth century onward, and that Greenland exports of walrus ivory decreased in the fourteenth century, evidence for a pre-1500 price drop for African elephant ivory in the European market is lacking. Nor can it be demonstrated that European demand for walrus tusks shrank prior to 1500. Roesdahl’s speculations about changes in the ivory trade and their effect on the Norse Greenland colony are therefore open to question as an explanation for the colony’s demise. An alternative view is proposed, namely that reduced export of Greenland walrus ivory was initiated by the Greenlanders themselves in response to political and economic changes in the Atlantic and North Sea region, at a time when codfish drew English fishermen and fish merchants ever farther west into the North Atlantic, and that the Greenlanders took part in that westward movement.
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du Plessis, Kara, Stefanie Birgit Ganswindt, Henk Bertschinger, Bruce Crossey, Michelle Deborah Henley, Mmatsawela Ramahlo, and André Ganswindt. "Social and Seasonal Factors Contribute to Shifts in Male African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Foraging and Activity Patterns in Kruger National Park, South Africa." Animals 11, no. 11 (October 27, 2021): 3070. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11113070.
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African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are well-known as ecosystem engineers with the ability to modify vegetation structure. The present study aimed to examine how male elephant foraging behaviour is affected across (a) season (wet versus dry); (b) time of day (before or after noon); (c) presence or absence of other elephants; and (d) reproductive state (musth versus no musth). Six radio-collared adult elephant bulls were observed twice per week from June 2007–June 2008 in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. Using generalized linear mixed effect modeling, results indicate that elephant bulls graze more during the wet season and browse more during the dry season. To potentially offset the costs associated with thermoregulation during the heat of the day, KNP elephants spent more time foraging during the morning, and more time resting during the afternoon. Male elephants also foraged significantly less when they were associated with females compared to when they were alone or with other males. This is likely due to male–female associations formed mainly for reproductive purposes, thus impeding on male foraging behaviours. In contrast, the condition of musth, defined by the presence of related physical signs, had no significant effect on foraging behaviour.
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Schlake, Emily L., Katherine R. Cassady, Erika J. Gruber, and Larry J. Minter. "Effect of Prolonged Serum Storage Time and Varied Temperatures on Biochemical Values in African Savanna Elephants (Loxodonta africana)." Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens 4, no. 1 (January 5, 2023): 12–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jzbg4010002.
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Blood samples are routinely collected from wild populations in remote locations with limited electricity, minimal diagnostic capabilities, and extreme environmental conditions. Under these conditions, serum samples may be stored for prolonged time under varied temperatures prior to processing, which could affect the ability to interpretation the results. This study’s objective was to evaluate the effects of delayed processing of serum samples and varied storage temperatures on biochemical values in African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana). Blood samples were collected from six elephants managed by the North Carolina Zoo. For each elephant, seven red top tubes were collected. One serum sample for each elephant was analyzed on Day 0 (control group). The remaining samples were stored under different temperatures including room temperature (23 °C), refrigeration (2.2 °C), and incubation (32.2 °C), with samples from each temperature group being analyzed on Day 5 and Day 10. Many of analytes (10 out of 18) did not change significantly regardless of storage temperature or time. Refrigeration improved stability in an additional four analytes over prolonged storage. We conclude that if serum is properly separated shortly after collection, many serum biochemical analytes can be accurately measured even after suboptimal serum storage, but refrigeration and prompt evaluation are still required for some analytes.
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Valeix, Marion, Hervé Fritz, Ségolène Dubois, Kwanele Kanengoni, Samuel Alleaume, and Sonia Saïd. "Vegetation structure and ungulate abundance over a period of increasing elephant abundance in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe." Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, no. 1 (January 2007): 87–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467406003609.
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This study investigates whether increases in elephant populations may influence the structure of African savannas, and consequently may affect other herbivores through changes in habitats. Two contrasting periods in terms of elephant population densities were compared in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: the early 1980s and the late 1990s. Elephant population density and other ungulate population densities were estimated for a c. 400-km2 area from road counts. Vegetation structure at the landscape scale was assessed using aerial photographs for the same area. All browsers and grazers declined between the early 1980s and the late 1990s, whereas elephants experienced a 16-fold increase. At the landscape scale, vegetation structure changed little with no evidence of an opening of the habitats. These results do not support any kind of medium-term facilitation between elephants and other herbivores. They rather suggest a negative effect of elephants on other herbivore species when elephants are present at high densities. This study rules out a scenario where the decrease of the different herbivore populations was caused by large changes in vegetation structure due to elephant activity.
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Songhurst, Anna, Graham McCulloch, and Tim Coulson. "Finding pathways to human–elephant coexistence: a risky business." Oryx 50, no. 4 (August 5, 2015): 713–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605315000344.
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AbstractFinding ways for people and wildlife to coexist requires affording both parties access to critical resources and space, but also a behavioural change by both to avoid conflict. We investigated pathway use in a population of free-ranging African elephants Loxodonta africana in the Okavango Panhandle, Botswana that share their range with humans in a multi-use, heterogeneous landscape. We used detailed ground surveys to identify and map elephant movement pathways, and mixed-effect models to explore factors influencing elephant numbers and movement behaviour on and around these pathways. We found deviation in pathway use among the elephant population, suggesting behavioural adaptations to avoid human-associated risk: avoiding pathways near settlements, particularly near larger settlements; avoiding pathways close to cultivated land; and adopting a safety-in-numbers strategy when moving through areas of human use. Our findings suggest there is opportunity to capitalize on risk avoidance by elephant populations, to minimize resource-use overlap and reduce conflict between humans and elephants. We discuss a strategy that involves ensuring appropriate protection of elephant pathways in land-use planning, using development-free buffer zones, combined with mitigation techniques along the interface with agricultural lands to increase risk levels and reinforce human–elephant interface boundaries. We recommend further examination of the use of landscape-level mitigation techniques that encourage elephants to use pathways away from human activity and help define spatial boundaries for management of human–elephant conflict in multi-use landscapes.
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Hunt, Kathleen E., and Samuel K. Wasser. "Effect of Long‐Term Preservation Methods on Fecal Glucocorticoid Concentrations of Grizzly Bear and African Elephant." Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 76, no. 6 (November 2003): 918–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/380209.
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Williams, Ellen, Anne Carter, Carol Hall, and Samantha Bremner-Harrison. "Social Interactions in Zoo-Housed Elephants: Factors Affecting Social Relationships." Animals 9, no. 10 (September 29, 2019): 747. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani9100747.
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Elephants have complex social systems that are predominantly driven by ecological factors in situ. Within zoos, elephants are held in relatively static social groups and the factors observed driving social relationships in the wild are largely absent. Little research has investigated the effect of social group factors in zoos on elephant social interactions. The aim of this research was to establish whether there is a relationship between social group factors and social behaviour, in order to identify factors that make elephant herds more or less likely to be compatible. Results will facilitate recommendations for optimum social groupings for zoo elephants. Behavioural data quantifying social interactions were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 at seven UK and Irish zoos and safari parks from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants. Social interactions were split into four categories: positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical and negative non-physical. Social interactions were related to age (positive physical higher and negative non-physical lower in calves than adults), personality (elephants with higher sociability scores engaged in more positive interactions and less negative interactions), presence of calves in the herd (herds with calves had more positive non-physical), relatedness to other elephants in the herd (positive non-physical were higher when relatives were in the group and negative non-physical were higher between unrelated elephants) and species (Asian elephants engaged in more positive non-physical than African elephants). A greater understanding of factors that may contribute to the success of zoo-elephant social groups is important for individual and herd welfare as it will enable evidence-based decisions which have minimal impact on social structures to be executed. This knowledge will enable proactive management approaches to be undertaken and will thus be paramount in ensuring optimal welfare for elephant herds moving forwards.
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Clegg, Bruce W., and Timothy G. O’Connor. "Harvesting and chewing as constraints to forage consumption by the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana)." PeerJ 4 (September 22, 2016): e2469. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2469.
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As a foundation for understanding the diet of African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana), adult bulls and cows were observed over an annual cycle to determine whether harvesting (Pt), chewing (Ct) and handling times (Ht) differed across food types and harvesting methods (handling time is defined as the time to harvest, chew and swallow a trunkload of food). Bulls and cows were observed 105 and 26 times, respectively (94 and 26 individuals), with a total of 64 h of feeding recorded across 32 vegetation types. Some food types took longer to harvest and chew than others, which may influence intake rate and affect choice of diet. The method used to gather a trunkload of food had a significant effect on harvesting time, with simple foraging actions being comparatively rapid and more difficult tasks taking longer. Handling time was constrained by chewing for bulls, except for the processing of roots from woody plants, which was limited by harvesting. Time to gather a trunkload had a greater influence on handling time for cows compared to bulls. Harvesting and handling times were longer for bulls than cows, with the sexes adopting foraging behaviors that best suited their energy requirements.
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Stanbrook, Roisin, Edwin Harris, Martin Jones, and Charles Philip Wheater. "The Effect of Dung Beetle Size on Soil Nutrient Mobilization in an Afrotropical Forest." Insects 12, no. 2 (February 7, 2021): 141. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects12020141.
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Despite recognition of its importance, little is known about functional aspects of soil macrofauna. Here, we investigated the effect of dung beetle body size on macronutrient movement (N, P, K, and C) from elephant dung into soil over 112 days in an Afrotropical forest. We report a large overall effect where more macronutrients are moved into soil over time when beetles are present compared to a control treatment. We also report a large effect of beetle body size on the amount of macronutrient movement, with larger dung beetles moving more nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and carbon from baseline measurements when compared to smaller sized dung beetles. The presence of smaller sized dung beetles showed a significant positive effect on potassium and phosphorus transfer only. We provide the first experimental evidence that the body size of African dungs directly influences the type of macronutrients recycled and discuss the importance of dung beetle body size for maintaining soil fertility.
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Hema, Emmanuel M., Valy Ouattara, Gnoumou Parfait, Massimiliano Di Vittorio, Djidama Sirima, Daniele Dendi, Wendengoudi Guenda, Fabio Petrozzi, and Luca Luiselli. "Bushmeat consumption in the West African Sahel of Burkina Faso, and the decline of some consumed species." Oryx 53, no. 1 (April 10, 2017): 145–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605316001721.
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AbstractTo explore the patterns of bushmeat trade in the Sahel we carried out a multidisciplinary study, focusing on Burkina Faso. We conducted baseline interview surveys to examine the variation in people's perceptions of bushmeat in relation to their place of residence (urban vs rural), sex and age. We also analysed the long-term (1985–2010) population dynamics of two ungulate species, the oribi Ourebia ourebi and the common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia, known to be among the main targets of the bushmeat trade locally. For the antelopes we chose as our study area a protected area (Nazinga Game Ranch) where poaching activities occur and are likely to represent a threat to the local wildlife. The results of the interviews underlined significant differences in bushmeat consumption between rural and urban areas. In particular, the probability of finding people who did not consume bushmeat increased in the urban area, where bushmeat is less available than in the rural areas. Sex and age did not have any effect on people's perceptions of bushmeat. In Burkina Faso bushmeat is still widely consumed, and this could be because the bushmeat trade is poorly controlled, with a lack of enforcement of the legislation. Long-term field surveys revealed that the oribi and the common duiker have declined significantly in Nazinga Game Ranch, suggesting that the bushmeat trade in Burkina Faso may have negative consequences in terms of the conservation outlook for these species.
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Samson Shimelse Jemaneh. "Exploring the management and integration of national parks in Northern Ethiopia: The case of Kafta Shiraro National Park." Open Access Research Journal of Life Sciences 1, no. 1 (August 30, 2021): 010–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.53022/oarjls.2021.1.1.0106.
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The study was conducted in Kafta-Shiraro in Northern region of Ethiopia. The study uses two important parameters to realize the objective of the study investigating themanagement and integration of the park, one is studying and explaining the community perceptions towards elephant (flagship species) conservation in Kafta Shiraro National Park (KSNP) and secondly compare and contrast the population structure and density of the (economically important plant) Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst inside and outside of the protected areas and the study contribute to the scientific bases for improved management of biodiversity and its conservation system. A total of 100 households were selected from 10 villages using a stratified random sampling. A rapid vegetation assessment survey was conducted in two Boswellia stands, inside the park and outside the park at villages in order to examine the status of the resource base. A total of 40 sample plots of size 20 X 20 m were laid at regular interval along parallel transects with smaller sample plots of size 5 X 5 m nested in the center of each plot for regeneration count. The conflicts between humans and wildlife in KSNP have been getting worse over time and underline the need to find a workable solution to stop the progress of encroaching human activities that are core factors in the conflict. The underlying factors were found to be free encroachment into the wildlife home ranges, mainly for cultivation and dry wood collection. The factors that contributed to the poor conservation of African elephant included weak community awareness and understaffed anti-poaching and patrolling team of the KSNP. The improper land use by host settlers locally called “wefrizemet” as well as legal settlers maximizes the level of habitat disturbance (threat of the elephants in the park) due to illegal cultivation with high number of livestock crossing to the park. B. papyrifera population structure illustrates that natural regeneration is lacking in all two study areas. Additionally, the population of Boswellia in the study areas is unstable and under threat due to lack of recruitments through regeneration. Based on the stands structure analysis, it is hypothesized that lack of natural regeneration is primarily caused by livestock grazing pressure and the absence of recruitment is largely caused by lack of seed production by mother trees as the result of intensive tapping of the frankincense. KSNP is deteriorating due to a lack of integration and development cooperation between the Park and the surrounding local community as well as administration the minimal managerial and institutional capacity of the Park, minimal alternative livelihoods for the surrounding communities, inadequate commitment among all officials in taking the Park as an issue of development agenda, absence of legal procedures and understandings on expansion of large scale farms, unplanned and non-integrated land use systems, and a lack of appropriate outreach programs needed to change the attitudes of the surrounding communities. Collaborative Park management is urgently required to rescue KSNP; agreement should be made from National to Woreda level stakeholders.
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Taylor, Peter John, Aubrey Munyai, Ian Gaigher, and Rod Baxter. "Afromontane small mammals do not follow the hump-shaped rule: altitudinal variation in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa." Journal of Tropical Ecology 31, no. 1 (December 8, 2014): 37–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467414000613.
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Abstract:Altitudinal transects of biodiversity are important to understanding macro-ecological patterns. Hump-shaped altitudinal profiles in species richness are a common pattern in terrestrial small-mammal communities studied previously mostly in New World mountain ranges. Based on capture–mark–recapture live-trapping conducted over four seasons (four nights per session) along an altitudinal transect from 1000 to 1747 m asl on the southern slopes of the Soutpansberg Mountains of northern South Africa, we recorded 12 species of small mammal, including nine rodents, two shrews and one elephant shrew (sengi). Three species of rodent and the sengi dominated the communities whilst six species were recorded with three or fewer captures. Although we found no effect of season, we found a significant linear increase in terrestrial small-mammal richness (but not Simpson's diversity, D) with altitude in the Soutpansberg Mountains located just north of the Tropic of Capricorn in South Africa. This trend could best be explained by an increase in the proportion of rocky cover and a change in vegetation from savanna to grassland. Peak densities of three common rodent species and one common insectivore varied from 10 ha−1 (Elephantulus myurus) to 54 ha−1 (Micaelamys namaquensis) and density showed no significant variation with season. However, density either declined (Aethomys ineptus) or increased (Rhabdomys dilectus and Elephantulus myurus) significantly with altitude; this variation was best explained by the proportion of rocky cover. Seasonal variation had a significant effect on body mass of two rodent species. A review of small-mammal studies from major mountain ranges in Africa and Madagascar found that the hump-shaped pattern is not common. Declines in richness with increasing altitude as well as cases of no significant altitudinal change were the most common patterns noted. Tropical African mountains (including the Soutpansberg with 27 species) have far higher small-mammal diversity than temperate African mountains.
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Botha, A. E., M. L. Schulman, H. J. Bertschinger, A. J. Guthrie, C. H. Annandale, and S. B. Hughes. "The use of a GnRH vaccine to suppress mare ovarian activity in a large group of mares under field conditions." Wildlife Research 35, no. 6 (2008): 548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr07136.
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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of active immunisation against GnRH on ovarian activity and serum progesterone concentrations in a large group of mares (10 control and 55 experimental) under field conditions as a model for wildlife species such as zebra and African elephants. Within the experimental group, mares were subdivided into three age categories: Category 1 (4 years and younger, n = 26), Category 2 (4–10 years old, n = 18), and Category 3 (≥11 years old, n = 11). Experimental mares were vaccinated intramuscularly with 2 mL (400 μg) of the GnRH vaccine Improvac (Pfizer Animal Health, Sandton, South Africa). Control mares received the same amount of saline solution. The vaccinations were repeated 35 days later. The ovaries and reproductive tracts of each mare were examined by means of rectal palpation and ultrasonography on Days 0, 35 and 70. Blood was collected weekly for determination of serum progesterone concentration until Day 175. On Day 35 after primary vaccination all of the control mares and 14.5% of the experimental mares showed evidence of ovarian activity on the basis of clinical examination and serum progesterone concentration. On Day 70, all control mares and none of the experimental mares showed evidence of cyclic activity. No age-related effect within treatment groups was found. The serum progesterone concentration indicated that all experimental mares remained in anoestrus until Day 175. Five of the control mares fell pregnant between Days 35 and 70. The five non-pregnant control mares continued to cycle until the end of the observation period. Having achieved such promising results in this trial we now plan to test the GnRH vaccine in Burchell’s zebra mares and African elephant cows.
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Palazy, Lucille, Christophe Bonenfant, Jean-Michel Gaillard, and Franck Courchamp. "On the use of the IUCN status for the management of trophy hunting." Wildlife Research 39, no. 8 (2012): 711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr12121.
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Context Whether trophy hunting is beneficial or a threat to the conservation of species is an open and hotly debated question. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is in charge of assessing the need for species protection at the global scale and providing a useful guide for sustainable exploitation and conservation. Consideration of the IUCN status in wildlife management and its consequences on the attractiveness of trophy-hunted species remains to be quantified. Aims The present study investigated the link between the IUCN status of the trophy species and its exploitation in 124 taxa. We expected that the number of trophies should be inversely correlated with the IUCN vulnerability status across species. Methods Using the database of the Safari Club International, one of the largest hunting associations worldwide, we investigated the effect (1) of the first status attribution and (2) of an upgrade of the IUCN status on the number of trophies recorded by the Safari Club International, by comparing the average number of trophies 5 years before and after a status change. Key results First, we found that the status attributed by the IUCN in a given year had no effect on the number of recorded trophies during the following 5 years. Second, upgrading the IUCN status led to an important decrease in the number of recorded trophies for most species (75%), except for the most vulnerable ones (African elephant, Loxodonta africana; banteng, Bos javanicus; lelwel hartebeest, Alcelaphus buselaphus lelwel; European bison, Bison bonasus). Conclusions Our results suggest that although a protective IUCN status lowers the exploitation of the moderately threatened species, hunting pressure on the most threatened one increases instead. The findings support the possibility of an anthropogenic Allee effect (AAE), i.e. a disproportionate exploitation of the rarest species. Implications The highly profitable exploitation of rare species could have harmful consequences, unless appropriate management actions and protection rules are enforced.
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Kuiper, Timothy, Res Altwegg, Colin Beale, Thea Carroll, Holly T. Dublin, Severin Hauenstein, Mrigesh Kshatriya, et al. "Drivers and facilitators of the illegal killing of elephants across 64 African sites." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 290, no. 1990 (January 11, 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2270.
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Ivory poaching continues to threaten African elephants. We (1) used criminology theory and literature evidence to generate hypotheses about factors that may drive, facilitate or motivate poaching, (2) identified datasets representing these factors, and (3) tested those factors with strong hypotheses and sufficient data quality for empirical associations with poaching. We advance on previous analyses of correlates of elephant poaching by using additional poaching data and leveraging new datasets for previously untested explanatory variables. Using data on 10 286 illegally killed elephants detected at 64 sites in 30 African countries (2002–2020), we found strong evidence to support the hypotheses that the illegal killing of elephants is associated with poor national governance, low law enforcement capacity, low household wealth and health, and global elephant ivory prices. Forest elephant populations suffered higher rates of illegal killing than savannah elephants. We found only weak evidence that armed conflicts may increase the illegal killing of elephants, and no evidence for effects of site accessibility, vegetation density, elephant population density, precipitation or site area. Results suggest that addressing wider systemic challenges of human development, corruption and consumer demand would help reduce poaching, corroborating broader work highlighting these more ultimate drivers of the global illegal wildlife trade.
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Davis, Robert S., Louise K. Gentle, William O. Mgoola, Emma L. Stone, Antonio Uzal, and Richard W. Yarnell. "Using camera trap bycatch data to assess habitat use and the influence of human activity on African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kasungu National Park, Malawi." Mammalian Biology, November 28, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42991-022-00330-7.
Full textAbstract:
AbstractAfrican elephants (Loxodonta africana) are increasingly exposed to high levels of human disturbance and are threatened by poaching and human–elephant conflict. As anthropogenic pressures continue to increase, both inside and outside protected areas, understanding elephant behavioural responses to human activity is required for future conservation management. Here, we use bycatch data from camera trap surveys to provide inferences on elephant habitat use and temporal activity in Kasungu National Park (KNP), Malawi. The KNP elephant population has declined by ~ 95% since the late 1970s, primarily because of intensive poaching, and information on elephant ecology and behaviour can assist in the species’ recovery. Using occupancy modelling, we show that proximity to water is the primary driver of elephant habitat use in KNP, with sites closer to water having a positive effect on elephant site use. Our occupancy results suggest that elephants do not avoid sites of higher human activity, while results from temporal activity models show that elephants avoid peak times of human activity and exhibit primarily nocturnal behaviour when using the KNP road network. As key park infrastructure is located near permanent water sources, elephant spatiotemporal behaviour may represent a trade-off between resource utilisation and anthropogenic-risk factors, with temporal partitioning used to reduce encounter rates. Increased law enforcement activity around permanent water sources could help to protect the KNP elephant population during the dry season. Our findings highlight that camera trap bycatch data can be a useful tool for the conservation management of threatened species beyond the initial scope of research.
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Gamso, Jonas. "Aiding Animals: Does Foreign Aid Reduce Wildlife Crime?" Journal of Environment & Development, December 21, 2022, 107049652211348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10704965221134820.
Full textAbstract:
The illegal wildlife trade has come to the forefront of global politics, driven by concerns about biodiversity loss, illicit markets, and animal-borne infectious diseases. Yet, poaching remains common in many countries. The persistence of illegal hunting is attributable to (among other factors) poverty and poor labor market opportunities, which leave individuals in some communities with few viable alternatives to wildlife crime. Foreign aid that alleviates poverty and unemployment may, therefore, lead to a reduction in illegal hunting. However, cross-national research on aid and economic development offers mixed findings, suggesting a conditional effect. Against this backdrop, I theorize that aid reduces the economic pressures that contribute to poaching, but only in countries with representative political institutions. I test a corresponding hypothesis using data on elephant poaching in African and Asian countries. My findings show that aid is accompanied by a reduction in elephant poaching in democracies, but not in authoritarian countries.
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Steenkamp, G., S. M. Ferreira, and M. N. Bester. "Tusklessness and tusk fractures in free-ranging African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana)." Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 78, no. 2 (June 1, 2007). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/jsava.v78i2.294.
Full textAbstract:
The incidence of tusklessness varies between free-ranging African elephant populations. Sex-linked genetic drift predicts 2 outcomes - the condition becomes fixed and sex-specific incidences diverge when populations are small and/or heavily poached. By contrast, for large and intact populations, tusklessness diminishes and there is no variation between sexes. We tested these predictions by comparing sex-specific incidences between 15 populations: a small one with a skewed founder effect towards tusklessness; 5 that had experienced intense levels of poaching; 2 that had been subjected to non-selective culling and 7 that are relatively pristine. Patterns of rainfall were studied of tusk fractures amongst these populations to correct for any effect that acquired tusklessness may have on our predictions. The incidence of tusk fractures was related to annual rainfall, but the mechanism that leads to an increase of the condition in drier areas was not clear. Incidences of tusk fractures in free-ranging populations implied that the frequency of acquired bilateral tusklessness is low and should not affect our results. All males had tusks. Tusklessness in females was high in the small skewed founder population and some of those where there was a history of poaching. The incidence is expected to decline if the residual population is large.
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Parker, Jenna M., and George Wittemyer. "Orphaning stunts growth in wild African elephants." Conservation Physiology 10, no. 1 (January 1, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coac053.
Full textAbstract:
Orphans of several species suffer social and physiological consequences such as receiving more aggression from conspecifics and lower survival. One physiological consequence of orphaning, stunted growth, has been identified in both humans and chimpanzees, but has not been assessed in a non-primate species. Here, we tested whether wild African elephant orphans show evidence of stunted growth. We measured individually known female elephants in the Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves of Kenya, with a rangefinder capable of calculating height, to estimate a von Bertalanffy growth curve for female elephants of the study population. We then compared measurements of known orphans and non-orphans of various ages, using a Bayesian analysis to assess variation around the derived growth curve. We found that orphans are shorter for their age than non-orphans. However, results suggest orphans may partially compensate for stunting through later growth, as orphans who had spent a longer time without their mother had heights more similar to non-orphans. More age mates in an individual’s family were associated with taller height, suggesting social support from peers may contribute to increased growth. Conversely, more adult females in an individual’s family were associated with shorter height, suggesting within-group competition for resources with older individuals may reduce juvenile growth. Finally, we found a counterintuitive result that less rainfall in the first 6 years of life was correlated with taller height, potentially reflecting the unavoidable bias of measuring individuals who were fit enough to survive conditions of low rainfall as young calves. Reduced growth of individuals has been shown to reduce survival and reproduction in other species. As such, stunting in wildlife orphans may negatively affect fitness and represents an indirect effect of ivory poaching on African elephants.