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1
Reimann, Jan, Philipp Henckell, Yarop Ali, Stefan Hammer, Alexander Rauch, Jörg Hildebrand, and Jean Pierre Bergmann. "Production of Topology-optimised Structural Nodes Using Arc-based, Additive Manufacturing with GMAW Welding Process." Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction 10, no. 2 (May 15, 2021): 101–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.32732/jcec.2021.10.2.101.
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The desire to generate a stress optimised structural node with maximum stability is often coupled with the goal of low manufacturing costs and an adapted and minimal use of material. The complex, three-dimensional free-form structures, which are created by means of topology-optimisation, are only partially suitable for conventional manufacturing. The wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), by means of arc welding processes, offer a cost-effective and flexible possibility for the individual production of complex, metallic components. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is particularly suitable to produce large-volume, load-bearing structures due to build-up rates of up to 5 kg/h. The generation of strength and stiffness adapted support structures by means of the numerical simulation method of topology-optimisation was investigated in this study to generate topology-optimised structural nodes. The resulting node is transferred into a robot path using CAD/CAM software and manufactured from the filler material G4Si1 using WAAM with the GMAW process. Based on the boundary conditions of the WAAM process, the path planning and thus the manufacturability of the topology-optimised supporting structure nodes is evaluated and verified using a sample structure made of the welding filler material G4Si1. Depending on the path planning, an improvement of the mechanical properties could be achieved, due to changes in t8/5 times.
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Rauch, Matthieu, Jean-Yves Hascoet, and Vincent Querard. "A Multiaxis Tool Path Generation Approach for Thin Wall Structures Made with WAAM." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 5, no. 4 (November 30, 2021): 128. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5040128.
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Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged over the last decade and is dedicated to the realization of high-dimensional parts in various metallic materials. The usual process implementation consists in associating a high-performance welding generator as heat source, a NC controlled 6 or 8 degrees (for example) of freedom robotic arm as motion system and welding wire as feedstock. WAAM toolpath generation methods, although process specific, can be based on similar approaches developed for other processes, such as machining, to integrate the process data into a consistent technical data environment. This paper proposes a generic multiaxis tool path generation approach for thin wall structures made with WAAM. At first, the current technological and scientific challenges associated to CAD/CAM/CNC data chains for WAAM applications are introduced. The focus is on process planning aspects such as non-planar non-parallel slicing approaches and part orientation into the working space, and these are integrated in the proposed method. The interest of variable torch orientation control for complex shapes is proposed, and then, a new intersection crossing tool path method based on Design For Additive Manufacturing considerations is detailed. Eventually, two industrial use cases are introduced to highlight the interest of this approach for realizing large components.
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Dugar, Jaka, Awais Ikram, Damjan Klobčar, and Franci Pušavec. "Sustainable Hybrid Manufacturing of AlSi5 Alloy Turbine Blade Prototype by Robotic Direct Energy Layered Deposition and Subsequent Milling: An Alternative to Selective Laser Melting?" Materials 15, no. 23 (December 3, 2022): 8631. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15238631.
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Additive technologies enable the flexible production through scalable layer-by-layer fabrication of simple to intricate geometries. The existing 3D-printing technologies that use powders are often slow with controlling parameters that are difficult to optimize, restricted product sizes, and are relatively expensive (in terms of feedstock and processing). This paper presents the development of an alternative approach consisting of a CAD/CAM + combined wire arc additive-manufacturing (WAAM) hybrid process utilizing the robotic MIG-based weld surfacing and milling of the AlSi5 aluminum alloy, which achieves sustainably high productivity via structural alloys. The feasibility of this hybrid approach was analyzed on a representative turbine blade piece. SprutCAM suite was utilized to identify the hybrid-manufacturing parameters and virtually simulate the processes. This research provides comprehensive experimental data on the optimization of cold metal transfer (CMT)–WAAM parameters such as the welding speed, current/voltage, wire feed rate, wall thickness, torch inclination angle (shift/tilt comparison), and deposit height. The multi-axes tool orientation and robotic milling strategies, i.e., (a) the side surface from rotational one-way bottom-up and (b) the top surface in a rectangular orientation, were tested in virtual CAM environments and then adopted during the prototype fabrication to minimize the total fabrication time. The effect of several machining parameters and robotic stiffness (during WAAM + milling) were also investigated. The mean deviation for the test piece’s tolerance between the virtual processing and experimental fabrication was −0.76 mm (approx.) at a standard deviation of 0.22 mm assessed by 3D scanning. The surface roughness definition Sa in the final WAAM pass corresponds to 36 µm, which was lowered to 14.3 µm after milling, thus demonstrating a 55% improvement through the robotic comminution. The tensile testing at 0° and 90° orientations reported fracture strengths of 159 and 161.3 MPa, respectively, while the yield stress and reduced longitudinal (0°) elongations implied marginally better toughness along the WAAM deposition axes. The process sustainability factors of hybrid production were compared with Selective Laser Melting (SLM) in terms of the part size freedom, processing costs, and fabrication time with respect to tight design tolerances. The results deduced that this alternative hybrid-processing approach enables an economically viable, resource/energy feasible, and time-efficient method for the production of complex parts in contrast to the conventional additive technologies, i.e., SLM.
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Mu, Haochen, Joseph Polden, Yuxing Li, Fengyang He, Chunyang Xia, and Zengxi Pan. "Layer-by-layer model-based adaptive control for wire arc additive manufacturing of thin-wall structures." Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing 33, no. 4 (March 10, 2022): 1165–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10845-022-01920-5.
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AbstractImproving the geometric accuracy of the deposited component is essential for the wider adoption of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) in industries. This paper introduces an online layer-by-layer controller that operates robustly under various welding conditions to improve the deposition accuracy of the WAAM process. Two control strategies are proposed and evaluated in this work: A PID algorithm and a multi-input multi-output model-predictive control (MPC) algorithm. After each layer of deposition, the deposited geometry is measured using a laser scanner. These measurements are compared against the CAD model, and geometric errors are then compensated by the controller, which generates a new set of welding parameters for the next layer. The MPC algorithm, combined with a linear autoregressive (ARX) modelling process, updates welding parameters between successive layers by minimizing a cost function based on sequences of input variables and predicted responses. Weighting coefficients of the ARX model are trained iteratively throughout the manufacturing process. The performance of the designed control architecture is investigated through both simulation and experiments. Results show that the real-time control performance is improved by increasing the complexity of implemented control algorithm: controlled geometric fluctuations in the test component were reduced by 200% whilst maintaining fluctuations within a 3 mm limit under various welding conditions. In addition, the adaptiveness of designed control strategy is verified by accurately controlling the fabrication of a part with complex geometry.
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Anikin, P. S., G. M. Shilo, R. A. Kulykovskyi, and D. E. Molochkov. "Automation control system of 3d printing robotic platform with implemented wire + arc welding technology." Electrical Engineering and Power Engineering, no. 4 (December 30, 2020): 35–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.15588/1607-6761-2020-4-4.
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Purpose. Development of the robotic platform automated control system architecture, development of the software control algorithm.
Methodology. To implement the algorithm of the control program, computer modeling of thermal regimes in CAE systems is used. The basic parameters of the single layer printing technique were obtained by experimental use of the wire plus arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technology.
Findings. Requirements for manufacturability and printing quality of the manufactured parts were defined in the form of geometric dimensions, surface waviness, parameters of the desired microstructure state, residual stresses, maintaining of the optimal manufacturing speed. Based on the requirements of manufacturability analysis, an algorithm for the control program was developed. Robotic platform automated control system architecture with feedback device for the thermal mode control, parameters of the geometrical form of the manufactured part and weld pool were developed. Three -level hierarchical model, which gives an ability to consider in the process of 3D printing each level individually in terms of welding bead, layer and wall, was developed. The input data for the operation of the automated control system of the robotic platform using the technology of electric arc welding are determined. Basic geometrical parameters and the simple welding bead and the methods of overlapping of two or more beads were shown. Critical differences between ideal and real welding overlapping models were considered for necessity of taking into account whilst generating robot control software. Analysis of the possibilities for the CAE simulation of the three-dimensional printing using wire plus arc additive manufacturing technology is performed to determine the influence of the temperature parameters, mechanical loads, toolpath change, and based on the data obtained, it became possible to determine residual stresses and defects in manufactured parts.
Originality. Robotic platform automated control system architecture with feedback device for the control of thermal mode, parameters of the geometrical form of the manufactured part and weld pool was developed. Three-level hierarchical model for the wire plus arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technology was created. Software control algorithm which provides an opportunity to improve geometrical and mechanical properties of the manufactured parts was developed.
Practical value. Development of an automated control system for 3D printing robotic platform with WAAM implemented technology, which will provide an opportunity for increase in the printing accuracy of the manufactured parts and will help to reduce manufacturing time.
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Silwal, Bishal, Niraj Pudasaini, Sougata Roy, Anthony B. Murphy, Andrzej Nycz, and Mark W. Noakes. "Altering the Supply of Shielding Gases to Fabricate Distinct Geometry in GMA Additive Manufacturing." Applied Sciences 12, no. 7 (April 6, 2022): 3679. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12073679.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is the process by which large, metallic structures are built, layer-by-layer, using a welding arc to melt wire feedstock. In this process, the proper selection of the shielding gas plays a vital role in the achievement of structurally acceptable part geometries and quality surface finishes. In this study, the authors used either a ternary mix (He, Ar and CO2) or a binary mix (Ar and CO2) of shielding gases to deposit wall geometries using an open loop-controlled WAAM system developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s Manufacturing Demonstration Facility. The binary blend produced a wider and shorter geometry, while the ternary blend resulted in a narrower build that was more equivalent to the CAD geometry. The data indicated that the binary blend provided a higher oxygen concentration in the weld as compared to that of the ternary blend. The results imply that the arc characteristics and heat input had a significantly higher impact on the weld penetration than the surface tension effect of surface active elements. This was further verified by developing and applying a high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the thermophysical properties of gas mixtures. The results from the model showed that, while the influence of increased oxygen concentration on the surface tension for the binary blend led to a deeper penetration, the ternary blend gave rise to heat flux to the workpiece.
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Sarma, Ritam, Sajan Kapil, and Shrikrishna N. Joshi. "Build Strategies Based on Substrate Utilization for 3-Axis Hybrid Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Process." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2022 (May 30, 2022): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/4988301.
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The hybrid wire arc additive manufacturing (H-WAAM) process is one of the prominent methods for realizing large near-net-shaped metallic objects. In this process, a CAD model of the component is sliced into a set of 2D contours followed by the generation of toolpaths. An arc welding torch then follows these toolpaths for adding material over a substrate to realize the near-net shape of the object. These near-net-shaped objects are then followed by a machining operation to convert them into a fully functional part. It is always anticipated that the near-net shape of an object is produced quickly and upholds a high geometrical accuracy. Conventionally, the deposition rate is increased to reduce the build time but with a compromisation in the geometrical accuracy and material integrity. Therefore, in this work, the authors have investigated three substrate utilization methods, viz., (i) reusable substrate, (ii) embedded substrate, and (iii) integrated substrate to achieve the same goal. The build strategies for these three substrate utilization methods are illustrated through several examples. Also, a case study was performed for fabricating an impeller-like structure through a 3-axis H-WAAM setup. It has been observed that the embedded substrate method exhibits superior geometrical accuracy and takes less time to build the part as compared to other methods. A maximum of 64.34% of the material and 89.17% of build time is saved by adopting proposed build strategies compared with the traditional subtractive process.
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Wang, Xiaolong, Aimin Wang, Kaixiang Wang, and Yuebo Li. "Process stability for GTAW-based additive manufacturing." Rapid Prototyping Journal 25, no. 5 (June 10, 2019): 809–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/rpj-02-2018-0046.
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Abstract Purpose Traditional gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and GTAW-based wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) are notably different. These differences are crucial to the process stability and surface quality in GTAW WAAM. This paper addresses special characteristics and the process control method of GTAW WAAM. The purpose of this paper is to improve the process stability with sensor information fusion in omnidirectional GTAW WAAM process. Design/methodology/approach A wire feed strategy is proposed to achieve an omnidirectional GTAW WAAM process. Thus, a model of welding voltage with welding current and arc length is established. An automatic control system fit to the entire GTAW WAAM process is established using both welding voltage and welding current. The effect of several types of commonly used controllers is examined. To assess the validity of this system, an arc length step experiment, various wire feed speed experiments and a square sample experiment were performed. Findings The research findings show that the resented wire feed strategy and arc length control system can effectively guarantee the stability of the GTAW WAAM process. Originality/value This paper tries to make a foundation work to achieve omnidirectional welding and process stability of GTAW WAAM through wire feed geometry analysis and sensor information fusion control model. The proposed wire feed strategy is implementable and practical, and a novel sensor fusion control method has been developed in the study for varying current GTAW WAAM process.
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Klobčar, Damjan, Maja Lindič, and Matija Bušić. "Wire arc additive manufacturing of mild steel." Materials and Geoenvironment 65, no. 4 (December 1, 2018): 179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/rmzmag-2018-0015.
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AbstractThis paper presents an overview of additive manufacturing technologies for production of metal parts. A special attention is set to wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technologies, which include MIG/MAG welding, TIG welding and plasma welding. Their advantages compared to laser or electron beam technologies are lower investment and operational costs. However, these processes have lower dimensional accuracy of produced structures. Owing to special features and higher productivity, the WAAM technologies are more suitable for production of bigger parts. WAAM technology has been used together with welding robot and a cold metal transfer (CMT) power source. Thin walls have been produced using G3Si1 welding wire. The microstructure and hardness of produced structures were analysed and measured. A research was done to determine the optimal welding parameters for production of thin walls with smooth surface. A SprutCAM software was used to make a code for 3D printing of sample part.
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Li, Johnnieew Zhong, Mohd Rizal Alkahari, Nor Ana Binti Rosli, Rafidah Hasan, Mohd Nizam Sudin, and Faiz Redza Ramli. "Review of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing for 3D Metal Printing." International Journal of Automation Technology 13, no. 3 (May 5, 2019): 346–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/ijat.2019.p0346.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a crucial technique in the fabrication of 3D metallic structures. It is increasingly being used worldwide to reduce costs and time. Generally, AM technology is used to overcome the limitations of traditional subtractive manufacturing (SM) for fabricating large-scale components with lower buy-to-fly ratios. There are three heat sources commonly used in WAAM: metal inert gas welding (MIG), tungsten inert gas welding (TIG), and plasma arc welding (PAW). MIG is easier and more convenient than TIG and PAW because it uses a continuous wire spool with the welding torch. Unlike MIG, tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) and plasma arc welding (PAW) need an external wire feed machine to supply the additive materials. WAAM is gaining popularity in the fabrication of 3D metal components, but the process is hard to control due to its inherent residual stress and distortion, which are generated by the high thermal input from its heat sources. Distortion and residual stress are always a challenge for WAAM because they can affect the component’s geometric accuracy and drastically degrade the mechanical properties of the components. In this paper, wire-based and wire arc technology processes for 3D metal printing, including their advantages and limitations are reviewed. The optimization parametric study and modification of WAAM to reduce both residual stress and distortion are tabulated, summarized, and discussed.
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Lin, Zidong, Pengfei Liu, and Xinghua Yu. "A Literature Review on the Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing—Welding Systems and Software." Science of Advanced Materials 13, no. 8 (August 1, 2021): 1391–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/sam.2021.3971.
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Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is considered to be an economic and efficient technology that is suitable to produce large-scale and ultra-large-scale metallic components. In the past two decades, it has been widely investigated in different fields, such as aerospace, automotive and marine industries. Due to its relatively high deposition rate, material efficiency, and shortened lead time compared to other powder-based additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has been significantly noticed and adopted by both academic researchers and industrial engineers. In order to summarize the development achievements of wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) in the past few years and outlook the development direction in the coming days, this paper provides an overview of 3D metallic printing by applying it as a deposition method. The review mainly focuses on the current welding systems, software for tool path design, generation, and planning used in wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). In the end, the state of the art and future research on wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) have been prospected.
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Yoo, Hojin, Jongho Jeon, Hansol Kim, Geonho Lee, Seungcheol Shin, Jungho Cho, In Hwan Lee, Geon Hwee Kim, and Myun Joong Hwang. "Fundamental Experiments of Pulsed GMA Additive Manufacturing." Journal of Welding and Joining 40, no. 1 (February 28, 2022): 84–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5781/jwj.2022.40.1.9.
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Metal 3D printing based on laser sintering is important in various industrial fields. However, its limitations are being revealed due to the need for expensive machines and metal powder. Meanwhile, wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is rapidly arising as an alternative technology thanks to its relatively economic cost. Despite the boom of WAAM, its advantages are not that clear, because the majority of the research to date has been based on relatively expensive facilities, of which the cold metal transfer (CMT) machine is representative. In this study, the WAAM process is being improved with general pulsed GMA to lower the barrier of high cost and facilitate the adoption of the WAAM process in actual manufacturing industries. All process parameters, such as current, voltage, welding speed, and CTWD were examined to figure out a proper synergic line for WAAM. As a result, a high sulfur proportion wire and proper process parameters could be suggested. Finally, the proposed synergic line successfully produced a steel wall consisting of 10 layers with a thickness of 7.2 mm and a height of 22.4 mm, which can serve as an example of WAAM with pulsed GMA.
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Lee, Chaekyo, Gijeong Seo, Duck Bong Kim, Minjae Kim, and Jong-Ho Shin. "Development of Defect Detection AI Model for Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing Using High Dynamic Range Images." Applied Sciences 11, no. 16 (August 17, 2021): 7541. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11167541.
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Wire + arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) utilizes a welding arc as a heat source and a metal wire as a feedstock. In recent years, WAAM has attracted significant attention in the manufacturing industry owing to its advantages: (1) high deposition rate, (2) low system setup cost, (3) wide diversity of wire materials, and (4) sustainability for constructing large-sized metal structures. However, owing to the complexity of arc welding in WAAM, more research efforts are required to improve its process repeatability and advance part qualification. This study proposes a methodology to detect defects of the arch welding process in WAAM using images acquired by a high dynamic range camera. The gathered images are preprocessed to emphasize features and used for an artificial intelligence model to classify normal and abnormal statuses of arc welding in WAAM. Owing to the shortage of image datasets for defects, transfer learning technology is adopted. In addition, to understand and check the basis of the model’s feature learning, a gradient-weighted class activation mapping algorithm is applied to select a model that has the correct judgment criteria. Experimental results show that the detection accuracy of the metal transfer region-of-interest (RoI) reached 99%, whereas that of the weld-pool and bead RoI was 96%.
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Bellamkonda, Prasanna Nagasai, Malarvizhi Sudersanan, and Balasubramanian Visvalingam. "Characterisation of a wire arc additive manufactured 308L stainless steel cylindrical component." Materials Testing 64, no. 10 (October 1, 2022): 1397–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mt-2022-0171.
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Abstract Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an additive manufacturing (AM) technology that uses a modified robotic welding machine to manufacture parts in a layer-by-layer pattern. In the current study, a 308L stainless steel (SS) cylindrical component was manufactured by WAAM technique using gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process. The mechanical and microstructural characteristics of the deposited WAAM 308L SS cylinder were investigated. The microhardness of the WAAM SS cylinder varied slightly along the building direction. The lower zone of the cylinder showed higher hardness than the middle and upper zones. The tensile strength (TS), yield strength (YS) and elongation (EL) of the WAAM 308L cylinder are 331–356 MPa, 535–582 MPa, and 44–51% in the longitudinal, transverse and diagonal orientations, respectively. The microstructure of the WAAM SS cylinder is characterized by austenite dendrites that grow vertically and residual ferrite that exists within the austenite matrix. The results show that the properties of 308L SS cylinder produced by the GMAW-WAAM technique is matching with wrought 308L SS alloy (YS: 360–480 MPa, UTS: 530–650 MPa and EL: 35–45%). Therefore, the GMAW-WAAM 308L SS technique is found to be suitable for industrial use to manufacture stainless steel components.
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Suat, Yildiz, Baris Koc, and Oguzhan Yilmaz. "Building strategy effect on mechanical properties of high strength low alloy steel in wire + arc additive manufacturing." Zavarivanje i zavarene konstrukcije 65, no. 3 (2020): 125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/zzk2003125s.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) which is literally based on continuously fed material deposition type of welding processes such as metal inert gas (MIG), tungsten inert gas (TIG) and plasma welding, is a variant of additive manufacturing technologies. WAAM steps forward with its high deposition rate and low equipment cost as compared to the powder feed and laser/electron beam heated processes among various additive manufacturing processes. In this work, sample parts made of low allow high strength steel (ER120S-G) was additively manufactured via WAAM method using robotic cold metal transfer technology (CMT). The process parameters and building strategies were investigated and correlated with the geometrical, metallurgical and mechanical properties on the produced wall geometries. The results obtained from the thin wall sample parts have showed that with increasing heat input, mechanical properties decreases, since higher heat accumulation and lower cooling rate increases the grain size. The tensile tests results have showed that casting steel (G24Mn6+QT2) mechanical properties which requires 500 MPa yield strength can be compared to with as build WAAM process having 640 MPa yield strength. Tensile strength were fulfilled for S690Q and yield strength is very close to the reference value.
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Köhler, Markus, Sierk Fiebig, Jonas Hensel, and Klaus Dilger. "Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum Components." Metals 9, no. 5 (May 24, 2019): 608. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met9050608.
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An increasing demand for flexibility and product integration, combined with reduced product development cycles, leads to continuous development of new manufacturing technologies such as additive manufacturing. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) provides promising technology for the near net-shape production of large structures with complex geometry, using cost efficient production resources such as arc welding technology and wire materials. Compared to powder-based additive manufacturing processes, WAAM offers high deposition rates as well as enhanced material utilization. Because of the layer-by-layer built up approach, process conditions such as energy input, arc characteristics, and material composition result in a different processability during the additive manufacturing process. This experimental study aims to describe the effects of the welding process on buildup accuracy and material properties during wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminum structures. Following a process development using pulse cold metal transfer (CMT-P), linear wall samples were manufactured with variations of the filler metal. The samples were analyzed in terms of surface finishing, hardness, and residual stress. Furthermore, mechanical properties were determined in different building directions.
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Klobčar, Damjan, Sebastijan Baloš, Matija Bašić, Aleksija Djurić, Maja Lindič, and Aljaž Ščetinec. "WAAM and Other Unconventional Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies." Advanced Technologies & Materials 45, no. 2 (December 15, 2020): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.24867/atm-2020-2-001.
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The paper presents an overview of metal additive manufacturing technologies. The emphasis is on unconventional emerging technologies with firm background on welding technologies such as Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing, Friction Additive Manufacturing, Thermal Spray Additive Manufacturing, Resistance Additive Manufacturing and Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing. The particular processes are explained in detail and their advantages and drawbacks are presented. Attention is made on materials used, possibilities to produce multi-material products and functionally graded materials, and typical applications of currently developed technologies. The state-of-the-art on the Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing is presented in more detail due to high research interests, it’s potential and widespread. The main differences between different arc additive manufacturing technologies are shown. An influence of processing parameters is discussed with respect to process stability and process control. The challenges related to path planning are shown together with the importance of post-processing. The main advantage of presented technologies is their ability of making larger and multi-material parts, with high deposition rate, which is difficult to achieve using conventional additive technologies.
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Parmar, Khushal, Lukas Oster, Samuel Mann, Rahul Sharma, Uwe Reisgen, Markus Schmitz, Thomas Nowicki, Jan Wiartalla, Mathias Hüsing, and Burkhard Corves. "Development of a Multidirectional Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Process with Pure Object Manipulation: Process Introduction and First Prototypes." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 5, no. 4 (December 10, 2021): 134. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5040134.
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Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) with eccentric wire feed requires defined operating conditions due to the possibility of varying shapes of the deposited and solidified material depending on the welding torch orientation. In consequence, the produced component can contain significant errors because single bead geometrical errors are cumulatively added to the next layer during a building process. In order to minimise such inaccuracies caused by torch manipulation, this article illustrates the concept and testing of object-manipulated WAAM by incorporating robotic and welding technologies. As the first step towards this target, robotic hardware and software interfaces were developed to control the robot. Alongside, a fixture for holding the substrate plate was designed and fabricated. After establishing the robotic setup, in order to complete the whole WAAM process setup, a Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process was built and integrated into the system. Later, an experimental plan was prepared to perform single and multilayer welding experiments as well as for different trajectories. According to this plan, several welding experiments were performed to decide the parametric working range for the further WAAM experiments. In the end, the results of the first multilayer depositions over intricate trajectories are shown. Further performance and quality optimization strategies are also discussed at the end of this article.
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Wacker, Christian, Markus Köhler, Martin David, Franziska Aschersleben, Felix Gabriel, Jonas Hensel, Klaus Dilger, and Klaus Dröder. "Geometry and Distortion Prediction of Multiple Layers for Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing with Artificial Neural Networks." Applied Sciences 11, no. 10 (May 20, 2021): 4694. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11104694.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a direct energy deposition (DED) process with high deposition rates, but deformation and distortion can occur due to the high energy input and resulting strains. Despite great efforts, the prediction of distortion and resulting geometry in additive manufacturing processes using WAAM remains challenging. In this work, an artificial neural network (ANN) is established to predict welding distortion and geometric accuracy for multilayer WAAM structures. For demonstration purposes, the ANN creation process is presented on a smaller scale for multilayer beads on plate welds on a thin substrate sheet. Multiple concepts for the creation of ANNs and the handling of outliers are developed, implemented, and compared. Good results have been achieved by applying an enhanced ANN using deformation and geometry from the previously deposited layer. With further adaptions to this method, a prediction of additive welded structures, geometries, and shapes in defined segments is conceivable, which would enable a multitude of applications for ANNs in the WAAM-Process, especially for applications closer to industrial use cases. It would be feasible to use them as preparatory measures for multi-segmented structures as well as an application during the welding process to continuously adapt parameters for a higher resulting component quality.
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Ahsan, Md Rumman Ul, Ali Newaz Mohammad Tanvir, Taylor Ross, Ahmed Elsawy, Min-Suk Oh, and Duck Bong Kim. "Fabrication of bimetallic additively manufactured structure (BAMS) of low carbon steel and 316L austenitic stainless steel with wire + arc additive manufacturing." Rapid Prototyping Journal 26, no. 3 (December 4, 2019): 519–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/rpj-09-2018-0235.
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Purpose Wire + arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) uses existing welding technology to make a part from metal deposited in an almost net shape. WAAM is flexible in that it can use multiple materials successively or simultaneously during the manufacturing of a single component. Design/methodology/approach In this work, a gas metal arc welding (GMAW) based wire + arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) system has been developed to use two material successively and fabricate bimetallic additively manufactured structure (BAMS) of low carbon steel and AISI 316L stainless steel (SS). Findings The interface shows two distinctive zones of LCS and SS deposits without any weld defects. The hardness profile shows a sudden increase of hardness at the interface, which is attributed to the migration of chromium from the SS. The tensile test results show that the bimetallic specimens failed at the LCS side, as LCS has lower strength of the materials used. Originality/value The microstructural features and mechanical properties are studied in-depth with special emphasis on the bimetallic interface.
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Navarro, Miguel, Amer Matar, Seyid Fehmi Diltemiz, and Mohsen Eshraghi. "Development of a Low-Cost Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing System." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 6, no. 1 (December 24, 2021): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6010003.
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Due to their unique advantages over traditional manufacturing processes, metal additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have received a great deal of attention over the last few years. Using current powder-bed fusion AM technologies, metal components are very expensive to manufacture, and machines are complex to build and maintain. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a new method of producing metallic components with high efficiency at an affordable cost, which combines welding and 3D printing. In this work, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is incorporated into a gantry system to create a new metal additive manufacturing platform. Design and build of a simple, affordable, and effective WAAM system is explained and the most frequently seen problems are discussed with their suggested solutions. Effect of process parameters on the quality of two additively manufactured alloys including plain carbon steel and Inconel 718 were studied. System design and troubleshooting for the wire arc AM system is presented and discussed.
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B T, Anirudhan, Jithin Devasia, Tejaswin Krishna, and Mebin T. Kuruvila. "Manufacturing of a Bimetallic Structure of Stainless Steel and Mild Steel through Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing – A Critical Review." International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology 5, no. 6 (July 3, 2020): 679–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt20jun583.
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Wire and Arc based Additive Manufacturing, shortly known as WAAM, is one of the most prominent tech- nologies, under Additive Manufacturing, used for extensive production of complex and intricate shapes. This layer by layer deposition method avails arc welding technology; Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), a competitive method in WAAM, is the conducted manufacturing process. It is a sum of heat source, originated from the electric arc, and metal wire as feedstock. The metal wire from the feedstock, melted by arc discharge, is deposited layer by layer. Another material can be added on to the top of deposited layer by replacing the feed wire from the stock, to fabricate a bimetallic structure. The purpose of this study is to collect the salient datum from the joining of two dissimilar metals. A combination of stainless steel and mild steel are considered. Proper deposition parameters, welding current along with voltage, bead width efficiency for both the metals were acquired. As a result, the physical properties of the dissimilar joint were approximate to the bulk material.
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Liu, Yan, Zhaozhen Liu, Guishen Zhou, Chunlin He, and Jun Zhang. "Microstructures and Properties of Al-Mg Alloys Manufactured by WAAM-CMT." Materials 15, no. 15 (August 8, 2022): 5460. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15155460.
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A wire arc additive manufacturing system, based on cold metal transfer technology, was utilized to manufacture the Al-Mg alloy walls. ER5556 wire was used as the filler metal to deposit Al-Mg alloys layer by layer. Based on the orthogonal experiments, the process parameters of the welding current, welding speed and gas flow, as well as interlayer residence time, were adjusted to investigate the microstructure, phase composition and crystal orientation as well as material properties of Al-Mg alloyed additive. The results show that the grain size of Al-Mg alloyed additive becomes smaller with the decrease of welding current or increased welding speed. It is easier to obtain the additive parts with better grain uniformity with the increase of gas flow or interlayer residence time. The phase composition of Al-Mg alloyed additive consists of α-Al matrix and γ (Al12Mg17) phase. The eutectic reaction occurs during the additive manufacturing process, and the liquefying film is formed on the α-Al matrix and coated on the γ phase surface. The crystal grows preferentially along the <111> and <101> orientations. When the welding current is 90 A, the welding speed is 700 mm/min, the gas flow is 22.5 L/min and the interlayer residence time is 5 min, the Al-Mg alloy additive obtains the highest tensile strength. Under the optimal process parameters, the average grain size of Al-Mg alloyed additive is 25 μm, the transverse tensile strength reaches 382 MPa, the impact absorption energy is 26 J, and the corrosion current density is 3.485 × 10−6 A·cm−2. Both tensile and impact fracture modes of Al-Mg alloyed additive are ductile fractures. From the current view, the Al-Mg alloys manufactured by WAAM-CMT have a better performance than those produced by the traditional casting process.
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Eyercioglu, Omer, Yusuf Atalay, and Mehmet Aladag. "EVALUATION OF OVERHANG ANGLE IN TIG WELDING-BASED WIRE ARC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESS." International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH 7, no. 10 (June 14, 2020): 247–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v7.i10.2019.393.
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Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is a relatively new manufacturing method. It is a novel technique to build net-shaped or near-net-shaped metal components in a layer-by-layer manner via applying metal wire and selection of a heat source such as laser beam, electron beam, or electric arc. WAAM process is preferable as an alternative to traditional manufacturing methods especially for complex featured and large scale solid parts manufacturing and it is particularly used for aerospace structural components, manufacturing and repairing of dies/molds. TIG welding-based WAAM method is implemented by depositing continuous wire melted via heat. In this study, the overhang (self-supporting) angle in TIG welding-based wire arc additive manufacturing process is investigated. The overhang angles are the angles at which a 3D printer can build tapered (overhang) surfaces without the need to supporting material below the printing layer. The material, bead height, TIG weld parameters and the environment temperature (cooling rate of printed layer) are the parameters which affect the overhang angle. The results show that the maximum overhang angle is also dependent on the temperature of the previous layer. For the selected set of process parameters, the maximum overhang angle is found as 28o, if the temperature of the previous layer is cooled to 150oC before the subsequent layer is deposited.
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Halisch, Christoph, Christof Gaßmann, and Thomas Seefeld. "Investigating the Reproducibility of the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Process." Advanced Materials Research 1161 (March 2021): 95–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1161.95.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of titanium parts shows promising potential for aerospace application due to its high deposition rates allowing a fast and economical production of large integral parts. However, due to the demands of aerospace industry an extensive qualification procedure is necessary to enable the parts as ready to fly. Nowadays, qualification for additive manufactured parts is a time-consuming process, so the advantages in additive manufacturing cannot be fully utilized. For this reason, a complete process qualification for WAAM would reduce the costs drastically in contrast to qualifying manufactured parts individually. As a first step the robustness and reproducibility of the energy reduced WAAM process was investigated. Thick-walled samples are manufactured layer by layer with an oscillating welding head motion. The mechanical properties of the samples are compared on an adequate statistical basis. Microstructural-and computer tomography analysis are conducted to comprehend shown interactions. The reproducibility is investigated in dependence of different heat treatment states, different directions of mechanical testing and two manufacturing systems of the same type.
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Le, Van Thao, Quang Huy Hoang, Van Chau Tran, Dinh Si Mai, Duc Manh Dinh, and Tat Khoa Doan. "EFFECTS OF WELDING CURRENT ON THE SHAPE AND MICROSTRUCTURE FORMATION OF THIN-WALLED LOW-CARBON PARTS BUILT BY WIRE ARC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING." Vietnam Journal of Science and Technology 58, no. 4 (July 22, 2020): 461. http://dx.doi.org/10.15625/2525-2518/58/4/14702.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is nowadays gaining much attention from both the academic and industrial sectors for the manufacture of medium and large dimension metal parts because of its high deposition rate and low costs of equipment investment. In the literature, WAAM has been extensively investigated in terms of the shape and dimension accuracy of built parts. However, limited research has focused on the effects of welding parameters on the microstructural characteristics of parts manufactured by this process. In this paper, the effects of welding current in the WAAM process on the shape and the microstructure formation of built thin-walled low-carbon steel components were studied. For this purpose, the thin-walled low-carbon steel samples were built layer-by-layer on the substrates by using an industrial gas metal arc welding robot with different levels of welding current. The shape, microstructures and mechanical properties of built samples were then analyzed. The obtained results show that the welding current plays an important role in the shape stability, but does not significantly influence on the microstructure formation of built thin-walled samples. The increase of the welding current only leads to coarser grain size and resulting in decreasing the hardness of built materials in each zone of the built sample. The mechanical properties (hardness and tensile properties) of the WAAM-built thin-walled low-carbon steel parts are also comparable to those of wrought low-carbon steel, and to be adequate with real applications.
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Sales, Andrew, Andrei Kotousov, and Ling Yin. "Design against Fatigue of Super Duplex Stainless Steel Structures Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Process." Metals 11, no. 12 (December 7, 2021): 1965. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met11121965.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) is increasingly used to make complex components for a wide spectrum of applications in engineering, medicine and dentistry. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), as one of AM processes, utilises electric arc and metal wire to fabricate fully dense and heavy metal parts at relatively low costs and high-energy efficiencies. WAAM was successfully applied in the production of several welding-based metal structures. Recently, there was a growing interest in WAAM processing of super duplex stainless steels (SDSS) due to their high strength and excellent corrosion resistance, which make them the prime choice for load-bearing structures in marine applications. Although a number of studies investigated the microstructural and mechanical properties of WAAM-processed SDSS components, little is known regarding their fatigue performance, which is critical in engineering design. This study reports on the outcomes of fatigue tests and fracture surface fractography of WAAM-processed SDSS. The results obtained indicate a significant anisotropy of fatigue properties and fatigue crack initiations resulting from internal defects rather than surface flaws. Based on these experimental results, we suggest an effective design methodology to improve the fatigue life of the WAAM-fabricated SDSS components. We also indicate that post-manufacturing surface treatments should not be underlined for the enhanced fatigue resistance of WAAM-processed SDSS structures.
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Müller, Johanna, Marcel Grabowski, Christoph Müller, Jonas Hensel, Julian Unglaub, Klaus Thiele, Harald Kloft, and Klaus Dilger. "Design and Parameter Identification of Wire and Arc Additively Manufactured (WAAM) Steel Bars for Use in Construction." Metals 9, no. 7 (June 27, 2019): 725. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met9070725.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) in industrial applications benefits from increasing interest due to its automation potential and its flexibility in manufacturing complex structures. The construction and architecture sector sees the potential of AM especially in the free form design of steel components, such as force flow optimized nodes or bionic-inspired spaceframes. Robot-guided wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is capable of combining a high degree of automation and geometric freedom with high process efficiency. The build-up strategy (layer by layer) and the corresponding heat input influence the mechanical properties of the WAAM products. This study investigates the WAAM process by welding a bar regarding the build-up geometry, surface topography, and material properties. For tensile testing, an advanced testing procedure is applied to determine the strain fields and mechanical properties of the bars on the component and material scale.
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Lin, Zidong, Kaijie Song, Wei Ya, and Xinghua Yu. "Parametric and Metallurgical Investigation of Modified 3D AM 80 HD Steel for Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2101, no. 1 (November 1, 2021): 012049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2101/1/012049.
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Abstract Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an advanced 3D printing method for metallic materials on the foundation of traditional arc welding processes. WAAM is regarded as a proper way to manufacture large-dimensional metallic parts with the combination of high deposition rate and low cost. In this research, a specifically designed and manufactured low carbon high strength steel (Grade 3D AM 80 HD) wire, equivalent to a composition of AWS ER 110S-1 wire, was deposited using WAAM to print a muti-beads wall aiming to explore its feasibility for heavily loaded marine applications. A parametric investigation was proceeded to find the optimal deposition voltage and overlap ratio. A vertical position compensation method was adopted to optimize the step-up distance for welding torch between neighboring layers. Microstructure of the deposited component was characterized and also indicated by Thermal-Calc Software, followed by the measurement of hardness and prediction of tensile strength. Furthermore, a comparison of tensile strength of the WAAMed 3D AM 80 HD wall, 3D AM 80 HD wire, AWS ER 110S-1 wire, and a WAAMed wall produced by wire manufacturer (Voestalpine Böhler Welding Corporation) was conducted.
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Sydow, Benjamin, Avantika Jhanji, André Hälsig, Johannes Buhl, and Sebastian Härtel. "The Benefit of the Process Combination of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) and Forming—A Numerical and Experimental Study." Metals 12, no. 6 (June 9, 2022): 988. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met12060988.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) involves the deposition of weld beads layer by layer using an electric arc energy source. However, during this procedure, the properties of each layer may differ because of unequal thermal distribution, resulting in a difference in microstructure and, therefore, mechanical properties in between the layers. This negative effect can be compensated for by combining WAAM with a subsequent forming process to introduce dynamic recrystallization, which allows a more homogeneous microstructure distribution within the material. This paper investigates numerically and experimentally the hybrid process of combined WAAM and forming of fine-grained mild steel (FGMS) SG3/G4Si (1.5130) to achieve a high degree of recrystallization in all layers of the WAAM-deposited material. Three different possible combinations of WAAM and forming are considered regarding the sequence and setup of the processes to show their influences on the recrystallization behavior. It was found that combining welding and forming allows recrystallization of up to two layers; however, the top layer is not recrystallized. Preliminary simulation results show that this can be resolved by adding a top roller to induce plastic strain after welding, leading to recrystallization in the top layer. The found results promise a certain controllability of the recrystallization behavior.
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Prado-Cerqueira, José, Ana Camacho, José Diéguez, Álvaro Rodríguez-Prieto, Ana Aragón, Cinta Lorenzo-Martín, and Ángel Yanguas-Gil. "Analysis of Favorable Process Conditions for the Manufacturing of Thin-Wall Pieces of Mild Steel Obtained by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)." Materials 11, no. 8 (August 16, 2018): 1449. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma11081449.
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One of the challenges in additive manufacturing (AM) of metallic materials is to obtain workpieces free of defects with excellent physical, mechanical, and metallurgical properties. In wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) the influences of process conditions on thermal history, microstructure and resultant mechanical and surface properties of parts must be analyzed. In this work, 3D metallic parts of mild steel wire (American Welding Society-AWS ER70S-6) are built with a WAAM process by depositing layers of material on a substrate of a S235 JR steel sheet of 3 mm thickness under different process conditions, using as welding process the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with cold metal transfer (CMT) technology, combined with a positioning system such as a computer numerical controlled (CNC) milling machine. Considering the hardness profiles, the estimated ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) derived from the hardness measurements and the microstructure findings, it can be concluded that the most favorable process conditions are the ones provided by CMT, with homogeneous hardness profiles, good mechanical strengths in accordance to conditions defined by standard, and without formation of a decohesionated external layer; CMT Continuous is the optimal option as the mechanical properties are better than single CMT.
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Panchenko, Oleg, Dmitry Kurushkin, Fedor Isupov, Anton Naumov, Ivan Kladov, and Margarita Surenkova. "Gas Metal Arc Welding Modes in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V." Materials 14, no. 9 (May 10, 2021): 2457. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14092457.
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In wire arc additive manufacturing of Ti-alloy parts (Ti-WAAM) gas metal arc welding (GMAW) can be applied for complex parts printing. However, due to the specific properties of Ti, GMAW of Ti-alloys is complicated. In this work, three different types of metal transfer modes during Ti-WAAM were investigated: Cold Metal Transfer, controlled short circuiting metal transfer, and self-regulated metal transfer at a direct current with a negative electrode. Metal transfer modes were studied using captured waveform and high-speed video analysis. Using these modes, three walls were manufactured; the geometry preservation stability was estimated and compared using effective wall width calculation, the microstructure was analyzed using optical microscopy. Transfer process data showed that arc wandering depends not only on cathode spot instabilities, but also on anode processing properties. Microstructure analysis showed that each produced wall consists of phases and structures inherent for Ti-WAAM. α-basketweave in the center of and α-colony on the grain boundary of epitaxially grown β-grains were found with heat affected zone bands along the height of the walls, so that the microstructure did not depend on metal transfer dramatically. However, the geometry preservation stability was higher in the wall, produced with controlled short circuiting metal transfer.
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Lin, Zidong, Constantinos Goulas, Wei Ya, and Marcel J. M. Hermans. "Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Medium Carbon Steel Deposits Obtained via Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing Using Metal-Cored Wire." Metals 9, no. 6 (June 10, 2019): 673. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met9060673.
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Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a 3D metal printing technique based on the arc welding process. WAAM is considered to be suitable to produce large-scale metallic components by combining high deposition rate and low cost. WAAM uses conventional welding consumable wires as feedstock. In some applications of steel components, one-off spare parts need to be made on demand from steel grades that do not exist as commercial welding wire. In this research, a specifically produced medium carbon steel (Grade XC-45), metal-cored wire, equivalent to a composition of XC-45 forged material, was deposited with WAAM to produce a thin wall. The specific composition was chosen because it is of particular interest for the on-demand production of heavily loaded aerospace components. The microstructure, hardness, and tensile strength of the deposited part were studied. Fractography studies were conducted on the tested specimens. Due to the multiple thermal cycles during the building process, local variations in microstructural features were evident. Nevertheless, the hardness of the part was relatively uniform from the top to the bottom of the construct. The mean yield/ultimate tensile strength was 620 MPa/817 MPa in the horizontal (deposition) direction and 580 MPa/615 MPa in the vertical (build) direction, respectively. The elongation in both directions showed a significant difference, i.e., 6.4% in the horizontal direction and 11% in the vertical direction. Finally, from the dimple-like structures observed in the fractography study, a ductile fracture mode was determined. Furthermore, a comparison of mechanical properties between WAAM and traditionally processed XC-45, such as casting, forging, and cold rolling was conducted. The results show a more uniform hardness distribution and higher tensile strength of the WAAM deposit using the designed metal-cored wires.
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Gurčík, Tomáš, and Karel Kovanda. "WAAM TECHNOLOGY OPTIMIZED BY OFF-LINE 3D ROBOT SIMULATION." Acta Polytechnica 59, no. 4 (August 31, 2019): 312–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.14311/ap.2019.59.0312.
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WAAM (Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing) is an alternative additive technology that combines an electric arc as a heat source, filler material in the form of a wire for welding and cladding individual weld passes so as to ultimately achieve the closest shape of produced components. Nowadays, when it is modern to digitize the manufacturing production, this process can also be designed using off-line programming tools and 3D simulations of the robot that welds the whole structure. This study deals with the comparison of three structured continuous welds using different weld metal transfers. From the results of the first two processes (dip transfer and IAC process), optimization was achieved using the CMT process and the welding path correction. As the filler material, the low-alloyed solid wire electrode for shielded arc welding of quenched and tempered fine grained structural steels, Böhler Union X 90 (G 89 6 M Mn4Ni2CrMo) with 1 mm in diameter, was used. Obtained samples were subjected to standard technological tests. The results of these tests are used to determine new parameters to ensure stability of this technology. The experiment confirmed that off-line programming will greatly influence the speed and quality of the welding track programs. The results prove that, by combining off-line welding path optimization with an optimized CMT welding process, we can achieve a stable WAAM process.
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Zhang, Jun, Yanfeng Xing, Jijun Zhang, Juyong Cao, Fuyong Yang, and Xiaobing Zhang. "Effects of In-Process Ultrasonic Vibration on Weld Formation and Grain Size of Wire and Arc Additive Manufactured Parts." Materials 15, no. 15 (July 26, 2022): 5168. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15155168.
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Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a competitive technique, which enables the fabrication of medium and large metallic components. However, due to the presence of coarse columnar grains in the additively manufactured parts, the resultant mechanical properties will be reduced, which limits the application of WAAM processes in the engineering fields. Grain refinement and improved mechanical properties can be achieved by introducing ultrasonic vibration. Herein, we applied ultrasonic vibration to the WAAM process and investigated the effects of wire feed speed, welding speed, and ultrasonic amplitude on the weld formation and grain size during ultrasonic vibration. Finally, a regression model between the average grain size and wire feed speed, welding speed, and ultrasonic amplitude was established. The results showed that due to the difference in heat input and cladding amount, wire feed speed, welding speed, and ultrasonic amplitude have a significant influence on the weld width and reinforcement. Excessive ultrasonic amplitude could cause the weld to crack during spreading. The average grain size increased with increasing wire feed speed and decreasing welding speed. With increasing ultrasonic amplitude, the average grain size exhibited a trend of decreasing first and then increasing. This would be helpful to manufacture parts of the required grain size in ultrasonic vibration-assisted WAAM fields.
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Henckell, Philipp, Maximilian Gierth, Yarop Ali, Jan Reimann, and Jean Pierre Bergmann. "Reduction of Energy Input in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) with Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)." Materials 13, no. 11 (May 29, 2020): 2491. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13112491.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) by gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a suitable option for the production of large volume metal parts. The main challenge is the high and periodic heat input of the arc on the generated layers, which directly affects geometrical features of the layers such as height and width as well as metallurgical properties such as grain size, solidification or material hardness. Therefore, processing with reduced energy input is necessary. This can be implemented with short arc welding regimes and respectively energy reduced welding processes. A highly efficient strategy for further energy reduction is the adjustment of contact tube to work piece distance (CTWD) during the welding process. Based on the current controlled GMAW process an increase of CTWD leads to a reduction of the welding current due to increased resistivity in the extended electrode and constant voltage of the power source. This study shows the results of systematically adjusted CTWD during WAAM of low-alloyed steel. Thereby, an energy reduction of up to 40% could be implemented leading to an adaptation of geometrical and microstructural features of additively manufactured work pieces.
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Van Thao, Le, Mai Dinh Si, Doan Tat Khoa, and Hoang Quang Huy. "Prediction of welding bead geometry for wire arc additive manufacturing of SS308l walls using response surface methodology." Transport and Communications Science Journal 71, no. 4 (May 28, 2020): 431–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.25073/tcsj.71.4.11.
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In the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process, the geometry of single welding beads has significant effects on the stability process and the final quality and shape of manufactured parts. In this paper, the geometry of single welding beads of 308L stainless steel was predicted as functions of process parameters (i.e. welding current I, voltage U, and travel speed v) by using the response surface methodology (RSM). A set of experimental runs was carried out by using the Box-Behnken design method. The adequacy of the developed models was assessed by using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicate that the RSM allows the predictive models of bead width (BW) and bead height (BH) to be developed with a high accuracy: R2-values of BW and BH are 99.01% and 99.61%, respectively. The errors between the predicted and experimental values for the confirmatory experiments are also lower than 5% that again confirms the adequacy of the developed models. These developed models can efficiently be used to predict the desirable geometry of welding beads for the adaptive slicing principle in WAAM.
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Ponomareva, Taisiya, Mikhail Ponomarev, Arseniy Kisarev, and Maxim Ivanov. "Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Al-Mg Alloy with the Addition of Scandium and Zirconium." Materials 14, no. 13 (June 30, 2021): 3665. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14133665.
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The proposed paper considers the opportunity of expanding the application area of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) method by means of increasing the strength properties of deposited material, due to the implementation of aluminum wire with the addition of scandium and zirconium. For the experimental research, the welding wire 1575 of the Al-Mg-Sc-Zr system containing 0.23% Sc and 0.19% Zr was selected. The optimal welding parameters, ensuring the defect-free formation of deposited material with low heat input, were used. Porosity level was estimated. The thermal state was estimated by finite element simulation. Simulated thermal state was verified by comparison with thermocouples data. Post-heat treatment parameters that lead to maximum strength with good plasticity were determined. The maximum yield strength (YS) of 268 MPa and ultimate strength (UTS) of 403 MPa were obtained, while the plasticity was determined at least 16.0% in all WAAM specimens.
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Tonelli, Lavinia, Vittoria Laghi, Michele Palermo, Tomaso Trombetti, and Lorella Ceschini. "AA5083 (Al–Mg) plates produced by wire-and-arc additive manufacturing: effect of specimen orientation on microstructure and tensile properties." Progress in Additive Manufacturing 6, no. 3 (May 6, 2021): 479–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40964-021-00189-z.
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AbstractAmong various additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, wire-and-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is one of the most suitable for the production of large-scale metallic components, also suggesting possible applications in the construction field. Several research activities have been devoted to the WAAM of steels and titanium alloys and, recently, the application of WAAM to aluminum alloys has also been explored. This paper presents the microstructural and mechanical characterization of WAAM plates produced using a commercial ER 5183 aluminum welding wire. The aim is to evaluate the possible anisotropic behavior under tensile stress of planar elements, considering three different extraction directions in relation to the deposition layer: longitudinal (L), transversal (T) and diagonal (D). Compositional, morphological, microstructural and fractographic analyses were carried out to relate the specific microstructural features induced by WAAM to the tensile properties. An anisotropic behavior was found in regard to the specimen orientation, with the lowest strength and ductility found on T specimens. Reasoning to this was found in the presence of microstructural discontinuities unfavorably oriented with regard to the tensile direction. The results of tensile tests also highlighted an overall good mechanical behavior, comparable to that of conventional AA5083-O sheets, suggesting future use in the realization of very complex geometries and optimized shapes for lightweight structural applications.
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Zhang, Jiansheng, Guiqian Xiao, Jie Peng, Yingyan Yu, and Jie Zhou. "Path Generation Strategy and Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Large Aviation Die with Complex Gradient Structure." Materials 15, no. 17 (September 2, 2022): 6115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15176115.
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To realize automatic wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of a large aviation die with a complex gradient structure, a new contour-parallel path generation strategy was proposed and practically applied. First, the planar curve was defined as a vertical slice of a higher-dimensional surface and a partial differential equation describing boundary evolution was derived to calculate the surface. The improved Finite Element Method (FEM) and Finite Difference Method (FDM) were used to solve this partial differential equation. Second, a cross section of a large aviation die was used to test the path-generation algorithms. The results show that FEM has a faster solving speed than FDM under the same solving accuracy because the solving domain of FEM mesh was greatly reduced and the boundary mesh could be refined. Third, the die was divided into three layers: base layer, transition layer (Fe-based material) and strengthening layer (Co-based material) according to the difference of the temperature and stress field, and corresponding WAAM process parameters has been discussed. The optimum welding parameters are obtained as follows: voltage is 28 V, wire feeding speed is 8000 mm/min and welding speed is 450 mm/min. Finally, the path generation strategy was practically applied to the remanufacture of the large aircraft landing gear die with a three-layer structure. The application test on aircraft landing gear dies justified the effectiveness of the algorithms and strategy proposed in this paper, which significantly improved the efficiency of the WAAM process and the service life of large aviation dies with complex gradient structures. The microstructure of the fusion zone shows that the base metal and welding material can be fully integrated into the welding process.
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Shaloo, Masoud, Martin Schnall, Thomas Klein, Norbert Huber, and Bernhard Reitinger. "A Review of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Techniques for Defect Detection: Application to Fusion Welding and Future Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Processes." Materials 15, no. 10 (May 21, 2022): 3697. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15103697.
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In Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) and fusion welding, various defects such as porosity, cracks, deformation and lack of fusion can occur during the fabrication process. These have a strong impact on the mechanical properties and can also lead to failure of the manufactured parts during service. These defects can be recognized using non-destructive testing (NDT) methods so that the examined workpiece is not harmed. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of various NDT techniques for WAAM and fusion welding, including laser-ultrasonic, acoustic emission with an airborne optical microphone, optical emission spectroscopy, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, laser opto-ultrasonic dual detection, thermography and also in-process defect detection via weld current monitoring with an oscilloscope. In addition, the novel research conducted, its operating principle and the equipment required to perform these techniques are presented. The minimum defect size that can be identified via NDT methods has been obtained from previous academic research or from tests carried out by companies. The use of these techniques in WAAM and fusion welding applications makes it possible to detect defects and to take a step towards the production of high-quality final components.
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Treutler, Kai, and Volker Wesling. "The Current State of Research of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM): A Review." Applied Sciences 11, no. 18 (September 16, 2021): 8619. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11188619.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing is currently rising as the main focus of research groups around the world. This is directly visible in the huge number of new papers published in recent years concerning a lot of different topics. This review is intended to give a proper summary of the international state of research in the area of wire arc additive manufacturing. The addressed topics in this review include but are not limited to materials (e.g., steels, aluminum, copper and titanium), the processes and methods of WAAM, process surveillance and the path planning and modeling of WAAM. The consolidation of the findings of various authors into a unified picture is a core aspect of this review. Furthermore, it intends to identify areas in which work is missing and how different topics can be synergetically combined. A critical evaluation of the presented research with a focus on commonly known mechanisms in welding research and without a focus on additive manufacturing will complete the review.
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Rani, Kasireddy Usha, Rajiv Kumar, Manas M. Mahapatra, Rahul S. Mulik, Aleksandra Świerczyńska, Dariusz Fydrych, and Chandan Pandey. "Wire Arc Additive Manufactured Mild Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel Components: Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Residual Stresses." Materials 15, no. 20 (October 12, 2022): 7094. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15207094.
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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an additive manufacturing process based on the arc welding process in which wire is melted by an electric arc and deposited layer by layer. Due to the cost and rate benefits over powder-based additive manufacturing technologies and other alternative heat sources such as laser and electron beams, the process is currently receiving much attention in the industrial production sector. The gas metal arc welded (GMAW) based WAAM process provides a higher deposition rate than other methods, making it suitable for additive manufacturing. The fabrication of mild steel (G3Si1), austenitic stainless steel (SS304), and a bimetallic sample of both materials were completed successfully using the GMAW based WAAM process. The microstructure characterization of the developed sample was conducted using optical and scanning electron microscopes. The interface reveals two discrete zones of mild steel and SS304 deposits without any weld defects. The hardness profile indicates a drastic increase in hardness near the interface, which is attributed to chromium migration from the SS304. The toughness of the sample was tested based on the Charpy Impact (ASTM D6110) test. The test reveals isotropy in both directions. The tensile strength of samples deposited by the WAAM technique measured slightly higher than the standard values of weld filament. The deep hole drilling (DHD) method was used to measure the residual stresses, and it was determined that the stresses are compressive in the mild steel portion and tensile in austenitic stainless steel portion, and that they vary throughout the thickness due to variation in the cooling rate at the inner and outer surfaces.
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Gierth, Maximilian, Philipp Henckell, Yarop Ali, Jonas Scholl, and Jean Pierre Bergmann. "Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) of Aluminum Alloy AlMg5Mn with Energy-Reduced Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)." Materials 13, no. 12 (June 12, 2020): 2671. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13122671.
Full textAbstract:
Large-scale aluminum parts are used in aerospace and automotive industries, due to excellent strength, light weight, and the good corrosion resistance of the material. Additive manufacturing processes enable both cost and time savings in the context of component manufacturing. Thereby, wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is particularly suitable for the production of large volume parts due to deposition rates in the range of kilograms per hour. Challenges during the manufacturing process of aluminum alloys, such as porosity or poor mechanical properties, can be overcome by using arc technologies with adaptable energy input. In this study, WAAM of AlMg5Mn alloy was systematically investigated by using the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process. Herein, correlations between the energy input and the resulting temperature–time-regimes show the effect on resulting microstructure, weld seam irregularities and the mechanical properties of additively manufactured aluminum parts. Therefore, multilayer walls were built layer wise using the cold metal transfer (CMT) process including conventional CMT, CMT advanced and CMT pulse advanced arc modes. These processing strategies were analyzed by means of energy input, whereby the geometrical features of the layers could be controlled as well as the porosity to area portion to below 1% in the WAAM parts. Furthermore, the investigations show the that mechanical properties like tensile strength and material hardness can be adapted throughout the energy input per unit length significantly.
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Song, Xueping, Jinke Niu, Jiankang Huang, Ding Fan, Shurong Yu, Yuanjun Ma, and Xiaoquan Yu. "The Effect of B4C Powder on Properties of the WAAM 2319 Al Alloy." Materials 16, no. 1 (January 3, 2023): 436. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16010436.
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With ER2319 and B4C powder as feedstocks and additives, respectively, a wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) system based on double-pulse melting electrode inert gas shielded welding (DP-MIG) was used to fabricate single-pass multilayer 2319 aluminum alloy. The results showed that, compared with additive manufacturing component without B4C, the addition of which can effectively reduce the grain size (from 43 μm to 25 μm) of the tissue in the deposited layer area and improve its mechanical properties (from 231 MPa to 286 MPa). Meanwhile, the mechanical properties are better in the transverse than in the longitudinal direction. Moreover, the strengthening mechanism of B4C on the mechanical properties of aluminum alloy additive manufacturing mainly includes dispersion strengthening from fine and uniform B4C granular reinforcing phases and fine grain strengthening from the grain refinement of B4C. These findings shed light on the B4C induced grain refinement mechanism and improvement of WAAM 2319 Al alloy.
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Nagasai, Bellamkonda Prasanna, Sudersanan Malarvizhi, and Visvalingam Balasubramanian. "Mechanical properties of wire arc additive manufactured carbon steel cylindrical component made by gas metal arc welding process." Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials 30, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 188–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2021-0019.
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Abstract Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), a welding-based additive manufacturing (AM) method, is a hot topic of research since it allows for the cost-effective fabrication of large-scale metal components at relatively high deposition rates. In the present study, the cylindrical component of low carbon steel (ER70S-6) was built by WAAM technique, using a GMAW torch that was translated by an automated three-axis motion system using a rotation table. The mechanical properties of the component were evaluated by extracting tensile, impact toughness and hardness specimens from the two regions of the building up (vertical) direction. It is found that the tensile properties of the built material exhibited anisotropic characteristics. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength varied from 333 to 350 MPa and from 429 to 446 MPa, respectively, (less than 5 % variation).
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Graf, Marcel, Andre Hälsig, Kevin Höfer, Birgit Awiszus, and Peter Mayr. "Thermo-Mechanical Modelling of Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) of Semi-Finished Products." Metals 8, no. 12 (December 1, 2018): 1009. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met8121009.
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Additive manufacturing processes have been investigated for some years, and are commonly used industrially in the field of plastics for small- and medium-sized series. The use of metallic deposition material has been intensively studied on the laboratory scale, but the numerical prediction is not yet state of the art. This paper examines numerical approaches for predicting temperature fields, distortions, and mechanical properties using the Finite Element (FE) software MSC Marc. For process mapping, the filler materials G4Si1 (1.5130) for steel, and AZ31 for magnesium, were first characterized in terms of thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical properties with process-relevant cast microstructure. These material parameters are necessary for a detailed thermo-mechanical coupled Finite Element Method (FEM). The focus of the investigations was on the numerical analysis of the influence of the wire feed (2.5–5.0 m/min) and the weld path orientation (unidirectional or continuous) on the temperature evolution for multi-layered walls of miscellaneous materials. For the calibration of the numerical model, the real welding experiments were carried out using the gas-metal arc-welding process—cold metal transfer (CMT) technology. A uniform wall geometry can be produced with a continuous welding path, because a more homogeneous temperature distribution results.
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Agustinus Ananda, Priyantomo. "WAAM Application for EPC Company." MATEC Web of Conferences 269 (2019): 05002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201926905002.
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WAAM ( Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing) is a process of adding material layer by layer in order to build a near net shape components. It shows a further promising future for fabricating large expensive metal components with complex geometry. Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) company as one of the industrial section which related with engineering design and products, wide range of material type, and shop based or site based manufacturing process have been dealing with conventional manufacturing and procurement process in order to fulfill its requirement for custom parts and items for the project completion purpose. During the conventional process, there is a risk during the transportation of the products from the manufacturing shop to then site project, this risk is even greater when the delivery time take part as one of the essential part which affect the project schedule. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing process offering an alternative process to shorten the delivery time and process for a selected material and engineered items, with the consideration of essential variables which can affect the final products of WAAM process, such as : heat input, wire feed speed, travel speed, shielding gas, welding process and robotic system applied. In this paper, the possibilities of WAAM application in EPC company will be assessed, an in depth literature review of the various process which possible to applied, include the loss and benefit compared with conventional method will be presented. The main objective is to identify the current challenge and the prospect of WAAM application in EPC company.
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Rodríguez-González, Paula, Elisa María Ruiz-Navas, and Elena Gordo. "Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for Aluminum-Lithium Alloys: A Review." Materials 16, no. 4 (February 6, 2023): 1375. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16041375.
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Out of all the metal additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, the directed energy deposition (DED) technique, and particularly the wire-based one, are of great interest due to their rapid production. In addition, they are recognized as being the fastest technique capable of producing fully functional structural parts, near-net-shape products with complex geometry and almost unlimited size. There are several wire-based systems, such as plasma arc welding and laser melting deposition, depending on the heat source. The main drawback is the lack of commercially available wire; for instance, the absence of high-strength aluminum alloy wires. Therefore, this review covers conventional and innovative processes of wire production and includes a summary of the Al-Cu-Li alloys with the most industrial interest in order to foment and promote the selection of the most suitable wire compositions. The role of each alloying element is key for specific wire design in WAAM; this review describes the role of each element (typically strengthening by age hardening, solid solution and grain size reduction) with special attention to lithium. At the same time, the defects in the WAAM part limit its applicability. For this reason, all the defects related to the WAAM process, together with those related to the chemical composition of the alloy, are mentioned. Finally, future developments are summarized, encompassing the most suitable techniques for Al-Cu-Li alloys, such as PMC (pulse multicontrol) and CMT (cold metal transfer).
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Hackenhaar, William, Filippo Montevecchi, Antonio Scippa, and Gianni Campatelli. "Air-Cooling Influence on Wire Arc Additive Manufactured Surfaces." Key Engineering Materials 813 (July 2019): 241–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.813.241.
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WAAM (Wire-Arc-Additive-Manufacturing) is an additive manufacturing process which uses arc welding to produce metal parts. This process is prone to heat accumulation, i.e. a progressive increase of the interlayer temperature and molten pool size, having detrimental consequences on the material properties and on the workpiece integrity. This paper investigates the effect of air jet impingement, an active cooling technique, to prevent heat accumulation, on the surfaces of WAAM workpieces. A reference test case was manufactured using traditional free convection cooling and air jet impingement. The workpiece temperature was measured using Ktype thermocouples. The manufactured surfaces were measured using a coordinate measuring machine and compared in terms of deposition efficiency, deposit height and average arithmetical deviation. The temperature results highlight that air jet impingement is effective in preventing the occurrence of heat accumulation. The surface data highlight that air jet impingement increase the deposited height and the surface waviness with a consequent decrease of the deposition efficiency.