Journal articles on the topic '1920-1999 Criticism and interpretation'

In the 1920’s Marxism, having become the state ideology of Soviet Russia, took a leading position among the political ideologies of Europe in terms of its influence on the minds and hearts of people. The teachings of K. Marx and F. Engels received various interpretations, among which “sociology of knowledge” in the interpretation of M. Scheler and K. Mannheim earned the most recognition in the academic environment. It originated in Germany in the mid 1920’s as a result of criticism of the Marxist “theory of ideology”, of “economist” limitations of the materialistic vision of man, of history and society. In the USSR “sociology of knowledge” was understood to be the most refined attempt to overcome Marxism. The essential characteristics of Marxism and “sociology of knowledge” as interpreted by K. Mannheim are revealed, while being subjected to comparative and critical analysis. The first reaction of Soviet Marxist sociologists to “sociology of knowledge” is analyzed. In the light of this reaction, it was presented as “social fascism”. The specifics of how the teachings of K. Marx and F. Engels existed in the USSR during the 1920s–1930’s are evaluated. “Historical materialism” is qualified as a sociological methodology of suspicion, and the practice of its application by the Bolsheviks as a form of discrimination and persecution in society based on social class and social group affiliation.

Abstrac This study aims to provide an overview of the biography of Abdurrahman Sayoeti thought (1965-1999). The research method used is historical method, which is a process of testing and critically analyzing past events, with stages starting from heuristics, criticism, interpretation, historiography. The results of various important positions have been held by Abdurrahman Sayoeti, first became director of APDN in 1965, through the leadership of Abdurrahman Sayoeti, has given birth to quite a lot of graduates and has the leadership seeds to build Jambi area, secondly, as Sekwilda Level I Jambi up to two periods (1969), Abdurrahman Sayoeti's career was so developed that it was given the confidence to develop regional tasks accompanying Governor Macshun Syofwan, as Deputy Governor of KDH Level I Jambi one period (1985). Finally in the peak of his career through elections conducted by representatives of the people in the Jambi Provincial Legislative and with full support by the people so as to make Abdurrahman Sayoeti as Governor of Jambi for two periods, from 1989 to 1999. The results of career into Governor of Jambi Province, Abdurrahman Sayoeti giving a lot of many change to build Jambi area.Keywords : Biography, Abdurrahman Sayoeti Thought

Malinau Regency was originally one of the sub-districts in Bulungan Regency, on October 12, 1999 there was a regional division where Malinau was separated from Bulungan Regency to become its own regency. The purpose of this study was to find out the background of the division and how the development of Malinau District after the division occurred from 1999 to 2006. This type of research is a historical research with a four-stage historical method which includes heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The results showed that the background of the division of Malinau into a district was a decision taken by the Regional Government of Bulungan Regency which at that time was led by Regent R.A. Besing. On the grounds that the area of ​​Bulungan Regency at that time, if not divided, would experience a gap because it had a very large area at that time, it was necessary for him to split this area into 3 regencies, namely Bulungan Regency itself, Malinau Regency, and Nunukan Regency. After the division took place, it certainly had an impact on the people of Malinau, both in terms of economy, education, and health. From the economic aspect itself, it has increased from 2006 to Rp. 554.07 billion. Then in the same year, the education sector also experienced an increase which reached 113 school buildings, as well as for the health aspect it had reached 121 units of health facilities including hospitals, posyandu, and posyandu assistants in 2006

LORD Hoffmann's famous “restatement” of the principles of contractual interpretation in Investors Compensation Scheme v West Bromwich Building Society [1998] 1 W.L.R. 896, 912–13, was heralded as a “quiet revolution” (McLauchlan (2000) 19 N.Z.U.L.R. 147, at 148) in that it appeared to overthrow the legalistic approach of the past. That approach, often associated with the “plain meaning rule” (Bank of New Zealand v Simpson [1990] A.C. 182 (PC), 189) involved giving effect to the expressed meaning of the text, which (limited exceptions aside) could not be contradicted by the relevant background (or matrix of fact). By contrast, the approach in ICS mandated the Court to search for the apparently intended meaning by consulting the relevant and admissible background in all cases. The ICS approach rapidly became dominant, and indeed orthodox, across multiple jurisdictions. However, in a series of judgments commencing with Re Sigma Finance Corporation [2009] UKSC 2; [2010] 1 All E.R. 571, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has gradually moved away from the approach in ICS (albeit without expressly overruling it) and emphasised the importance of giving effect to the natural and ordinary meaning of the words used, in combination with other factors (see especially Marley v Rawlings [2014] UKSC 2; [2014] 2 W.L.R. 213, at [18]–[19]; Arnold v Britton [2015] UKSC 36; [2015] A.C. 1619, at [14]–[23]). This return to a more traditional approach to interpretation vindicates sustained criticism of the validity of the ICS approach in principle and practice (see e.g. Staughton [1999] C.L.J. 303; Berg (2006) 122 L.Q.R. 354; Buxton [2010] C.L.J. 253).

Beach is one of the most famous tourism areas in Pacitan. Beaches in Pacitan have special features compared to other beaches. The beautiful nature is able to attract tourists to come, visit and enjoy it. Therefore, the beaches in Pacitan have a lot of possibilities to be a tourism area of marine culture.This article is a historical research. The method used in this study was a historical research method, consisting of four steps, heuristics, criticism, interpretation and historiography. The results of this study indicate that the beaches in the Pacitan region have special attraction for tourists to visit.Thus, to be a tourism area of marine culture, Pacitan requires a better management. Based on research conducted so far, the beaches in Pacitan have not been managed optimally, due to a lack of facilities, and low human resources as managers. In short, it is the responsibility of communities, private parties and local governments to maximize the quality of management of coastal tourism around Pacitan, and their cooperation is need. Therefore, the beaches can be a tourist area of marine culture that can grow rapidly in Pacitan region.

Puhsarang Church is a famous religious tourism object in Kediri District, located in Puhsarang Village 10 kilometers from the center of Kediri District. Having the unique architecture of buildings and religious facilities and the beauty of the natural panorama makes Puhsarang Church famous by tourists. The research objectives are: 1) knowing the background of the Puhsarang Church designated as a religious tourism object in 1999; 2) knowing the management of Puhsarang Church as a religious tourism object in 1995-2015. Research using historical methods include: Heuristics, Criticism, Interpretation, Historiography. The result of the research is that the construction of the Puhsarang Church was planned by Henricus Maclaine Pont and was built on the initiative of Pastor Wolters in 1936. Puhsarang Church underwent renovation in 1999, the expansion of the Puhsarang Church area and a new building was built. After being inaugurated the Puhsarang Church area was used as a religious tourism object. The management of the Puhsarang Church is under “Yayasan Badan Pengelola Ziarah Gereja Puhsarang”. Suggestions for this research are: For other researchers, it can be used as a contribution of thoughts and references, for the government must participate in preserving historical heritage in their area.

Abstract This paper examines the “critique of historical existence” as a main theme in Karl Löwith’s philosophical works and discusses its emergence, its exact meaning and its contemporary relevance. First, the study shows that Löwith’s critique of History stems from his preoccupation with the question of nihilism. He first discusses the question of “the world as such” in the 1920’s in the context of his anthropological project, and then again in the 1930’s as part of his interpretation of the work of Nietzsche. Secondly, a distinction is proposed between, on the one hand, Löwith’s investigation into the “theological background of the philosophy of history” and, on the other hand, his radical criticism of history as a “historical world”. Finally, the paper sheds light on the difficulties that challenge the project of overcoming the modern historical paradigm, and goes on to discuss the new relevance that Löwith’s philosophy could have today in order to think anew the relationship between nature and history.

The purpose of this paper is to determine the process of resolving agrarian conflicts and the process of inventorying and granting land certificates to farmers. The urgency of this paper can theoretically be an important part in the context of resolving agrarian conflicts that often occur in Indonesia. The method used is the historical method consisting of Heuristics, Criticism, Interpretation and Historiography. Agrarian conflicts in Jenggawah District, Jember Regency occurred in 1969 and 1994-1995. The government is trying to find a solution through the implementation of agrarian reform by providing a policy for solving agrarian problems. Efforts to resolve the Jenggawah land conflict through agrarian reform are marked by a process of preparing for the implementation of an inventory, asset management and access arrangement. Asset management consists of redistribution and legalization of land. Access arrangements are carried out in order to improve the economy, add value and encourage entrepreneurial innovation on the subject of agrarian reform for Jenggawah farmers. Through this research, it can be concluded that agrarian reform can be one of the solutions for resolving land conflicts in Indonesia, especially in Jenggawah.

Serbian music criticism became a subject of professional music critics at the beginning of the twentieth century, after being developed by music amateurs throughout the whole previous century. The Serbian Literary Magazine (1901- 1914, 1920-1941), the forum of the Serbian modernist writers in the early 1900s, had a crucial role in shaping the Serbian music criticism and essayistics of the modern era. The Serbian elite musicians wrote for the SLM and therefore it reflects the most important issues of the early twentieth century Serbian music. The SLM undertook the mission of educating its readers. The music culture of the Serbian public was only recently developed. The public needed an introduction into the most important features of the European music, as well as developing its own taste in music. This paper deals with two aspects of the music criticism in the SLM, in view of its educational role: the problem of virtuosity and the method used by music critics in this magazine. The aesthetic canon of the SLM was marked by decisively negative attitude towards the virtuosity. Mainly concerned by educating the Serbian music public in the spirit of the highest music achievements in Europe, the music writers of the SLM criticized both domestic and foreign performers who favoured virtuosity over the 'essence' of music. Therefore, Niccol? Paganini, Franz Liszt, and even Peter Tchaikowsky with his Violin concerto became the subject of the magazine's criticism. However their attitude towards the interpreters with both musicality and virtuoso technique was always positive. That was evident in the writings on Jan Kubel?k. This educational mission also had its effect on the structure of critique writings in the SLM. In their wish to inform the Serbian public on the European music (which they did very professionally), the critics gave much more information on biographies, bibliographies and style of the European composers, than they valued the interpretation itself. That was by far the weakest aspect of music criticism in the SLM. Although the music criticism in the SLM was professional and analytic one, it often used the literary style and sometimes even profane expressions in describing the artistic value and performance, more than it was necessary for the genre of music criticism. The music critics of the SLM set high aesthetic standards before the Serbian music public, and therefore the virtuosity was rejected by them. At the same time, these highly professional critics did not possess a certain level of introspection that would allow them to abstain from using sometimes empty and unconvincing phrases instead of exact formulations suitable for the professional music criticism. In that respect, music critics in the SLM did not match the standards they themselves set before both the performers and the public in Serbia.

The article “Contemporary Ukrainian Poetry” by Oleh Olzhych has been given the status of an authoritative source in domestic literary criticism in recent decades, in particular, in the study of the genesis of emigrant poetry of 1920-1930 and in general on the interpretation of the state of national literature in eastern and western countries, which in the interwar period were respectively under the rule of Russia and Poland. Only the “textual coincidences, general concept and intonation” of the article and Olzhych’s related texts were taken as the basis of identification. Such a technique contains elements of pre-programming of the final result and can lead to erroneous conclusions in identifying the author of the publication. It draws attention to the analogies of text construction, subject matter, lexical and stylistic coincidences, etc., but distracts from what is the main in the objective establishment of the publication of a particular person - the (internal) content of the text. The example of Olzhych’s attitude to the process of development of national literature in the interwar period and especially to the work of his father (Oleksandr Oles) shows that he can’t be the author of a politically quite controversial article “Contemporary Ukrainian Poetry”.

This study aims to determine how the history of the Lamajan Hydroelectric Power in 1925, both in terms of the geographical, demographic conditions of Pangalengan and also the components that still exist in Lamajan. Lamajan is a Dutch hydroelectric power plant (PLTA) which was built in 1924 in Pangalengan, Bandung and has been operating since 1925. Lamajan has three generator units, the engine used by Lamajan supplied from the Dutch factories Heemaf and Smit Slikkerveer, initiated by V.H Willem Smith & Co. and R.W.H. Hofstede Crull. The method used in this study is a qualitative method, namely by collecting data through literature and documentation. This method is carried out through four stages namely, heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The results of this study show this hydroelectric power plant was built during the Dutch colonial era in 1920-1924 and operated in 1925. This power plant was initially built by a Dutch engineer named Willem Beyerinc K. for the electricity needs of sugar factories but over time was used to illuminate the area of Bandung and its surroundings, this power plant utilizes the flow of water from the Cisarua and Cisangkuy rivers.

This study aims to determine the development of the palm sugar home industry and its impact on the socio-economic life of the Hariang Village community in 1999-2019. The method used is the historical method, including heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The results showed that Hariang Village is one of the largest palm sugar producing villages in Sobang District. This is supported by abundant natural resources and the community's profession as farmers or palm sugar craftsmen. The economic growth of the Hariang Village community is due to the innovation of changing the form of printed palm sugar into ant palm sugar as a more durable product. Printed palm sugar craftsmen cooperate with the palm sugar industry of daily ants to improve the strata of socio-economic life. The palm sugar industry, which has existed since 1999, has developed and demand for palm sugar comes from Tangerang and Jakarta, palm sugar exports to foreign countries such as Australia, America, Malaysia, South Korea, Japan and Switzerland.Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui perkembangan industri rumah tangga gula aren semut dan dampaknya terhadap kehidupan sosial ekonomi masyarakat Desa Hariang tahun 1999-2019. Metode yang digunakan adalah metode sejarah, meliputi heuristik, kritik sumber, intepretasi, dan historiografi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Desa Hariang menjadi salah satu desa penghasil gula aren terbesar di Kecamatan Sobang. Hal ini didukung dengan sumber daya alam yang melimpah serta profesi masyarakat sebagai petani atau pengrajin gula aren cetak. Pertumbuhan ekonomi masyarakat Desa Hariang disebabkan adanya inovasi perubahan bentuk gula aren cetak menjadi gula aren semut sebagai produk yang lebih awet. Pengrajin gula aren cetak melakukan kerjasama dengan industri gula aren semut hariang untuk meningkatkan strata kehidupan sosial ekonomi. Industri gula aren semut hariang yang ada sejak tahun 1999 mengalami perkembangan dan permintaan gula aren semut berasal dari daerah Tangerang dan Jakarta, gula aren semut hariang melakukan ekspor ke luar negeri seperti Australia, Amerika, Malaysia, Korea Selatan, Jepang, dan Swiss.

This study aims to determine the history of government and bureaucracy after the fall of President Soeharto's government which was arranged during the crisis. The history of the government in question is the government in Pacitan Regency which at that time coincided with the reign of the Sitjipto Regent. At that time, almost all regions throughout the archipelago felt the impact, especially in the field of development. The research uses the historical method by reconstructing the past through a process of critical testing and analysis of the records and relics of the past. Broadly speaking, historical research includes four steps, starting from heuristics (collection of sources), criticism (verification), interpretation (imagination based on facts), and historiography (arranging facts chronologically). During the reign of Regent Sutjipto, in the period 1998-2000 he carried out a five-year development plan which was approved by the previous government through Perda no. 1 1994 concerning Basic Patterns of Pacitan Level II Regional Development 1994/1995 – 1998/1999. With a focus on the development of human and economic resources. Even with the crisis situation, Pacitan was able to adapt and the results werebased on the Susenas survey with several indicators, Pacitan experienced an increase in population and population growth, sex ratio, number of households, and population density.

The research object of this study is the provisions of the Provisional Constitutions of 1918, 1919 and 1920 concerning the establishment of the Lithuanian legal system. The aim of the study was to determine what was the basis for the reception of foreign law and the particularism of the law, what law was recepted and what was the relationship between it and the newly created national law. The main methods used are systematic, teleological, historical, linguistic, and comparative. This article presents an original vision of recepted law and a critical assessment of the interwar Lithuanian governmental decision to completely eliminate recepted law. In the authors' opinion, law reception and particularism enshrined in the Provisional Constitutions met the expectations of the citizens, and the government’s ambition to completely eliminate recepted law in all areas of people’s activities in the intensive development of the national law was in line with the strategic interests of the state and society. Particularism was a natural expression of pluralism inherent in the Western legal tradition and had a great potential for the development of Lithuanian law, which was not exploited due to the negative appreciation of particularism and the attempt to eliminate it completely. Acts issued by the Russian authorities in 1914-1915 and by the German authorities in 1915-1918 restricted the rights of Lithuanian residents, severely restricted monetary and property relations, made it difficult to rebuild the country’s economy, providing for repressive or restrictive measures against the citizens of hostile states. The restored state of Lithuania endeavoured to establish peaceful relations with all states, including those with whom Russia and Germany were at war. Cancelling the law imposed by the Russian and German authorities during the war was a reasonable and useful decision of the Lithuanian State authorities. The interpretation of the constitutional provision «[laws] which existed before the war» as «which existed before August 1, 1914», common in the historical legal literature of Lithuania, is incorrect. The question what laws were recepted has to be addressed not by the date of the adoption o a certain act, but by its content – insofar it is linked or unrelated to the First World War. All acts by which the Russian Empire intervened or were preparing to intervene in this war shall be considered to be excluded from the legal system of the restored State of Lithuania in the sense of the constitutional norm «[laws] which existed before the war» and the general spirit of this Constitution. The system of constitutional control entrenched in the Provisional Constitutions, where a court or an executive authority verified the compliance of a recepted law with the Constitution before applying it is subject to criticism from the standpoint of contemporary legal science, but under the conditions of Lithuania of 1918-1920, it was flexible, fast, allowing citizens to raise the issue of the constitutionality of the law and present their arguments.

The period between the late 1910s and early 1920s saw the emergence of onto-epistemological philosophical projects in Russia that was determined by criticism and attempts to overcome the domination of epistemology in philosophy which was the result of the intensive development of Neo-Kantianism and the influence of Husserl’s phenomenology. Attempts to turn towards ontology were made both by Russian religious philosophers and by Russian Neo-Kantians. I look at the little-studied philosophical projects of the Russian Neo-Kantians Lev Salagov and Nikolai Boldyrev. Their philosophical concepts share the tendency to transpose epistemological problems to ontology, and to identify and bring closer together epistemology and ontology. Russian philosophers ontologise the theory of cognition through the analysis of subjectivity, the complete elimination of psychological motives and the separation of transcendentalism from transcendentism. These principles enable Salagov to ground a three-part structure of cognition (consciousness, being, committing to consciousness) and to assert that the main task of genuine epistemology is exclusively the study of the cognitive relationship, committing to consciousness. They enable Boldyrev, proceeding from the separation of reflection and sensibility, to build a doctrine on the self-unfolding of being. Similar tendencies — a turn towards ontology — were observed in the same period in West European philosophy, including German Neo-Kantianism. However, the concepts of Russian Neo-Kantians, which imply a new orientation towards ontology, are fairly independent, and not only on account of the original interpretation of Kantian critical philosophy and Neo-Kantian epistemology, but also on account of internal discussion with the Russian philosophers belonging to other movements (for example, intuitivists). The analysis of the onto-epistemological projects of Russian Neo-Kantians makes important additions to the picture of the reception of Neo-Kantianism in Russia.

The article is devoted to the study of magical realism in German literary criticism, the origins of the term and its conceptual principles are considered. The author of the article relies on the research of German scientists, in particular M. Scheffel, D. Kirchner, H. Roland, T.W. Leine, M. Niehaus, J. Schuster and notes the differences and contradictions in the interpretation of the term, the vagueness of the concept and its heterogeneity. It is emphasized that the period of formation of the magic-realistic method of writing in Germany in the historical perspective generally covers the period from 1920 to 1960 and includes the beginning of the era of National Socialism and the Second World War. In German literature, the term was not immediately established, its assertion and dissemination were hampered by several factors: first, its contradiction, because it combines semantically opposite concepts – “realism”, which directly correlates with reality, the true image of reality, and “magical”, based on the supernatural, fantastic, reaching beyond reality; second, the moment of its origin falls on a rather complex and contradictory period of German history, which is reluctantly mentioned or silenced; third, magical realism has sometimes been mistakenly identified with the notion of “Neue Sachlichkeit”. Analysis of all factors shows that the origin and formation of the magic-realistic method in German literature has its own characteristics and uniqueness and differs from the world-famous examples of Latin American or English literature. As a result, the author notes that German magical realism is historically determined and in many of its examples reflects the traumatic postwar experience with a pronounced inrospectivity and humanistic orientation. As an aesthetic concept, magical realism expands the boundaries of realism: by depicting the objective world in its real dimensions, it focuses its gaze on the unreality hidden behind real objects.

Abstrak: Lembaga perlindungan anak merupakan ‘rumah’ terhadap setiap permasalahan anak yang seyogyanya dilindungi oleh negara. Secara konstitusi, penguatan mengenai perlindungan anak berdasarkan Undang-Undang tentang Perlindungan Anak tahun 2002. Permasalahan dalam penelitian ini yaitu bagaimana proses awal dan dinamika yang dihadapi oleh lembaga perlindungan anak di Indonesia. Penelitian ini bertujuan menguraikan kelahiran dan dinamika lembaga perlindungan anak di Indonesia (1997-2016). Metode yang digunakan yaitu metode historis yang terdiri dari heuristik, kritik sumber, interpretasi dan historiografi. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa tahun 1997 dianggap sebagai tonggak lahirnya lembaga perlindungan anak di Indonesia yaitu dengan dibentuknya GNPA oleh Soeharto. Untuk memenuhi legalitas hukum, maka dibentuklah LPA melalui Departemen Sosial. Lembaga ini berubah nama menjadi Komnas PA pada tahun 1999. Berdasarkan Undang-Undang Perlindungan Anak tahun 2002, dibentuk KPAI. Perubahan nama pada lembaga perlindungan anak di Indonesia sejak tahun 1997-2002 merupakan salah satu upaya untuk melegalkan lembaga perlindungan anak. Berbagai permasalahan mengenai anak menjadi salah satu dinamika yang mewarnai lembaga perlindungan anak di Indonesia. Kata Kunci: Komnas PA, KPAI, LPAI, Perlindungan Anak.Abstract: Child protection institutions are the 'home' for every child's problems that should be protected by the state. Constitutionally, the strengthening of child protection is based on the Act on Child Protection in 2002. The problem in this research is how the initial process and dynamics faced by child protection institutions in Indonesia. This study aims to describe the birth and dynamics of child protection institutions in Indonesia (1997-2016). The method used is the historical method consisting of heuristics, source criticism, interpretation and historiography. The results of this study indicate that 1997 is considered a milestone for the birth of child protection institutions in Indonesia, namely the establishment of GNPA by Suharto. To fulfill legal legality, LPA was formed through the Ministry of Social Affairs. This institution changed its name to Komnas PA in 1999. Based on the 2002 Child Protection Act, the KPAI was formed. The name change of child protection institutions in Indonesia since 1997-2002 is one of the efforts to legalize child protection institutions. Various problems regarding children are one of the dynamics that characterize child protection institutions in Indonesia.Keywords: Komnas PA, KPAI, LPAI, Childs Protectio.

In 1999, Rodney Stark announced that the secularization theory had died and should be buried in a graveyard of failed doctrines. He presented the rationale for this verdict in Secularization, R.I.P., which was supposed to show that the theory of secularization is not capable of correctly describing either the past or the current state of religiosity in European countries, and even more so in the rest of the world. While Stark’s findings have been accepted by many scholars, the current researches show that Stark was too hasty with his conclusion, and the theory of secularization still has significant descriptive and explanatory potential. Thus, the results of recent research by Ronald F. Inglehart show that, although religions continue to play an important role in the modern world, their importance is steadily declining even in countries and regions that were previously considered permanently religious (for example, in the United States or in South America). Accordingly, Inglehart speaks of “recent acceleration of secularization” as the reality in which most countries in the world live. In the situation of the ongoing discussion about how fully and accurately the secularization theory is able to describe the laws and mechanics of social changes, it also becomes relevant to consider the question of why the previous criticism of the theory, including that of Stark, was not very effective. It seems that in Stark’s case the following factors have played a negative role: an ideologized approach equating the theory of secularization with secularism, the interpretation of the subjective religiosity of some societies as an unchangeable constant, which, moreover, should be accepted as constant for all other societies, and an extremely simplified interpretation of fundamental principles of secularization theory, which, according to Stark, is no more than the prophecy about the end of religion. The incorrectness of some Stark’s critical ideas is demonstrated by a statistical analysis of long-term trends in the religiosity of Iceland, Great Britain, and the United States. The most telling example seems to be that of Iceland, whose religious landscape has changed dramatically over the past three decades and bears little resemblance to the image of rural religiosity of the 1980s that Stark drew in Secularization, R.I.P., and which he considered unchanged.

Penelitian dengan judul Eksistensi Musik Death Metal Di Jakarta 1989-2000 bertujuan untuk mengetahui mengenai perkembangan aliran musik death metal di Jakarta. Dalam penelitian ini digunakan metode historis dengan tahapan heuristik, kritik sumber, interpretasi, dan historiografi. Hasil penelitian ini menginformasikan bahwa eksistensi musik death metal di Jakarta dimulai sejak berdirinya band Grausig pada tahun 1989. Kemudian dari tahun 1991-1998 terbentuk sebanyak 23 band beraliran death metal. Pada awal berdirinya band-band tersebut masih memainkan lagu-lagu milik band death metal mancanegara. Pada tahun 1993 berdiri tempat bersejarah bernama Poster Café yang menjadi venue rutin diselenggarakannya penampilan band-band death metal di Jakarta. Selama periode tersebut juga banyak sekali event-event perguruan tinggi dan sekolah yang menghadirkan band-band beraliran death metal. Kelahiran fanzine di Jakarta ditandai oleh beredarnya fanzine bernama Brainwashed Zine sejak September 1996. Pada tahun 1999 terjadi perubahan arah penulisan lirik lagu-lagu death metal, yang sebelumnya membahas “setan”, menjadi lagu-lagu bertemakan kritik sosial-politik. Perubahan tersebut terjadi akibat pemerintah otoriter Orde Baru. Pada tahun 2000 terbentuk label rekaman Rottrevore Records. Label tersebut melahirkan standard baru bagi eksistensi musik death metal di Jakarta. Standard baru tersebut adalah label rekaman harus menjadi wadah yang profesional bagi band-band death metal yang dinaunginya. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa lirik-lirik lagu death metal di Jakarta tidak hanya bertemakan “setan”, tetapi ada juga lirik-lirik lagu yang bertemakan kritik sosial-politik.Kata kunci : Eksistensi, Musik, Death Metal di Jakarta Abtract The research entitled The Existence of Death Metal Music in Jakarta 1989-2000 aims to find out about the development of death metal music in Jakarta. In this research, the historical method is used with heuristic stages, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The results of this study inform that the existence of death metal music in Jakarta began with the founding of the band Grausig in 1989. Then from 1991-1998 formed as many as 23 death metal bands. At the beginning of their establishment, these bands still played songs belonging to foreign death metal bands. In 1993, a historic place called Poster Café was established, which is a regular venue for performances by death metal bands in Jakarta. During this period, there were also many college and school events that featured death metal bands. The birth of a fanzine in Jakarta was marked by the circulation of a fanzine called Brainwashed Zine since September 1996. In 1999 there was a change in the direction of writing lyrics for death metal songs, which previously discussed “devil”, into songs with the theme of socio-political criticism. These changes occurred as a result of the authoritarian New Order government. In 2000 the record label Rottrevore Records was formed. The label gave birth to a new standard for the existence of death metal music in Jakarta. The new standard is that record labels must become a professional forum for death metal bands under their umbrella. It can be concluded that the lyrics of death metal songs in Jakarta are not only themed "devil", but there are also song lyrics with the theme of socio-political criticism.Keywords : death metal, poster café, rottrevore records

Quantum Mechanics is a fundamental physical theory about atomic-scale processes. It was built between 1920 and 1940 by the most distinguished physicists of that time. The accordance between the predictions of the theory and experimental results is remarkable. The physical interpretation of its mathematical constructs, however, raised unprecedented controversies. Ontological, semantic, and epistemic vagueness abound in the orthodox interpretations and have resulted in serious misunderstandings that are often repeated in textbooks and elsewhere. In this work, we identify, criticize, and clarify the most spread ones.

Tulisan ini bermaksud menunjukkan pemikiran dan peranan Émma Poeradiredja dalam pergerakan politik perempuan Indonesia. Émma Poeradiredja merupakan perempuan Sunda yang terlibat dalam pergerakan perempuan Indonesia sejak tahun 1920-an. Dia dikenal sebagai salah satu pendiri dan ketua Pasundan Istri, serta merupakan perempuan Sunda pertama yang terpilih sebagai anggota gemeenteraad. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode sejarah. Metode sejarah mencakup tahapan menemukan dan mengumpulkan sumber serta data (heuristic), kritik sumber, interpretasi dan historiografi. Pendekatan sejarah politik digunakan untuk mengelaborasi pemikiran-pemikiran Émma Poeradiredja. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa menurut Émma Poeradiredja, dalam kehidupan masyarakat, perempuan dapat menjalankan empat peran, yakni sebagai ibu, sebagai pemimpin dalam urusan rumah tangga, sebagai isteri, dan sebagai warga negara. Dengan demikian, pemberdayaan perempuan dilakukan dalam tiga tahap. Pertama, dalam rumah tangga; kedua, dalam kehidupan sosial ekonomi yang mana perempuan berada dalam posisi berdampingan dengan laki-laki dalam menjalankan kewajiban dalam masyarakat; ketiga, dalam politik, perempuan harus turut serta menerima kerja-kerja politik. Pemberdayaan perempuan ini dilakukan pertama-tama melalui pendidikan dan selanjutnya melalui gerakan politik. Émma menekankan bahwa dalam bidang politik ini peran perempuan sebagai warga negara yang berpartisipasi dalam kehidupan pemerintah dapat dijalankan. This article intends to show the thoughts and roles of Émma Poeradiredja in the Indonesian women's political movement. Émma Poeradiredja is a Sundanese woman who has been involved in Indonesian women's movements since the 1920s. She was known as one of the founders and chairman of the Pasundan Women, and was the first Sundanese woman to be elected as a member of the gemeenteraad. In this study historical methods are used. Historical methods include the stages of finding and collecting sources and data (heuristics), source criticism, interpretation and historiography. The approach to political history was used to elaborate on the thoughts of Émma Poeradiredja. The results of this study indicate that according to Émma Poeradiredja, in people's lives, women can carry out four roles: as mothers, as leaders in household affairs, as wives, and as citizens. Thus, women's empowerment is carried out in three stages. First, in the household; second, in socio-economic life where women are in a position side by side with men in carrying out obligations in society; third, in politics, women must participate in accepting political work. Women's empowerment was carried out first through education and then through political movements. Émma emphasized that in this political field the role of women as citizens who participate in government life can be carried out.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tentang Yayasan Minasa sebagai wadah penampungan eks DI/TII di Kabupaten Luwu 1969-2018) dengan mengungkap latar belakang berdirinya Yayasan Minasa dan perkembangan Yayasan Minasa dalam bidang sosial ekonomi, pendidikan, dan keagamaan. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa latar belakang didirikannya Yayasan Minasa adalah sebagai imbalan jasa kepada Abdul Aziz Abdullah karena bertindak untuk mengamankan Eks DI/TII yang tersebar di Sulawesi Selatan Tenggara dan mengajak mereka untuk bergabung dengan NKRI. Tujuan utama didirikannya Yayasan Minasa adalah untuk menampung anggota-anggota Ex DI/TII. Dalam perkembangannya selama kurang lebih 49 tahun Yayasan Minasa telah dipimpin oleh dua ketua yaitu Abdul Aziz Abdulllah yang memimpin dari tahun 1969-1999, dan St. Hadeyang yang memimpin dari tahun 2002-sekarang. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa yayasan Minasa telah mengalami beberapa perubahan dalam bidang kehidupan sosial ekonomi, bidang pendidikan dan bidang keagamaan dalam kehidupan masyarakat masyarakat.Penelitian ini menggunakan metodologi penelitian sejarah yang meliputi heuristik yaitu tahapan pengumpulan data, kritik sumber bertujuan menilai dan menentukan sumber, interpretasi yaitu menafsirkan data dan tahap historiografi atau penyajian atau penulisan sejarah. Metode pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan cara penelitian lapangan terdiri dari wawancara (Eks DI/TII dan masyarakat Yayasan Minasa) dan mengumpulkan sumber arsip (arsip Yayasan Minasa) serta literatur-literatur yang berhubungan dengan penelitian ini.Kata kunci: Eks DI/TII, Yayasan dan Minasa This study aims to find out about the Minasa Foundation as a former DI/TII shelter in Luwu Regency 1969-2018) by revealing the background of the founding of the Minasa Foundation and the development of the Minasa Foundation in the socio-economic, educational, and religious fields. The results showed that the background for the establishment of the Minasa Foundation was in return for services to Abdul Aziz Abdullah for acting to secure the former DI/TII spread across Southeast Sulawesi and to invite them to join the Unitary Republic of Indonesia. The main purpose of establishing the Minasa Foundation was to accommodate Ex DI/TII members. In its development for approximately 49 years the Minasa Foundation has been led by two chairmen, Abdul Aziz Abdulllah, who led from 1969-1999, and St. Hadeyang was in charge from 2002 to present. Based on the results of the study it can be concluded that the Minasa foundation has undergone several changes in the field of socio-economic life, education and religious fields in the life of the community. This research uses historical research methodologies which include heuristics namely the stages of data collection, source criticism aimed at assessing and determining sources , interpretation, namely interpreting data and historiographic stages or presenting or writing history. The data collection method was carried out by means of field research consisting of interviews (former DI/TII and the Minasa Foundation community) and collecting archival sources (Minasa Foundation archives) as well as the literature relating to this research.Keyword: Eks DI/TII, Yayasan dan Minasa

Se rebaten dos tipos de críticas sobre Cuentos de barro (1933), de Salarrué: se cuestionan interpretaciones que identifican a los personajes con los indígenas y los negros reales de El Salvador en las décadas de 1920 y 1930; por otra parte, se disputan las críticas académicas que, a pesar de reconocer el ingrediente inventivo en las representaciones de los personajes, califican la ficción de un acto engañoso. Con el análisis de «El negro», con atención en el discurso metafórico, el realismo de Salarrué es más complejo que el realismo concebido como una copia fiel del mundo real. The study refutes two types of criticism about Cuentos de barro (1933), by Salarrué. It questions interpretations identifying the characters with real indigenous and black people in El Salvador in the 1920s and 1930s. Moreover, it argues against academic criticism which, in spite of acknowledging the non-realistic traits of the characters, describes the fiction as misleading. Through the analysis of “El negro”, with attention to the metaphoric discourse, Salarrué’s realism is viewed as more complex than realism conceived of as a faithful copy of the real world.

Abstract. Null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) is one of the most widely used methods for testing hypotheses in psychological research. However, it has remained shrouded in controversy throughout the almost seventy years of its existence. The present article reviews both the main criticisms of the method as well as the alternatives which have been put forward to complement or replace it. It focuses basically on those alternatives whose use is recommended by the Task Force on Statistical Inference (TFSI) of the APA ( Wilkinson and TFSI, 1999 ) in the interests of improving the working methods of researchers with respect to statistical analysis and data interpretation. In addition, the arguments used to reject each of the criticisms levelled against NHST are reviewed and the main problems with each of the alternatives are pointed out. It is concluded that rigorous research activity requires use of NHST in the appropriate context, the complementary use of other methods which provide information about aspects not addressed by NHST, and adherence to a series of recommendations which promote its rational use in psychological research.

The aim of this article is to analyze the process of evaluation of Albanian literature in literary periodicals (print or online). The research aims to explain the nature of criticism of Albanian literature in accordance with three main periods of Albanian literary history (1920–1944; 1945–1990; 1991–present). The paper has a short chronological presentation of the main periodicals which deal with literature. It also deals with the reception of Albanian literature in old and new periodicals. Some of the most important research questions of this paper are: Is there a continuation in the critical approaches to Albanian literature from the beginning to the present? Do critics have a ‘critical’ interaction between them while they express their evaluation regarding literature? Who are the critics? Which is the core role of certain critics and periodicals? The methodology used in this paper embraces a historical, analytical, statistical and interpretative approach. The paper will be developed in two parallel sections. The first one will elaborate quantitatively official data related to the number of periodicals which deal with the evaluation of literature in its theoretical and critical aspects and the other section will describe, analyze and interpret the data. The research results tend to prove that the process of critical evaluation of Albanian literature has experienced similar characteristics with Albanian literature itself. The critical reflection or criticism has turned out to be a refracting process. The critical evaluations are marred occasionally by low levels of professionalism or political interference.

The aim of this article is to analyze the process of evaluation of Albanian literature in literary periodicals (print or online). The research aims to explain the nature of criticism of Albanian literature in accordance with three main periods of Albanian literary history (1920–1944; 1945–1990; 1991–present). The paper has a short chronological presentation of the main periodicals which deal with literature. It also deals with the reception of Albanian literature in old and new periodicals. Some of the most important research questions of this paper are: Is there a continuation in the critical approaches to Albanian literature from the beginning to the present? Do critics have a ‘critical’ interaction between them while they express their evaluation regarding literature? Who are the critics? Which is the core role of certain critics and periodicals? The methodology used in this paper embraces a historical, analytical, statistical and interpretative approach. The paper will be developed in two parallel sections. The first one will elaborate quantitatively official data related to the number of periodicals which deal with the evaluation of literature in its theoretical and critical aspects and the other section will describe, analyze and interpret the data. The research results tend to prove that the process of critical evaluation of Albanian literature has experienced similar characteristics with Albanian literature itself. The critical reflection or criticism has turned out to be a refracting process. The critical evaluations are marred occasionally by low levels of professionalism or political interference.

Since Romaine's (1982) pioneering work, historical sociolinguistics has been studying the relationships between language and society in its socio-historical context by focusing on the study of language variation and change with the use of variationist methods. Work on this interdisciplinary sub-field subsisting on sociology, history and linguistics is expanding, as shown, for example, by Milroy (1992), Nevalainen & Raumolin-Brunberg (1996; 2003), Ammon, Mattheier & Nelde (1999), Jahr (1999), Kastovsky & Mettinger (2000), Bergs (2005), Conde-Silvestre (2007), Trudgill (2010), or Hernández-Campoy & Conde-Silvestre (2012). These works have been elucidating the theoretical limits of the discipline and applying the tenets and findings of contemporary sociolinguistic research to the interpretation of linguistic material from the past. Yet in the course of this development historical sociolinguistics has sometimes been criticised for lack of representativeness and its empirical validity has occasionally been questioned. Fortunately, in parallel to the development of electronic corpora, the assistance of corpus linguistics and social history has conferred ‘empirical’ ease and ‘historical’ confidence on the discipline.

This article presents a new set of experiments using the sentence-matching paradigm (Forster, 1979; Freedman and Forster, 1985; see also Bley-Vroman and Masterson, 1989), investigating native speakers' and second language (L2) learners' knowledge of constraints on clitic placement in French. Our purpose is three-fold: • to shed more light on the contrasts between native speakers and L2 learners observed in previous experiments, especially Duffield and White (1999), and Duffield et al . (2002); • to address some of the specific criticisms of the sentence-matching paradigm levelled by Gass (2001); and • to provide a firm empirical basis for follow-up experiments with L2 learners. The results reported here provide some confirmation of the validity of Duffield et al.'s earlier work, and help to adjudicate among competing interpretations of the previous effects.

THE DOUBLE INVERSION - THE CONCEPT OF FETISHISM IN THE CRITIQUE OF POLITICAL ECONOMYKarl Marx’s critical analysis of ‘the secret of the fetishism of commodities’ – according to which the universal domination of the commodity form makes social relations appear in the form of relations between things – is today widely regarded as a central element of the critique of political economy. The concept of fetishism was generally neglected until in the 1920’s, and the debates around this concept did not really take off until the 1960’s. Since then, there have essentially been two predominant interpretations of Marx’s concept of fetishism: on the one hand those who regards fetishism as an ideological phenomenon, as something that has to do with the way in which social reality is represented for and in the social agents. On the other hand there are those who insists that fetishism refers to a certain displacement or inversion at the level of social practice itself, and not its ideological representation. In this article, I review these conflicting readings in the light of a close reading of Marx’s use of the term fetish(ism) in all of his writings from the Grundrisse (1857) onwards. I argue that Marx used this term to refer to an ideological phenomenon, and that he was right in doing so. I also point out that this does not entail subscribing to a naïve view of ideology as false consciousness or class manipulation that can be abolished by enlightenment and criticism.

Allen C. Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1999)William Lee Miller, Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography (New York: Knopf, 2002)Stewart Winger, Lincoln, Religion, and Romantic Cultural Politics (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003)Since Good Friday 1865 most Americans have adored their sixteenth president. They venerate him because he so vividly embodies their two most cherished cultural stories—the poor farmer's boy risen to the top, the preacher of charity martyred for his people—while so strikingly surpassing even those mythic achievements. For the masses Lincoln lives on as the visionary emancipator, forgiving warrior, self-taught wordsmith, contemplative sage, and (most miraculous oxymoron of all) honest politician. For intellectuals Lincoln commands allegiance for his reasoned argument, his practical political judgment, his commitment to the principles underlying republican communities, and his tradition-rich eloquence (Shakespeare and the King James Version vying for prominence in his speech with authentic backwoods witticisms). How strange, then, that until Allen Guelzo's Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President appeared in 1999 no historian had written his intellectual biography. Many important studies of Lincoln's thought have been produced, going back to Harry V. Jaffa's 1959 classic Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues of the Lincoln–Douglas Debates (Guelzo calls it (p. 469) “incontestably the greatest Lincoln book of the [twentieth] century”) and beyond that to William E. Barton's now forgotten The Soul of Abraham Lincoln (1920), a trenchant study of Lincoln's religious thinking. But Guelzo is the first to produce an intellectually disposed life of Lincoln, one that follows the lead of Daniel Walker Howe (most recently expounded in Making the American Self: Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln, 1997) by putting Lincoln's “Whig culture” and his distinctive theological musings at the heart of his personal and political story.

Abstract At the latest with the designation of Indonesian group of artists, ruangrupa, as collective co-directors of documenta fifteen in 2022, the collective has arrived at the centre of the art world. This notion includes not only the organizational form of a group, but also designates a specific mode of cooperating with outsiders, of reflecting and of cultivating appearances. In their curatorial approach, ruangrupa present an extremely comprehensive conceptualisation of the collective, in which the various collective aspirations observable in the art field, which have been spreading for some time now, are condensed. As early as the 1990s, there has been, in the art world, an increase in individual facets of the collective. This is evidenced not only by the growing differentiation between different forms of collective associations, which can hardly be represented in a typology anymore; the turn towards the collective is also reflected in its being addressed in exhibitions, which in turn often refer to theoretical considerations derived from the fields of philosophy, cultural studies, or sociology, interpreting the ›collective turn‹ as a ›sign of the times‹. Art-historically speaking, the examination of the collective is a relatively young phenomenon which exhibits a range of subject-specific peculiarities. While art-historical classification, in particular, retains fundamental reservations about this ›unconventional‹ artistic working mode (Thurn 1991, Stahlhut 2019), rather more recent, cultural studies approaches tend to put forward typologies based on such notions as complicity (Ziemer 2013) or collaboration (Schneider 2006). In all these contributions, authorship is the central ›axis‹ of analysis. However, the breaking up of individual authorship, which in the visual arts remained virtually unchallenged for a very long time, to make room for collective associations, has been neither the only nor the most important reason, in recent decades, for artists to associate collectively. The rejection of a ›singular‹ notion of creation is nevertheless often introduced as the most important theoretical-analytical reference; social factors, by contrast, which have accompanied or even promoted the spread of the phenomenon, are often pointed out only selectively, if at all. Well-founded discussions of select examples, or instances of reasonably systematic contextualisation, may only be found from the mid-2000s onwards (e. g. Lind 2007). And it was only in the 2010s that art historians and scholars from other disciplines became interested in collective working modes. In their attempts to clarify and classify this trend, whose reality can no longer be gainsaid owing to its omnipresence, most publications and events initially started from a rather broad, and thus vague, understanding of the collective. Nevertheless, the tension between the creative individual and the collective remained central to the narrative put forward in numerous contributions. Those texts originating from artistic and/or curatorial practice – i. e., from the art world itself – often were written in a legitimating style which, combined as it often was with inventive text and image elements, appeared intended confidently to position collective forms of organisation (cf. Baukrowitz 1994; Bianchi 1999; Block/Nollert 2005). Based on this, the diversity of the formats that have since been established was emphasised, as were the advantages of this mode of working and organising. So far, there has been hardly any question as to the social structure within which this mode of working has been able to gain its considerable resonance; neither have scholars investigated how the individual groups relate to their political and social framework, what kind of self-image they derive from this, or how they relate the ›we‹ they have created to the group’s individual members. Against this backdrop, the present article proposes an interpretation of collective authorship as a complex and dynamic constellation of elements that develops and positions itself within a field of tension generated by the various notions of authorship, the organisation of work, criticism of the prevailing system, and competing models of society. The notion of a ›constellation‹ appears particularly suitable here because it suggests a ›bigger picture‹, yet at the same time allows to crystallise, for concrete situations (such as specific collective associations), »the elements of their respective special relationship, and what may conceivably emerge from them in concrete terms« (Mersch 2015, 166). The present article outlines and traces these relationships based on a selection of such collective associations, intending to show where and how – despite specific contextual difference – common concerns and overarching trends may be identified. This, ultimately, results in a complex reading of those individual phenomena.

AbstractThe analytical studies of the Chandler motion of the Earth’s pole on the basis of the special approach to the problem, using the canonical and noncanonical equations in the Andoyer elastic variables (Barkin, et al. 1995; Barkin, 1996; in press) have been fulfilled. The Earth is considered as an isolated celestial body with the anelastic (in general case) external envelope (the mantle) and an invariant central part (the core).The interpretation of the Chandler motion of the body, deformed by its own rotation, was given in the case of an elastic envelope. It was shown that the body rotates as a fictitious rigid body with different moments of inertia. The analytical solution of the problem let us explain the next properties of the motion of the deformable bodies: 1) observed period of the Earth’s polar motion; 2) ellipticity of the pole trajectory and difference of the eccentricities of the Chandler and Euler motions; 3) nonuniform velocity of the counter-clockwise polar motion along the Chandler ellipse; 4) orientation of this ellipse (its minor axis is located in the meridian plane, at 14.5 W degrees).The influence of the dissipation on the damping of the Chandler polar motion was studied. The analytical solution of the problem was obtained for the simplest treatment of the delay of the tides caused by the Earth’s rotation (Getino & Ferrándiz 1991; Kubo, 1991). This model explains the characteristic behaviour of the amplitude of the Chandler motion in the periods 1905–1920, 1943–1960 (Vondrák, & Cyril, 1966). The excitation of the Chandler motion can be explained by the upper and lower envelope displacements (Barkin, 1999) with Moon-Sun forced attraction with a period of 412 days, close to the Chandler period.

In 2016 during the inventory and transportation of the archaeological finds from temporary archaeological storage at Pheophania to the present-day storage facility of the Institute of Archaeology, the materials of the excavations of the expeditions of 1980 and 1985 were selected and processed. The excavations and surveys were conducted by expeditions under the lead of O. G. Shaposhnikova and D. Ya. Telehin on the territory of the Starobilsk district of the Luhansk region. The surveys in 1980 were conducted at only two locations located close to each other — the settlements of Aidar-Bila and Pidhorivka. Aydar-Bila. Because the location plan is missing (it is also missing from the 1986 report), it was not possible to locate the settlement on the map. However, it can be assumed that the multilayered settlement of Aydar-Bila is located in the eastern part of the village Pidhorivka of the Starobilsk district of the Lugansk region, on the low floodplain terrace of the right bank of the river Bila (the right tributary of the Aydar river). At the location of the settlement, the width of the valley of both rivers is 2.23 km. In 1986, additional research was conducted and the site was named Hyrlo Biloyi. In fact, this name is more common and widely used in the scientific literature. The settlement is multilayered, as indicated by the code on the finds. The largest number of finds is associated with layer 4. Given the vertical distribution of the finds, it can be assumed that there are at least three episodes of occupation in the history of the settlement, two of which, given the peculiarities of the finds, occurred in the Neolithic Period and one in the Late Bronze Age. Pidhorivka. The multilayered settlement of Pidhorivka is located on the off-shore terrace of the right bank of the Aydar River, at the point where the coast recedes to the west, thus forming a sufficiently wide floodplain, on which the depressions of the old-aged lakes are noticeable. In total, about 10 different settlements were found within the specified floodplain, 5 of which are known from the research of S. O. Loktushev in 1939. In 1963, the Pidhorivka settlement was investigated by V. M. Gladilin, however, no report or publication on the results of the research appeared, as correctly pointed out by Y. G. Gurin in 1998. It is only known that the expedition V. M. Gladilin cleaned up the coastline of the Aydar River, where the Neolithic materials were discovered. Some findings revealed by the expedition led by V. M. Gladilin appear in the monograph V. M. Danilenko as an example of the material culture of the Azov culture he identified. In 1980, the expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR under the direction of O. G. Shaposhnikova laid out an excavation area on the Pidhorivka settlement. The results of these studies are unknown (missing report, field documentation, and findings). In the same year an expedition led by D. Y. Telegin excavated a trench with a total area of 5 m2. Later (in 1984), the site was explored by an expedition under the general guidance of K. I. Krasilnikov and Y. G. Gurin. The total number of findings revealed as a result of the research by O. G. Shaposhnikova reached 295 units. The material analysis demonstrates the settlement is multi-layered. The upper horizons with the Middle and Late Bronze Age materials being the latest. In the conditional horizon of 0.8/0.9 m, a rather informative fragment of the Late Copper Age vessel was found, and at the same time, it is accompanied by a flint complex, which has the appearance of the Early Copper Age or Neolithic. The artifacts found in the conditional horizons of 0.9/1.0—1.1/1.2 m appear to be relatively «pure» in that the cultural and chronological terms clearly define their affiliation with the Early Neolithic Period and allow them to be associated with the Lower Don culture/Nizhnedonska culture of the Mariupol Cultural and Historical Area. At the same time, the presence of earlier artifacts, such as a conical single-platform core and multiple-truncated burin, makes one more cautious to interpret the complexes. Both the core and the burin look more logical in the flint complexes of the lower horizons of the site. In this sense, it is important to pay attention to the description of the stratigraphic section of the excavation area 2 of the settlement Pidhorivka, presented by Y. G. Gurin in a monograph about the Early Copper age sites of the Siversky Donets Basin. It states that, at a depth of 1.7/2.0 m and below, the layer of floodplain alluvium contains «Mesolithic materials». Y. G. Gurin did not publish the materials themselves that he claimed were from the Mesolithic era. In 2006, O. F. Gorelik issued a publication dedicated to the interpretation of the materials of the lower layer of Pidhorivka. In this work, he linked the affiliation of the flint complex with the early stage of Donetsk culture, and considered the site one of the centers of the Mesolithic industries with the yanishlavitsa type of projectile points. This conclusion is based on the similarity of the materials of the lower layer of Pidhoryvka with the flint complex of the site Shevchenko hamlet, one of the features of which is the presence of a yanislavitsa type of projectile point. In 1999, the materials of the site Zelena Hornitsa 5 were published, which is located on the second floodplain terrace of the lake on the left bank of the Siversky Donets River. In the material culture of this site, even if there are multiple elements, they in no way affect the overall situation. The complex of projectile points of the site consists of trapezes, a yanislavitsa type, points with truncated edges, and so on. The presence of the collapse of the stucco vessel along with these flint products, gave rise to criticism of the idea of O. F. Gorelik about the Mesolithic character of complexes with a yanislavitsa type of projectile points. Later V. O. Manko, in a more detailed form, questioned the theory of O. F. Gorelik. To the present day we can state that there has been some stagnation in this issue. The surveys in 1985 were conducted at the valley of Aidar river from v. Lyman to v. Losovivka. In this area, sites lots have been found, which in chronological terms date back to the Paleolithic—Medieval times. For this reason, we believe that the introduction into scientific circulation of even a small amount of archaeological materials, allows the creation of a more complete picture of the processes that took place in the basin of the middle stream of the Siversky Donets River during the Neolithic—Copper Age.

1. Alivizatou, M. (2019). Digital intangible heritage: Inventories, virtual learning and participation. Heritage & Society, 12(2–3), 116–135. 2. Billett, S. (2009). Conceptualizing learning experiences: Contributions and mediations of the social, personal, and brute. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 16(1), 32–47. 3. Bonilla, C. M. (2014). Racial Counternarratives and L atina Epistemologies in Relational Organizing. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 45(4), 391–408. 4. Britain, T. (2007). How We Are: Photographing Britain. 5. Brodie, R. J., Hollebeek, L. D., Jurić, B., & Ilić, A. (2011). Customer Engagement: Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for Research. Journal of Service Research, 14(3), 252–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670511411703 6. Budge, K. (2017). Objects in focus: Museum visitors and Instagram. Curator: The Museum Journal, 60(1), 67–85. 7. Budge, K., & Burness, A. (2018). 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The popular historical narrative of the batik Sidoarjo needs to be reexamined based on historical methodology so that there is no historical bias based only on oral stories of the general public. Many studies are trapped in an inaccurate understanding of local historicity. As a result, these various studies have failed to fit batik Sidoarjo into its full context, instead it has become a kind of narrative standardization on its characteristics and history. This study aims to criticize the historical construction that has been popular in relation to the basic understanding of batik Sidoarjo and to explain the position of batik Sidoarjo in the cultural framework of its people. This article is the author's attempt to provide an analysis or explanation that is different from the historical narrative of batik Sidoarjo which is commonly used in various discussions. This research is classified as a qualitative research, using the historical method which consists of four stages, namely heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography. This research uses historical and sociological approaches to collect, select, and critically examine historical sources of Sidoarjo batik, resulting in historical facts. The results showed that the historicity of batik Sidoarjo refers to the batik activities in the areas of Kedungcangkring, Jetis, Sekardangan, Gajah Mada St. (Peranakans), and Tulangan, all of which have a direct relationship with both Peranakans nor indigenous. Batik Sidoarjo is not framed by traditional rituals, nor is it under the control and domination of the royal aristocracy. Its growth is based on the factor of the economic needs of the supporting community, which tends to be a trading commodity. The presence of other groups of people or nations such as Peranakan Chinese, Indo-European, Dutch, Arabic contributed to the birth of Sidoarjo batik. Keywords: batik, Sidoarjo, historical criticism.AbstrakNarasi sejarah batik Sidoarjo yang populer perlu dikaji ulang dengan didasari metodologi sejarah sehingga tidak terjadi bias sejarah yang hanya berdasar pada cerita lisan masyarakat umum. Banyak penelitian yang terjebak dalam pemahaman historisitas setempat yang kurang tepat. Akibatnya, berbagai kajian tersebut tidak berhasil mendudukkan batik Sidoarjo sesuai dengan konteksnya secara utuh, malah menjadi semacam standardisasi narasi pada karakteristik maupun sejarahnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengkritisi konstruksi sejarah yang telah populer terkait pemahaman dasar tentang batik Sidoarjo serta menjelaskan kedudukan batik Sidoarjo dalam kerangka budaya masyarakatnya. Artikel ini merupakan upaya penulis untuk memberikan analisis atau paparan yang berbeda dari narasi sejarah batik Sidoarjo yang umum dilakukan pada berbagai pembahasan. Penelitian ini tergolong dalam penelitian kualitatif, dengan menggunakan metode sejarah yang terdiri atas empat tahap, yaitu heuristik, kritik sumber, interpretasi, dan historiografi. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan historis dan sosiologis untuk mengumpulkan, menyeleksi, dan menguji secara kritis sumber-sumber sejarah batik Sidoarjo, sehingga menghasilkan fakta sejarah. Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan bahwa historisitas batik Sidoarjo merujuk pada aktivitas pembatikan yang ada di wilayah Kedungcangkring, Jetis, Sekardangan, Jl. Gajah Mada (China Peranakan), dan Tulangan yang kesemuanya saling terkait memiliki hubungan langsung baik itu pembatikan China peranakan maupun pribumi. Batik Sidoarjo tidak dikerangkai oleh ritual adat, juga tidak di bawah kendali dan dominasi aristokrasi kraton. Pertumbuhannya didasari faktor kebutuhan ekonomi masyarakat pendukungnya, sifatnya cenderung merupakan komoditas dagang. Hadirnya golongan masyarakat atau bangsa lain seperti China Peranakan, Indo-Eropa, Belanda, Arab turut berpengaruh melahirkan batik Sidoarjo.Kata Kunci: batik, Sidoarjo, kritik sejarah. Author:Asy Syams Elya Ahmad : Universitas Negeri Surabaya References:Abbas, Irwan. (2014). Memahami Metodologi Sejarah antara Teori dan Praktek. ETNOHISTORI: Jurnal Ilmiah Kebudayaan dan Kesejerahan, 1(1), 33–41.Abdurrahman, Dudung. (1999). Metode Penelitian Sejarah. Yogyakarta: Logos.Ahmad, Asy Syams Elya. (2013). Kajian Estetik Batik Sidoarjo. Tesis. Tidak Diterbitkan. Bandung: Program Studi Magister Desain, Institut Teknologi Bandung.Anas, Biranul, Hasanuddin, Ratna Panggabean, Yanyan Sunarya. (1997). Indonesia Indah-Buku ke 8; “Batik”. Jakarta: Yayasan Harapan Kita/BP 3 TMII.Anshori, Yusak & Kusrianto, Adi. (2011). Keeksotisan Batik Jawa Timur. 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Each generation needs to rewrite literary history. And it may be that this generation needs to do it more than most, if only because the proliferation of schools and theories has turned what was once common critical ground into a battlefield. American books, among others, have become a site of struggle, and American writers have been among those caught in the criss-crossing searchlights of ethnic and gender studies, interdisciplinary investigations and studies of popular culture, language and communication. Just how far things have gone can be measured by the fact that every term in the phrase “history of American literature,” is now open to debate. The textuality of history and the historicity of the text have become the most contentious issues in contemporary criticism, while the question of nationhood, in particular, is under scrutiny. In a famous phrase, Walt Whitman described his work as a language experiment, an attempt to summon a nation into being through words. The slippery, plural nature of American identity and the bewildering contingencies of American history that drove Whitman to say this feed into the more challenging of the recent accounts of American writing.

Ozet Dovus klubu hikayesinde, tuketim kulturunun icinde hapsolmus bir karakterin, bu kulture karsi anarsi ruhlu bir karakter ile tanismasiyla baslayan degisimi anlatmaktadir. Hikayede yaraticinin gozunde modern zaman insaninin yansimasinin, uclarda bir yasam deneyimi ve yasadiklari anlatilmaktadir. Hikaye Anlatici karakterinin okuyucu ve izleyiciye aktardiklari uzerine ilerleyen bir kurguya sahiptir. Hikayede bas kahraman anlatici ve icinde bulundugu mekanlar, tuketim kulturu temeline dayali ve elestirel bakis acisi ile sunulur. Bu elestiri baslarda mensubu oldugu kulture Anlaticinin tanistigi ve bu kulture oldukca aykiri kisilige sahip Tyler Durden’dan sonra uzaklasmasi ile olmaktadir. Hikaye Anlatici uzerinden Tyler Durden oncesi ve sonrasi olarak bakis acilari degistirmektedir. Film ve kitap arasinda farkliliklar bulunsa da temelinde ayni metin ve kurguda islenmekte, Film yazar tarafindan film hikayenin gelistirilmis bir versiyonu olarak yorumlanmistir. Bu anlamda iki ayri uretimin ortak bir butun olarak bakilmasi ve calisma da kitap ve film ortak birer okuma araci olarak kullanilacaktir. Bu calismada kitap ya da film okuma analizi, film kitap arasi karsilastirma gibi olmanin otesinde, mekanlar ve mekanlari okumak uzerine bir calismadir. Calimanin butununde hem kitap, hem de filmde gecen ortak yada farkli mekanlar bir arada ele alınacaktır. Bu anlamda 2 ayri sanat dalinda; edebiyat ve sinema uzerinden; butunlesik bir analiz yapilacaktir. Bu ele alista Mekanlar ve anlatici karakterinin mekanlar ile iliskileri hedefli bir okuma yapilmasi amaclanmaktadir. Anahatar Kelimeler: Chuck Palahniuk, Dovus Klubu, sinema, Edebiyat, Tasarim, Tuketim kulturu, Modernizm, Mekan. Abstract In design readings, the relationship between place and the user of place is quite strong. Feelings that the user has against the place are considered as subheading not only in philosophy of place but also in other philosophies. It is much more powerful to establish this relationship especially on the basis of material-based philosophies, such as consumption culture. Fight Club was written by Chuck Palahniuk in 1996, and was filmed by David Fincher in 1999. The fact that the fighting club has two different interpretations creates a coherence produced in two different branches of art, supported by the author as opposed to creating a situation of inconsistencies and negativity between them. The story of Fight Club tells of the change of a character trapped in the consumption culture that began when he was introduced to a character with an anarchy spirit against this culture. In this story, the main character narrator and its places are presented with a critical point of view based on consumer culture. The Fight Club book and film tell the story of modern times man’s reflection, life experiences at the end and lives trapped within the culture of consumption in the eye of the creator of the story. The story is based on what the narrator character conveys to the reader and the viewer. In the story, the main character narrator and the places are presented with a critical point of view and based on consumer culture. This criticism is done while the narrator goes away from the culture which he is a member of after meeting Tyler Durden, who is quite contrary to this culture. The story changes through the narrator, with the perspective of before and after Tyler Durden. Although there are differences between the film and the book, both are based on the same text and fiction and the film was interpreted by the author as an improved version of the story. In this sense, two separate productions will be considered as a whole and the book and the film will be used as a common reading tool in this study. This is not a study on reading analysis of a book or a film or comparison between a film and a book, but a study on reading places and spaces. In the whole study, both common and different places in the book and the film will be discussed together. In this sense, in two different art branches; through literature and cinema; an integrated analysis will be conducted. With this approach, it is aimed to make a targeted reading of the places and the relationships. The aim of this study is to make a reading of the relationships of the Narrative character with places. Keywords: Chuck Palahniuk, Fight Club, cinema, literature, design, consumer culture, modernism, place

The cognitive specificity of social pedagogy is its interest in the issues related to social conditionings of human development and, respectively, the specific social conditionings of the upbringing process. The notion has been developed in various directions since the very beginning of the discipline, yet the most clearly visible area seems to be the functioning of individuals, families and broader environment. Simultaneously, it is possible to observe that the issues have been entangled in certain socio-political conditions, the knowledge of which is substantial for the reconstruction and identification of the research heritage of social pedagogy. All these interrelationships allowed to distinguish particular stages of development of social pedagogy. Contemporarily, it is a discipline with descent scientific achievements which marks out and indicates new perspectives both in the field of educational practice and the theory of social activity. Social pedagogy, similarly to other areas (subdisciplines) of pedagogy, deals with the notion of upbringing in a certain aspect – in a certain problem inclination. It specializes in social and environmental conditionings of the upbringing process. It is the thread of the social context of upbringing what proves to be the crucial, basic and fundamental determinant of upbringing and, thus, decisive factor for human development. This notion was always present in the general pedagogical thought however, its organized and rationalized character surfaced only when the social pedagogy was distinguished as a separate, systematic area of pedagogy. It occurred in Poland only at the beginning of the 19th century. From the very beginning the creators and precursors of this subdiscipline pointed out its relatively wide range. It has been the notion of individual – social conditionings of human development, yet, social pedagogists were interested in human at every stage of their lives i.e. childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Another area of interest were the issues related to family as the most important “place” of human development and, in this respect, the issues connected with institutions undertaking various activities: help, care, support and animation. Finally, the scope of interest included issues related to the environment as the place where the upbringing process is supposed to realize and realizes. Since the very beginning of social pedagogy these have been the prominent threads for exploration. At the same time it ought to be stated that these threads have always been interwoven with various social-political conditions both with regards to their interpretation as well as possible and planned educational practice. Therefore social pedagogy and its findings must be always “read” in the context of social-political conditions which accompanied the creation of a given thought or realization of some educational practice. As these conditions have constantly been undergoing certain transformations one may clearly distinguish particular stages of development of social pedagogy. The stages reflect various approaches to exploring and describing the above-mentioned areas of this discipline. Following the assumptions regarding the chronology of social pedagogy development and the three distinguished stages of development, it seems worthwhile to study how the issues related to an individual, family and environment were shaped at these stages. The first stage when the social psychology was arising was mainly the time of Helena Radlińska’s activities as well as less popular and already forgotten Polish pedagogists – precursors of this discipline such as: Anna Chmielewska, Irena Jurgielewiczowa, Zofia Gulińska or Maria Korytowska. In that period social pedagogists mainly dealt with individuals, families and the functioning of environments in the context of educational activities aimed at arousing national identity and consciousness. However, their work did no focus on indicating the layers of threats and deficits in functioning of individuals, social groups or families but on the possibilities to stimulate their development and cultural life. Therefore social pedagogy of those times was not as strongly related to social work as it currently is but dealt mainly with educational work. The classic example of such approach in the research carried out in the social pedagogy of that time may be the early works by Helena Radlińska who undertook the narrow field of cultural-educational work targeted to all categories of people. The works described such issues as the organization of libraries, organizing extra-school education (H. Orsza, 1922, H. Orsza-Radlińska, 1925). It ought to be stated that this kind of work was regarded as public and educational work, whereas currently it exists under the name of social work. Frequently quoted works related to the issues of arising social pedagogy were also the works by Eustachy Nowicki e.g. “Extra-school education and its social-educational role in the contemporary Polish life” from 1923 or the works by Stefania Sempołowska, Jerzy Grodecki or Jadwiga Dziubińska. Such an approach and tendencies are clearly visible in a book from 1913 (a book which has been regarded by some pedagogists as the first synthetic presentation of social pedagogy). It is a group work entitled “Educational work – its tasks, methods and organization” (T. Bobrowski, Z. Daszyńska-Golińska, J. Dziubińska, Z. Gargasa, M. Heilperna, Z. Kruszewska, L. Krzywicki, M. Orsetti, H. Orsza, St. Posner, M. Stępkowski, T. Szydłowski, Wł. Weychert-Szymanowska, 1913). The problem of indicated and undertaken research areas and hence, the topics of works realized by the social pedagogists of that times changed immediately after regaining independence and before World War II. It was the time when the area of social pedagogists interests started to include the issues of social inequality, poverty and, subsequently, the possibility of helping (with regards to the practical character of social pedagogy). The research works undertaken by social pedagogists were clearly of diagnostic, practical and praxeological character. They were aimed at seeking the causes of these phenomena with simultaneous identification and exploration of certain environmental factors as their sources. A classic example of such a paper – created before the war – under the editorial management of H. Radlińska was the work entitled “Social causes of school successes and failures” from 1937 (H. Radlińska, 1937). Well known are also the pre-war works written by the students of H. Radlińska which revealed diagnostic character such as: “The harm of a child” by Maria Korytowska (1937) or “A child of Polish countryside” edited by M. Librachowa and published in Warsaw in 1934 (M. Librachowa, 1934). Worthwhile are also the works by Czesław Wroczyński from 1935 entitled “Care of an unmarried mother and struggle against abandoning infants in Warsaw” or the research papers by E. Hryniewicz, J. Ryngmanowa and J. Czarnecka which touched upon the problem of neglected urban and rural families and the situation of an urban and rural child – frequently an orphaned child. As it may be inferred, the issues of poverty, inefficient families, single-parent families remain current and valid also after the World War II. These phenomena where nothing but an outcome of various war events and became the main point of interest for researchers. Example works created in the circle of social pedagogists and dealing with these issues may be two books written in the closest scientific environment of Helena Radlińska – with her immense editorial impact. They are “Orphanage – scope and compensation” (H. Radlińska, J. Wojtyniak, 1964) and “Foster families in Łódź” (A. Majewska, 1948), both published immediately after the war. Following the chronological approach I adopted, the next years mark the beginning of a relative stagnation in the research undertaken in the field of social pedagogy. Especially the 50’s – the years of notably strong political indoctrination and the Marxist ideological offensive which involved building the so called socialist educational society – by definition free from socio-educational problems in public life. The creation and conduction of research in this period was also hindered due to organizational and institutional reasons. The effect of the mentioned policy was also the liquidation of the majority of social sciences including research facilities – institutes, departments and units. An interesting and characteristic description of the situation may be the statement given by Professor J. Auletner who described the period from the perspective of development of social policy and said that: “During the Stalinist years scientific cultivation of social policy was factually forbidden”. During the period of real socialism it becomes truly difficult to explore the science of social policy. The name became mainly the synonym of the current activity of the state and a manifestation of struggles aimed at maintaining the existing status quo. The state authorities clearly wanted to subdue the science of social activities of the state […]. During the real socialism neither the freedom for scientific criticism of the reality nor the freedom of research in the field of social sciences existed. It was impossible (yet deliberated) to carry out a review of poverty and other drastic social issues” (J. Auletner, 2000). The situation changes at the beginning of the 60’s (which marks the second stage of development of social pedagogy) when certain socio-political transformations – on the one hand abandoning the limitation of the Stalinist period (1953 – the death of Stalin and political thaw), on the other – reinforcement of the idea of socialist education in social sciences lead to resuming environmental research. It was simultaneously the period of revival of Polish social pedagogy with regards to its institutional dimension as well as its ideological self-determination (M. Cichosz, 2006, 2014). The issues of individuals, families and environments was at that time explored with regards to the functioning of educational environments and in the context of exploring the environmental conditionings of the upbringing process. Typical examples here may be the research by Helena Izdebska entitled “The functioning of a family and childcare tasks” (H. Izdebska, 1967) and “The causes of conflicts in a family” (H. Izdebska, 1975) or research conducted by Anna Przecławska on adolescents and their participation in culture: “Book, youth and cultural transformations” (A. Przecławska, 1967) or e.g. “Cultural diversity of adolescents against upbringing problems” (A. Przecławska, 1976). A very frequent notion undertaken at that time and remaining within the scope of the indicated areas were the issues connected with organization and use of free time. This may be observed through research by T. Wujek: “Homework and active leisure of a student” (T. Wujek, 1969). Another frequently explored area was the problem of looking after children mainly in the papers by Albin Kelm or Marian Balcerek. It is worthwhile that the research on individuals, families or environments were carried out as part of the current pedagogical concepts of that time like: parallel education, permanent education, lifelong learning or the education of adults, whereas, the places indicated as the areas of human social functioning in which the environmental education took place were: family, school, housing estate, workplace, social associations. It may be inferred that from a certain (ideological) perspective at that time we witnessed a kind of modeling of social reality as, on the one hand particular areas were diagnosed, on the other – a desired (expected) model was built (designed) (with respect to the pragmatic function of practical pedagogy). A group work entitled “Upbringing and environment” edited by B. Passini and T. Pilch (B. Passini, T. Pilch, 1979) published in 1979 was a perfect illustration of these research areas. It ought to be stated that in those years a certain model of social diagnosis proper for undertaken social-pedagogical research was reinforced (M. Deptuła, 2005). Example paper could be the work by I. Lepalczyk and J. Badura entitled: “Elements of pedagogical diagnostics” (I. Lepalczyk, J. Badura, 1987). Finally, the social turning point in the 80’s and 90’s brought new approaches to the research on individuals, families and environments which may be considered as the beginning of the third stage of the development of social pedagogy. Breaking off the idea of socialist education meant abandoning the specific approach to research on the educational environment previously carried out within a holistic system of socio-educational influences (A. Przecławska, w. Theiss, 1995). The issues which dominated in the 90’s and still dominate in social pedagogy with regards to the functioning of individuals, families and local environments have been the issues connected with social welfare and security as well as education of adults. Research papers related to such approach may be the work by Józefa Brągiel: “Upbringing in a single-parent family” from 1990; the work edited by Zofia Brańka “The subjects of care and upbringing” from 2002 or a previous paper written in 1998 by the same author in collaboration with Mirosław Szymański “Aggression and violence in modern world” published in 1999 as well as the work by Danuta Marzec “Childcare at the time of social transformations” from 1999 or numerous works by St. Kawula, A. Janke. Also a growing interest in social welfare and social work is visible in the papers by J. Brągiel and P. Sikora “Social work, multiplicity of perspectives, family – multiculturalism – education” from 2004, E. Kanwicz and A. Olubiński: “Social activity in social welfare at the threshold of 21st century” from 2004 or numerous works on this topic created by the circles gathered around the Social Pedagogy Faculty in Łódź under the management of E. Marynowicz-Hetka. Current researchers also undertake the issues related to childhood (B. Smolińska-Theiss, 2014, B. Matyjas, 2014) and the conditionings of the lives of seniors (A. Baranowska, E. Kościńska, 2013). Ultimately, among the presented, yet not exclusive, research areas related to particular activities undertaken in human life environment (individuals, families) and fulfilled within the field of caregiving, social welfare, adult education, socio-cultural animation or health education one may distinguish the following notions:  the functioning of extra-school education institutions, most frequently caregiving or providing help such as: orphanage, residential home, dormitory, community centre but also facilities aimed at animating culture like youth cultural centres, cultural centres, clubs etc.,  the functioning of school, the realization of its functions (especially educational care), fulfilling and conditioning roles of student/teacher, the functioning of peer groups, collaboration with other institutions,  the functioning (social conditionings) of family including various forms of families e.g. full families, single-parent families, separated families, families at risk (unemployment) and their functioning in the context of other institutions e.g. school,  social pathologies, the issues of violence and aggression, youth subcultures,  participation in culture, leisure time, the role of media,  the functioning of the seniors – animation of activities in this field,  various dimensions of social welfare, support, providing help, the conditionings of functioning of such jobs as the social welfare worker, culture animator, voluntary work. It might be concluded that the issues connected with individuals, families and environment have been the centre of interest of social pedagogy since the very beginning of this discipline. These were the planes on which social pedagogists most often identified and described social life – from the perspective of human participation. On the course of describing the lives of individuals, families and broader educational environments social pedagogists figured out and elaborated on particular methods and ways of diagnosing social life. Is it possible to determine any regularities or tendencies in this respect? Unquestionably, at the initial stage of existence of this discipline, aimed at stimulating national consciousness and subsequent popularization of cultural achievements through certain activities – social and educational work, social pedagogists built certain models of these undertakings which were focused on stimulating particular social activity and conscious participation in social life. The issues concerning social diagnosis, though not as significant as during other stages, served these purposes and hence were, to a certain extent, ideologically engaged. The situation changed significantly before and shortly after the World War II. Facing particular conditions of social life – increase in many unfavourable phenomena, social pedagogists attempted to diagnose and describe them. It seems to have been the period of clear shaping and consolidation of the accepted model of empirical research in this respect. The model was widely accepted as dominating and has been developed in Polish social pedagogy during the second and subsequent stages of developing of this discipline. Practical and praxeological character of social pedagogy became the main direction of this development. Consequently, social diagnosis realized and undertaken with regard to social pedagogy was associated with the idea of a holistic system of education and extra-school educational influences and related educational environments. Therefore, the more and more clearly emphasized goal of environmental research – forecasting, was associated with the idea of building holistic, uniform educational impacts. After the systemic transformation which occurred in Poland in the 90’s, i.e. the third stage of social pedagogy development, abandoning the previous ideological solutions, environmental research including diagnosis was reassociated with social life problems mainly regarding social welfare and security. Individuals, families and environment have been and still seem to be the subject of research in the field of social pedagogy in Poland. These research areas are structurally bound with its acquired paradigm – of a science describing transformations of social life and formulating a directive of practical conduct regarding these transformations. A question arouses about the development of social pedagogy as the one which charts the direction of transformations of practices within the undertaken research areas. If it may be considered as such, then it would be worthwhile to enquire about the directions of the accepted theoretical acknowledgments. On the one hand we may observe a relatively long tradition of specifically elaborated and developed concepts, on the other – there are still new challenges ahead. Observing the previous and current development of Polish social pedagogy it may be inferred that its achievements are not overextensive with regards to the described and acquired theoretical deliberations. Nevertheless, from the very beginning, it has generated certain, specific theoretical solutions attempting to describe and explain particular areas of social reality. Especially noteworthy is the first period of the existence of this discipline, the period of such social pedagogists like i.a. J.W. Dawid, A. Szycówna, I. Moszczeńska or Helena Radlińska. The variety of the reflections with typically philosophical background undertaken in their works (e.g. E. Abramowski) is stunning. Equally involving is the second stage of development of social pedagogy i.e. shortly after the World War II, when Polish social pedagogy did not fully break with the heritage of previous philosophical reflections (A. Kamiński, R. Wroczyński) yet was developed in the Marxist current. A question arouses whether the area of education and the projects of its functioning of that time were also specific with regards to theory (it seems to be the problem of the whole Socialist pedagogy realised in Poland at that time). The following years of development of this discipline, especially at the turn of 80’s and 90’s was the period of various social ideas existing in social pedagogy – the influences of various concepts and theories in this field. The extent to which they were creatively adapted and included in the current of specific interpretations still requires detailed analysis, yet remains clearly visible. Another important area is the field of confronting the theories with the existing and undertaken solutions in the world pedagogy. A. Radziewicz-Winnicki refers to the views of the representatives of European and world social thought: P. Bourdieu, U. Beck, J. Baudrillard, Z. Bauman and M. Foucault, and tries to identify possible connections and relationships between these ideas and social pedagogy: “the ideas undertaken by the mentioned sociologists undoubtedly account for a significant source of inspiration for practical reflection within social pedagogy. Therefore, it is worthwhile to suggest certain propositions of their application in the field of the mentioned subdiscipline of pedagogy” (Radziewicz-Winnicki 2008). The contemporary social pedagogy in Poland constantly faces numerous challenges. W. Theiss analysed the contemporary social pedagogy with regards to its deficiencies but also the challenges imposed by globalisation and wrote: “Modern social pedagogy focuses mainly on the narrow empirical research and narrow practical activity and neglects research in the field of theory functioning separately from the realms of the global (or globalising) world or pays insufficient attention to these problems. It leads to a certain self-marginalisation of our discipline which leaves us beyond the current of main socio-educational problems of modern times. In this respect, it seems worthwhile and necessary to carry out intensive conceptual and research work focused on e.g. the following issues:  metatheory of social pedagogy and its relationship with modern trends in social sciences;  the concepts of human and the world, the concepts of the hierarchy of values;  the theory of upbringing, the theory of socialization, the theory of educational environment;  a conceptual key of the modern reality; new terms and new meanings of classical concepts;  socio-educational activities with direct and indirect macro range e.g. balanced development and its programmes, global school, intercultural education, inclusive education, professional education of emigrants”. Considering the currently undertaken research in this field and the accepted theoretical perspectives it is possible to indicate specific and elaborated concepts. They fluctuate around structural spheres of social pedagogy on the axis: human – environment – environmental transformations. It accounts for an ontological sphere of the acknowledged concepts and theories. Below, I am enumerating the concepts which are most commonly discussed in social pedagogy with regards to the acquired and accepted model. Currently discussed theoretical perspectives (contexts) in social pedagogy and the concepts within. I. The context of social personal relationships  social participation, social presence;  social communication, interaction;  reciprocity. II. The context of social activities (the organization of environment)  institutionalisation;  modernization;  urbanization. III. The context of environment  space;  place;  locality. The socially conditioned process of human development is a process which constantly undergoes transformations. The pedagogical description of this process ought to include these transformations also at the stage of formulating directives of practical activities – the educational practice. It is a big challenge for social pedagogy to simultaneously do not undergo limitations imposed by current social policy and response to real social needs. It has been and remains a very important task for social pedagogy.

RESUMENLos balnearios-sauna castreños del noroeste peninsular son monumentos con horno con una arquitectura muy original, posiblemente asociada a los diversos modelos termales. Se conocen cerca de tres decenas, distribuidos por el noroeste peninsular. La arquitectura compleja de estos monumentos se organiza estructuralmente hacia posibilitar baños de sauna y baños de agua fría. Las dos áreas son divididas por una estela, monolítica, normalmente ornamentada – la pedra formosa. El papel simbólico que tendrían en el seno de la sociedad castreña de la Edad del Hierro del noroeste peninsular permanece por aclarar y envuelto en gran misticismo, fruto de una posible sacralidad. Este entorno, referido por diversos autores a lo largo de los tiempos, está posiblemente asociado al culto de los dioses de las aguas y a la sacralidad del baño purificador, medicinal, que se refleja en las decoraciones frontales de las pedras formosas, cuya maestría de los escultores que las insculpieran, tipología decorativa, interpretación simbólica y semiótica estudiamos, como objetivos primordiales, a lo largo de este trabajo de investigación.PALABRAS CLAVE: Protohistoria, monumentos con horno, decoración pétrea, interpretación simbólica / semiótica.ABSTRACTThe Iron Age sauna-baths of the northwest peninsular are monuments with an oven with very original architecture, possibly associated with the diverse thermal models. There are about three dozen known sauna-baths spread over the northwest peninsular. The complex architecture of thesemonuments is structurally organized to allow for cold water baths and sauna baths. The two areas are divided by a tectiforme stele, monolithic, usually ornamented, known as pedra formosa (beautiful stone). The symbolic role that they would have had in the heart of the Iron Age “castreña” society in the northwest peninsular remains unclear and shrouded in mysticism, the fruit of a possible sacredness. This environment, referred to by various authors throughout the ages, is possibly associated with the worship of the water gods and the sacredness of the medicinal and purifying bath, which is reflected in the frontal decorations of the pedras formosas, whose masterful sculpting, decorative typology, symbolic interpretation and semiotics we studied as primary objectives of this research work.KEYWORDS: Protohistory, monuments with oven, stone decoration, symbolic / semiotic interpretation. BIBLIOGRAFIAAlmagro-Gorbea, M. e Álvarez Sanchís, J. R. 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Wallach & O’Neill (2009) recently suggested that poison baiting for dingoes (Canis lupus dingo and hybrids) caused the localized extinctions of kowaris (Dasyuroides byrnei) through mesopredator release effects. However, in this paper I briefly highlight some weaknesses in their approach to show that the information presented adds little to our knowledge of dingo-mesopredator or dingo-kowari interactions. Wallach & O’Neill (2009) visited two cattle properties in northeast South Australia once each in the winter of 2007 where they used sand plot activity indices to compare the relative abundance of several carnivore and herbivore species at each site. Observations of dingo howling and scat counts were used as measures of social structure. In line with the mesopredator release hypothesis (Crooks & Soulé, 1999), the lethal control of dingoes (usually achieved through 1080 baiting campaigns), followed by abundance increases of mesopredators and herbivores was the suggested mechanism that produced the localized extinction of kowaris at one of the sites. Unfortunately though, the study design suffers from multiple critical weaknesses in the methods applied, considerably limiting its ability to make inferences about dingo populations and ecosystem processes. 1. The authors stated that across Australia, ‘it is extremely rare to find dingo populations that are not being subjected to lethal control’ (Wallach & O’Neill, 2009, pg. 127). This is misleading, and in the context of their paper, gives the reader the mistaken impression that stable dingo packs are rare across Australia due to widespread control. Dingoes and dingo packs are, in fact, extremely common (Fleming et al., 2001; West, 2008), and control practices in South Australia are quite conservative (Allen, 2010b). ‘Lethal control’ is also an ambiguous term, because it includes everything from occasional shooting through to intensive and coordinated poison baiting campaigns. Hence, the degree of control can vary immensely, and in the context of their paper, different forms of lethal control are unlikely to influence social structure in the same way. For example, it is possible that occasional shooting may simply replace natural mortality and have a minor overall effect on dingo social structure, though these processes would need to be investigated. Furthermore, in the northeast pastoral district of South Australia where their two sites were located, official 1080 bait supply records (B. Allen, unpublished data, kept since 1972) indicate that poison baiting seldom occurs, with an average rate of 25% properties receiving baits in any given year (range: 0% in 1984 to 68% in 1991). Legislation permits a baiting intensity of up to 10 baits/km2 (APVMA, 2008). But the greatest supply of baits occurred in 1989, and equated to a regional baiting intensity of only 0.07 baits/km2 (Allen, 2010b). Requests for poison baits from the whole of the northern pastoral district have also reduced dramatically over the last five years to the point where only three (out of 19) properties in the northeast region received baits in the three years prior to their study and no baits at all were supplied in 2009. This means that approximately 600,000 km2 of South Australia experienced very little dingo control that year (dingo populations in the indigenous lands in the northwest of the state -255,000 km2- have rarely, if ever, been subject to lethal control by Europeans). On a property level (i.e. 10,000 km2), even the most intensive baiting campaigns in northern pastoral areas rarely exceed 0.25 baits/km2. Therefore, lethal control of any kind may be a relatively minor fraction of total dingo mortality across the region in which Wallach & O’Neill (2009) conducted their study. 2. The use of sand plot activity indices are a common and useful tool for sampling dingo populations. However, their proper use is governed by principles that ensure that the data obtained from them can be used reliably in subsequent analyses. Specifically, activity indices cannot be validly compared between different habitats/land uses, seasons, or species because of the way these factors potentially influence animal activity (Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Engeman, 2005). Scat counts and howling can also be useful indicators of some population parameters when sampled properly (Corbett, 2001; Mitchell & Balogh, 2007). Wallach & O’Neill (2009) understandably chose these useful methods to assess populations, but their application of them did not follow the sampling principles that ensure their reliability. For example: – The ‘index of abundance’ was calculated by multiplying a continuous measure (tracks/transect/night) with a binary measure (presence/absence of tracks on 2 ha plots). This could be argued as providing a potential synergy of assumption violations -leaving little prospect for a valid variance estimate- and unnecessary if the track sampling was representative of animal usage (Engeman et al., 1998; Blaum et al., 2008). – Even before combining them, these measures included invalidated assumptions about the ability to distinguish between “fresh” and “old” tracks and the distance of one track to another as an indication of the same individual animal. Wind can have a dramatic effect on the readability of tracks in sand, often obliterating them within minutes, and the size, shape and direction of footprints on separated but sequential sand plots/transects reveals little about the identity of the individual responsible for them (Triggs, 2004; Funston et al., 2010). – The relative abundance estimates derived from activity indices were invalidly compared between species, potentially confusing abundance differences with behavioural differences (Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Engeman, 2005). – A once-off collection of scats around 119 rabbit warrens, water points and carcasses in two ~500 km2 areas will provide a limited ability to assess the structure of dingo packs (or infer causal processes) at extensive rangeland sites (Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Mitchell & Balogh, 2007), and the representativeness of scats collected from resource points is unknown (Allen, 2010a). – The opportunistic recording of dingo howls at remote water points in the presence of people (and companion dogs, A. Wallach pers. comms.) is also a particularly weak technique for making inferences about pack structure. To be useful, the sampling of vocalizations must be objective and repeatable. Vocalizations are also communicative behaviours, and in the case of Wallach and O’Neill’s observations, dingoes may have simply been alerting any other dingoes to the presence of humans and/or other dogs. Assessments of pack structure or social stability are founded in behavioural observations between individually identifiable animals (Whitehead, 2008), and is usually undertaken through radio collaring and/or direct observations (e.g. Corbett, 1988; Thomson, 1992). Identification of individuals was not attempted by Wallach & O’Neill (2009), and scats or howling cannot provide this information. Moreover, the once-off, opportunistic collection of dingo spoor (i.e. tracks and scats) and vocalizations cannot account for the known seasonal changes in their expression (Corbett, 2001), the multiple explanations for any given observation (Williams et al., 2002; MacKenzie et al., 2006), or the mechanisms/causes underlying any observed correlations (Caughley, 1977). 3. Ignoring these methodological issues, alternative explanations may equally describe the observations of Wallach & O’Neill (2009). For example, the greater abundance of dingoes observed at Pandie Pandie may not be due to relaxed dingo control but may be a symptom of the site’s closer proximity to Goyder’s Lagoon, a well-watered and resource-rich section of the Warburton Creek, which is not fed from local rainfall. Publicly available water-level data recorded upstream in the years preceding the study show significant flows into the lagoon which were not matched by local rainfall events on Mungerannie during the same period. Additionally, the observed rarity of some small mammals on Mungerannie may reflect bottom-up processes, whereby rabbit abundance provides competition for vegetation, reduces it’s availability to invertebrates, and supports larger numbers of feral carnivores (increasing the risk of hyperpredation), which all work in concert to cause the localized extinction of some small mammals. These processes are known to occur with or without dingoes in the landscape. Furthermore, the recorded activity of predators and prey alike can change rapidly in response to environmental perturbations, and their presence or absence on sand plots during a once-off survey may merely reflect such stochastic events. Such surveys have a limited ability to infer causal process because there may be multiple alternative explanations for the data (Caughley, 1977; Williams et al., 2002; MacKenzie et al., 2006). Causal processes involving dingoes are best addressed using rigorous experimental techniques (such as BACI experiments) where confounding factors can be controlled (Glen et al., 2007). In summary, while ecological data is scant for arid areas and is always welcomed, it is important to use research resources wisely in order to provide scientifically defensible information (Platt, 1964), used ultimately to inform threatened species recovery. While the conclusions of Wallach & O’Neill (2009) align nicely with the mesopredator release hypothesis, their foundations, methods, and interpretation are undermined by misleading contextual information, the poor application of otherwise robust sampling methods, and a lack of discussion on alternative explanations. As such, the study contributes little insight into the effect of dingo control on kowaris. The study sites, methods, and results presented in Wallach & O’Neill (2009) have also been used elsewhere (Wallach et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2010), and these criticisms equally apply to those reports, and others similar to them. Researchers, reviewers and readers should therefore be vigilant in looking for design issues that may be more important than initially appears to be the case, before accepting intuitively sound conclusions on face value. Improving the quality of dingo-mesopredator studies is necessary if threatened species are to be managed more effectively.

The study of interpretation methodology is very important, because the activities of the interpretation of the Koran will continue to develop along with the pace of the times. Abdul Mustaqim has mapped the interpretation methodology into three parts. First, the interpretation of the classical period. Second, the interpretation of the middle period. Third, interpretation of the contemporary period. With this mapping, it is expected that the position of the interpretation methodology of Jamal al-Banna can be known making it easier for researchers to recognize the interpretive concepts they offer. In every generation there are always products of interpretation of the Koran that have different features and characteristics. The socio-cultural condition in which the interpreter lives and the background of the disciplines they pursue is a reality that influences their interpretation of the Qur'an. The emergence of contemporary interpretations as the development of a scientific discipline is also much influenced by the development and change of the scientific epistemology itself. In this contemporary era, the name Jamal al-Banna appears which offers a new methodology for interpretation. This Egyptian-born thinker criticizes the scientific tradition of interpretation that has developed over the years (both classical and contemporary). So do not be surprised if the various ideas are always controversial. This article tries to review the methodological and philosophical interpretation of Jamal al-Banna. Starting with the effort to deconstruct the interpretation of the results of all classical commentators, Jamal proposed three stages in the interpretation of the Koran, namely the art approach, psychological approach, and rational approach. All three are hierarchical stages to arrive at an interpretation. Having arrived at the interpretation stage, Jamal al-Banna does not recommend certain methods or limit certain knowledge as methods of interpretation analysis. He refused if one particular method has a guarantee as the only way to find the truth, because the Koran does not have to be limited. Some contemporary thinkers in the study of the Koran, such as Amin al-Khuli, Mohammed Syahrur, Mohammed Arkoun, Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, and Orientalist views on the Koran also did not escape criticism. To find out more about Jamal's thought, this article uses a descriptive qualitative method and a philosophical-rationalistic approach with hermeneutics as the knife of analysis. Both of these methodologies are used to reveal the construct of Jamal's thought around the interpretation methodology that he built. This study contributes positively in order to broaden the insight of the study around the conceptual interpretation of the Koran. Because the spirit and problems faced by muslims today are growing and complex which demands the discovery of new methods in understanding the Koran more accommodatively and dynamically. Based on the method and approach above, it was found that the interpretation method conceived by Jamal wanted to place the Koran free of the various approaches that limit it. For Jamal, humans are very autonomous and free to interpret as long as it is in line with the humanist and universal principles contained in the Koran. Through the systematic-practical interpretation methodology offered above, it can facilitate the moslem community to comprehend the Koran comprehensively.

AbstractThis study aims to explain the conflict Ambon, political upheaval in North Maluku to ethnic and religious conflicts 1999-2000. This study uses historical method. Historical research includes five stages: topic selection, heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The conflict that occurred since 19 January 1999 Maluku is a bloody event that coincides with Muslims celebrating the Eid al-Fitr 1419 Hijri. The conflict stems from a dispute between an angkot driver, a Christian Jacob Lauhery with Nursalim, an Islam of the Bugis Red Stone. Conflict then developed into religious conflict (Islam and Christian). In North Maluku conflicts also occur, local political upheaval, North Maluku causing polarization in society to ethnic and religious conflicts. The North Maluku conflict is also part of a power struggle. Another factor is the creation of a new sub-district of Makian Malifut based on PP. No.42 / 1999 has been rejected by the Kao community because it is considered contrary to customary law. The event spread to Tidore, Ternate, Jailolo and Bacan. The North Maluku conflict claimed thousands of lives, homes and places of worship, both Muslims and Christians burned. During the conflict, Pela Gandong in Ambon, Maluku and indigenous people in Maluku Kie Raha as a customary and cultural system no longer functions as a strong social bond. Keywords: Conflict, Communal, Maluku, Ethnicity

AbstractThe theological “eschatologism” of the 1920’s can be described as a radical criticism of traditionally spoken language and a rapid expansion of the historio-semantic universe. In the discourses on the interpretation of time in the Weimar Republic, ‘kairos’ experienced a unique career. The fascinating openness of the word’s concept made it very attractive from a linguistic point of view, but it also meant that it was vulnerable to a takeover by the intellectual elements connected with the National Socialist seizure of power that endeavored to make it their own. This essay picks out one of the most central elements within the kairos discourse: it analyzes both connections between Paul Tillich and controversial sociologist Hans Freyer from Leipzig while presenting contrasts of philosophy of life, political romanticism and religious socialism.

З’ясовується роль критичного дискурсу у формуванні явища «радянський класичний балет». Зауважена можливість виокремити дві стратегії щодо інтерпретації класичної балетної спадщини у радянському балеті – автентичне відтворення авторської редакції (реставрація) й інтерпретація балетної вистави згідно з ідеологічними приписами партійних інстанцій. Використання класичної спадщини у владних цілях, наповнення її ідейним змістом, паритетність пізнавальної та дієвої функцій мистецтва у процесі інтерпретації спадщини, наближення балетів минулого до нового глядача, орієнтація на його інтереси (А. Луначарський, М. Ліфшиць, І. Соллертинський) – ці ракурси цілком відповідали реалістичним тенденціям у мистецтві, не заперечувалися як представниками різних дискурсів, так і правлячою елітою.Ключові слова: балет, балетна класична спадщина, критика балету, радянський класичний балет, критичний дискурс, хореографія. The article clarifies the role of critical discourse in the formation of the phenomenon of «Soviet classical ballet». An opportunity was noted to distinguish two strategies in relation to the interpretation of classical ballet heritage in Soviet ballet - an authentic reproduction of the author’s edition (restoration) and interpretation of a ballet performance in accordance with the ideological prescriptions of party instances. Using the classical heritage for power purposes, filling it with ideological content, the parity of the cognitive and effective functions of art in the process of interpreting the heritage, bringing the ballets of the past closer to the new audience, focusing on his interests (A. Lunacharsky, M. Lifshits, I. Sollertinsky) are discursive the perspectives were fully consistent with realistic trends in art, and were not denied by representatives of various discourses, as well as by the ruling elite.Key words: ballet, classical ballet heritage, Soviet classical ballet, criticism of ballet, critical discourse, choreography.

This article entitled “Widjojonomics to Habibienomics: Different views of Economic thoughts of Widjojo Nitisastro and B.J Habibie towards Indonesian Economy in the New Order.” The main issues raised in this study is how differing ideas of B.J Habibie and Nitisastro Widjojo about Indonesian economy in the New Order era in 1971-1999. The method used in this bachelor thesis research is historical method, which is conducted in following steps: heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography, while the technique used is literature study. Based on the study, several conclusions can be drawn. The government of New Order started its governance with economic crisis. To solve it, therefore stabilization and rehabilitation of national economy is needed. Widjojo Nitisastro and B. J. have different background both in terms of their youth life and education. That is what influences the characters and ways of their thinking. Economic principal of Widjojo Nitisastro, which often called as Widjojonomics, exemplifies that modernization of economic system that covers market, fiscal and foreign debt is expected to give birth to a trickle-down effect, which assumes that if the policy is intended to provide benefits for the rich, the poor would also be impacted through the employment expansion, income distribution and market expansion. Economic principal of B.J Habibie, which often called as Habibienomics, is a system of economy that should be developed though the seizure of advanced technology to catch up with developed countries. Indonesia should not only be a state that can only produce goods that have comparative advantages. Instead, Indonesia should also have added value and competitive advantage.

The Socialist Workers’ Party of Finland (SSTP) was a unique case in the division of the labour movements during and after the First World War. In many European countries, a left-wing social democratic or socialist group or party was established during the war, while in Finland the division took place only after the Civil War in 1918. The fact that a socialist party was only established after the division into social democrats and communists had taken place was also particular to Finland. The close cooperation of the SSTP with the illegal communist party residing in Soviet Russia and the party’s rejection of the Social Democrats were due to their differing interpretations of the Civil War and not their positions on the First World War. In Finland, the acceptance of many of the principals of the Communist International did not cause internal splits within the SSTP as it did in Germany, France, Italy, Sweden and Norway. However, in addition to the rigorous criticism of the victors of the Civil War, it contributed to the difficulties the SSTP faced in its work and to the party’s ultimate dissolution. Paradoxically, the party was dissolved at a time when its involvement in the issues of Finnish society became more significant.

In recent years there has been an intense profusion of qualitative research in education in Brazil, with a growing emphasis on the use of ethnography; however, there has also been an intense debate about the uses and possibilities of ethnography in education, including criticism of how It has been incorporated into educational research. In this article, in a broad dialogue between anthropology and education, I seek to elucidate some questions about the use of ethnography, but starting from a particular conception of ethnography, developed in what is called interpretative anthropology, based mainly on the work of the American anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1926 -2006).ResumoEm período recente tem havido uma intensa profusão de pesquisas qualitativas em educação no Brasil, ganhando um destaque crescente o uso da etnografia, entretanto, tem ocorrido também um intenso debate sobre os usos e possibilidades da etnografia em educação, incluindo críticas à forma como ela tem sido incorporada na pesquisa educacional. Neste artigo, num amplo diálogo entre antropologia e educação, busco elucidar algumas questões sobre o uso da etnografia, porém partindo de uma concepção particular de etnografia, desenvolvida no que se denomina de antropologia interpretativa, assentada principalmente na obra do antropólogo americano Clifford Geertz (1926-2006).ResumenEn un período reciente ha habido una intensa profusión de investigaciones cualitativas en educación en Brasil, ganando un destaque creciente el uso de la etnografía, sin embargo, ha ocurrido también un intenso debate sobre los usos y posibilidades de la etnografía en educación, incluyendo críticas a la forma como se ha incorporado en la investigación educativa. En este artículo, en un amplio diálogo entre antropología y educación, busco elucidar algunas cuestiones sobre el uso de la etnografía, pero partiendo de una concepción particular de etnografía, desarrollada en lo que se denomina antropología interpretativa, asentada principalmente en la obra del antropólogo americano Clifford Geertz (1926 -2006).Palavras-chave: Etnografia, Antropologia da educação, Pesquisa educacional.Keywords: Ethnography, Anthropology of education, Educational research.Palabras Claves: Etnografía, Antropología de la educación, Investigación educativa.ReferencesANDRÉ, Marli E.D.A. Etnografia da prática escolar. Campinas: Papirus, 1995.ALEXANDER, Jeffrey; SMITH, Philipe. Introduction: the rise and fall and rise of Clifford Geertz. In: ALEXANDER, Jeffrey; NORTON, Matthew (Orgs.). Interpreting Clifford Geertz: cultural investigation in the social sciences, New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2011, p. 1-8.BARTH, Fredrik. O guru, o iniciador e outras variações antropológicas. 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Nova luz sobre a antropologia. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar, 2001.GEERTZ, Clifford. O saber local: novos ensaios em antropologia interpretativa. Petrópolis, Vozes,1997.GEERTZ, Clifford. Obras e vidas: o antropólogo como autor. Rio de Janeiro, Editora da UFRJ, 2005.GODELIER, Maurice. O Enigma do Dom. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2001.GOMES, Ana M. R.; GOMES, Nilma L. Anthropology and Education in Brazil: Possible Pathways. In: ANDERSON-LEVITT (Ed.) Anthropologies of Education: A Global Guide to Ethnographic Studies of Learning and Schooling. New York: Berghahn Books, 2011, p. 111-130.GUSMÃO, Neusa. Entrelugares: antropologia e educação no Brasil. Educação, v. 34, n. 1, p. 29-46, 2009.MAGGIE, Yvonne; PRADO, Ana. O que muda e o que permanece o mesmo nas escolas cariocas: culturas de gestão e as representações dos estudantes. In: GUEDES, Simone Lahud; CIPINIUK, Tatiana (Orgs.) Abordagens etnográficas sobre educação: adentrando os muros das escolas. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Alternativa, 2014, p. 69-81.NAGLE, Jorge. Educação e sociedade na Primeira República. São Paulo: EDUSP, 1988.OLIVEIRA, Amurabi. O Lugar da Antropologia na Formação Docente: um olhar a partir das Escolas Normais, Pro-Posições, v. 24, n. 2, p. 27-40, 2013a.OLIVEIRA, Amurabi. Por que etnografia no sentido estrito e não estudos do tipo etnográfico em educação? Revista FAEEBA, v. 22, n. 40, p. 69-82, 2013b.OLIVEIRA, Amurabi; ALMIRANTE, Kleverton Arthur. Aprendendo com o Axé: processos educativos no terreiro e o que as crianças pensam sobre ele e a escola. Revista Ilha, v. 16, n. 1, p. 139-174, 2014.OLIVEIRA, Amurabi; BOIN, Felipe; BÚRIGO, Beatriz. A Antropologia, os Antropólogos e a Educação no Brasil. Revista Anthropológicas, v. 27, n. 1, p. 21-44, 2016.OLIVEIRA, Roberto Cardoso de. O trabalho do antropólogo. São Paulo, Editora UNESP, 2006.TOSTA, Sandra de F. P. Cruzando Fronteiras - entre a Antropologia e a Educação no Brasil e na Argentina. Pró-Posições, v. 24, n. 2, p. 95-107, 2013.WOORTMANN, Klaas. A etnologia (quase) esquecida de Bourdieu, ou o que fazer com heresias. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, v. 19, n. 5, p. 129-137, 2004.

The difficulty of reading Allen Ginsberg's poetry is a recurring theme in criticism of his work and that of other post-WWII "Beat Generation" writers. "Even when a concerted effort is made to illuminate [Beat] literature," laments Nancy M. Grace, "doing so is difficult: the romance of the Beat life threatens to subsume the project" (812). Of course, the Beat life is romantic to the extent that it is romantically regaled. Continual romantic portrayals, such as that of Ginsberg in the recent movie Howl (2010), rekindle the Beat romance for new audiences with chicken-and-egg circularity. I explore this difficulty of reading Ginsberg that Grace and other critics identify by articulating it with respect to "Kaddish"—"Ginsberg's most highly praised and his least typical poem" (Perloff 213)—as a difficulty of interpreting Ginsberg suspiciously. Philosopher Paul Ricoeur's theories of interpretation—or "hermeneutics"—provide the theoretical foundation here. Ricoeur distinguishes between a romantic or "restorative" mode of interpretation, where meaning is reverently reconciled to a text assumed to be trustworthy, and a "suspicious" approach, where meaning is aggressively extrapolated from a text held as unreliable. In order to bring these theories to bear on "Kaddish" and its criticism, I draw on Rita Felski's pioneering work in relating Ricoeur's concept of "suspicious reading" to the field of literature. Is it possible to read "Kaddish" suspiciously? Or is there nothing left for suspicious readers to expose in texts such as "Kaddish" that are already self-exposing? In "Kaddish," Ginsberg tells the story of his mother Naomi Ginsberg, a Russian Jewish immigrant, who died in a mental hospital in 1956. It is a lengthy prose poem and spans a remarkable 19 pages in Ginsberg's Collected Poems (1984). In the words of Maeera Y. Shreiber, "Kaddish" "is a massive achievement, comprised of five numbered parts, and an interpellated 'Hymmnn' between parts two and three" (84). I focus on the second narrative part, which forms the bulk of the poem, where the speaker—I shall refer to him henceforth as "Allen" in order to differentiate between Ginsberg's poetic self-representation and Ginsberg-the-author—recounts the nervous breakdowns and hospital movements of his mother, whom he calls by her first name, Naomi. I begin by illustrating the ways in which Allen focalises Naomi in the text, and suggest that his attempts to "read" her suspicious mind alternate between restorative and suspicious impulses. I then take up the issue of reading "Kaddish" suspiciously. Acknowledging Ricoeur's assertion that psychoanalysis is an unequivocal "school of suspicion" (32), I consider James Breslin's psychoanalytic criticism on "Kaddish," in particular, his reading of what is easily the most contentious passage in the poem: the scene where Naomi solicits Allen for sex. I regard this passage as a microcosm of the issues that beset a suspicious reading of "Kaddish"—such as the problem posed by the self-exposing poem and poet—and I find that Breslin's response to it raises interesting questions on the politics of psychoanalysis and the nature of suspicious interpretation. Finally, I identify an unpublished thesis on Ginsberg's poetry by Sarah Macfarlane and classify her interpretation of "Kaddish" as unambiguously suspicious. My purpose is not to advance my own suspicious reading of "Kaddish" but to highlight the difficulties of reading "Kaddish" suspiciously. I argue that while it is difficult to read "Kaddish" suspiciously, to do so offers a fruitful counterbalance to the dominant restorative criticism on the poem. There are as yet unexplored hermeneutical territories in and around this poem, indeed in and around Ginsberg's work in general, which have radical implications for the future direction of Beat studies. Picking her tooth with her nail, lips formed an O, suspicion—thought's old worn vagina— (Ginsberg, "Kaddish" 218)Ginsberg constructs Naomi's suspicion in "Kaddish" via Allen's communication of her visions and descriptions of her behaviour. Allen relates, for example, that Naomi once suspected that Hitler was "in her room" and that "she saw his mustache in the sink" ("Kaddish" 220). Subsequently, Allen depicts Naomi "listening to the radio for spies—or searching the windowsill," and, in an attempt to "read" her suspicious mind, suggests that she envisages "an old man creep[ing] with his bag stuffing packages of garbage in his hanging black overcoat" ("Kaddish" 220). Allen's gaze thus filters Naomi's; he watches her as she watches for spies, and he animates her visions. He recalls as a child "watching over" Naomi in order to anticipate her "next move" ("Kaddish" 212). On one fateful day, Naomi "stared out the window on the Broadway Church corner"; Allen interprets that she "spied a mystical assassin from Newark" ("Kaddish" 212). He likewise observes and interprets Naomi's body language and facial expressions. When she "covered [her] nose with [a] motheaten fur collar" and "shuddered at [the] face" of a bus driver, he deduces that, for Naomi, the collar must have been a "gas mask against poison" and the driver "a member of the gang" ("Kaddish" 212). On the one hand, Allen's impetus to recover "the lost Naomi" ("Kaddish" 216)—first lost to mental illness and then to death—may be likened to Ricoeur's concept of a restorative hermeneutic, "which is driven by a sense of reverence and goes deeper into the text in search of revelation" (Felski 216). As if Naomi's mind constitutes a text, Allen strives to reveal it in order to make it intelligible. What drives him is the cathartic impulse to revivify his mother's memory, to rebuild her story, and to exalt her as "magnificent" and "mourned no more" ("Kaddish" 212), so that he may mourn no more. Like a restorative reader "driven by a sense of reverence" (Felski 216), he lauds Naomi as the "glorious muse that bore [him] from the womb [...] from whose pained head [he] first took Vision" ("Kaddish" 223). Critics of "Kaddish" also observe the poem's restorative impulse. In "Strange Prophecies Anew," Tony Trigilio reads the recovery of Naomi as "the recovery of a female principle of divinity" (773). Diverging from Ginsberg's earlier poem "Howl" (1956), which "represses signs of women in order to forge male prophetic comradeship," "Kaddish" "constructs maternity as a source of vision, an influence that precedes and sustains prophetic language. In 'Kaddish', Ginsberg attempts to recover the voice of his mother Naomi, which is muted in 'Howl'" (776). Shreiber also acknowledges Ginsberg's redemption of "the feminine, figured specifically as the lost mother," but for her it "is central to both of the long poems that make his reputation," namely "Kaddish" and "Howl" (81). She cites Ginsberg's retrospective confession that "Howl" was actually about Naomi to argue that, "it is in the course of writing 'Howl' that Ginsberg discovers his obligation to the elided (Jewish) mother—whose restoration is the central project of 'Kaddish'" (81). On the other hand, Allen's compulsion to "cut through" to Naomi, to talk to her as he "didn't when [she] had a mouth" ("Kaddish" 211), suggests the brutality of a suspicious hermeneutic where meanings "must be wrestled rather than gleaned from the page, derived not from what the text says, but in spite of what it says" (Felski 223). When Naomi was alive and "had a mouth," Allen aggressively "pushed her against the door and shouted 'DON'T KICK ELANOR!'" in spite of her message: "Elanor is the worst spy! She's taking orders!" ("Kaddish" 221). As a suspicious reader wrestles with a resistant text, Allen wrestles with Naomi, "yelling at her" in exasperation, and even "banging against her head which saw Radios, Sticks, Hitlers—the whole gamut of Hallucinations—for real—her own universe" ("Kaddish" 221).Allen may be also seen as approaching Naomi with a suspicious reader's "adversarial sensibility to probe for concealed, repressed, or disavowed meanings" (Felski 216). This is most visible in his facetiously professed "good idea to try [to] know the Monster of the Beginning Womb"—to penetrate Naomi's body in order to access her mind "that way" ("Kaddish" 219). Accordingly, in his psychoanalytic reading of "Kaddish," James Breslin understands Allen's "incestuous desires as expressing [his] wish to get inside his mother and see things as she does" (424). Breslin's interpretation invokes the Freudian concept of "epistemophilia," which Bran Nicol defines as the "desire to know" (48).Freud is one of "three masters" of suspicion according to Ricoeur (32). Freud, Nietzsche, and Marx "present the most radically contrary stance to the phenomenology of the sacred and to any hermeneutics understood as the recollection of meaning" (Ricoeur 35). They "begin with suspicion concerning the illusions of consciousness, and then proceed to employ the stratagem of deciphering" (Ricoeur 34). Freud deciphers the language of the conscious mind in order to access the "unconscious"—that "part of the mind beyond consciousness which nevertheless has a strong influence upon our actions" (Barry 96). Like their therapeutic counterparts, psychoanalytic critics distinguish "between the conscious and the unconscious mind," associating a text's "'overt' content with the former" and "'covert' content with the latter, privileging the latter as being what the work is 'really' about" (Barry 105). In seeking to expose a text's unconscious, they subscribe to a hermeneutic of suspicion's "conviction that appearances are deceptive, that texts do not gracefully relinquish their meanings" (Felski 216). To force texts to relinquish their meanings suspicious readers bear "distance rather than closeness; guardedness rather than openness; aggression rather than submission; superiority rather than reverence; attentiveness rather than distraction; exposure rather than tact" (Felski 222).For the most part, these qualities fail to characterise Breslin's psychoanalytic criticism on "Kaddish" and "Howl." Far from aggressive or superior, Breslin is a highly sympathetic reader of Ginsberg. "Many readers," he complains, are "still not sympathetic to the kind [sic] of form found in these poems" (403). His words echo Trigilio's endorsement of Marjorie Perloff's opinion that critics are too often "unwilling to engage the experimental scope of Ginsberg's poems" (Trigilio 774). Sympathetic reading, however, clashes with suspicious reading, which "involves a sense of vigilant preparedness for attack" (Shand in Felski 220). Breslin is sympathetic not only to the experimental forms of "Kaddish" and "Howl," but also to their attestation to "deep, long-standing private conflicts in Ginsberg—conflicts that ultimately stem from his ambivalent attachment to his mother" (403). In "Kaddish," Allen's ambivalent feelings toward his mother are conspicuous in his revolted and revolting reaction to her exposed body, combined with his blasé deliberation on whether to respond to her apparent sexual provocation: One time I thought she was trying to make me come lay her—flirting to herself at sink—lay back on huge bed that filled most of the room, dress up round her hips, big slash of hair, scars of operations, pancreas, belly wounds, abortions, appendix, stitching of incisions pulling down in the fat like hideous thick zippers—ragged long lips between her legs—What, even, smell of asshole? I was cold—later revolted a little, not much—seemed perhaps a good idea to try—know the Monster of the Beginning Womb—Perhaps—that way. Would she care? She needs a lover. ("Kaddish" 219)In "Confessing the Body," Elizabeth Gregory observes that "Naomi's ordinary body becomes monstrous in this description—not only in its details but in the undiscriminating desire her son attributes to it ('Would she care?')" (47). In exposing Naomi thus, Allen also exposes himself and his own indiscriminate sexual responsiveness. Such textual exposés pose challenges for those who would practice a hermeneutic of suspicion by "reading texts against the grain to expose their repressed or hidden meanings" (Felski 215). It appears that there is little that is hidden or repressed in "Kaddish" for a suspicious reader to expose. As Perloff notes, "the Ginsberg of 'Kaddish' is writing somewhat against the grain" (213). In writing against the grain, Ginsberg inhibits reading against the grain. A hermeneutic of suspicion holds "that manifest content shrouds darker, more unpalatable truths" (Felski 216). "Kaddish," however, parades its unpalatable truths. Although Ginsberg as a Beat poet is not technically included among the group of poets known as the "confessionals," "Kaddish" is typical of a "confessional poem" in that it "dwells on experiences generally prohibited expression by social convention: mental illness, intra-familial conflicts and resentments, childhood traumas, sexual transgressions and intimate feelings about one's body" (Gregory 34). There is a sense in which "we do not need to be suspicious" of such subversive texts because they are "already doing the work of suspicion for us" (Felski 217). It is also difficult to read "Kaddish" suspiciously because it presents itself as an autobiographical history of Ginsberg's relationship with his mother. "Kaddish" once again accords with Gregory's definition of "confessional poetry" as that which "draws on the poet's autobiography and is usually set in the first person. It makes a claim to forego personae and to represent an account of the poet's own feelings and circumstances" (34). These defining features of "Kaddish" make it not particularly conducive to a "suspicious hermeneutic [that] often professes a lack of interest in the category of authorship as a means of explaining the ideological workings of texts" (Felski 222). It requires considerable effort to distinguish Allen, speaker and character in "Kaddish," from Ginsberg, celebrity Beat poet and author of "Kaddish," and to suspend knowledge of Ginsberg's public-private life in order to pry ideologies from the text. This difficulty of resisting biographical interpretation of "Kaddish" translates to a difficulty of reading the poem suspiciously. In his psychoanalytic reading, Breslin's lack of suspicion for the poem's confession of autobiography dilutes his practice of an inherently suspicious mode of interpretation—that of psychoanalysis. His psychoanalysis of Ginsberg shows that he trusts "Kaddish" to confess its author's intimate feelings—"'It's my fault,' he must have felt, 'if I had loved my mother more, this wouldn't have happened to her—and to me'" (Breslin 422)—whereas a hermeneutic of suspicion "adopts a distrustful attitude toward texts" (Felski 216). That said, Breslin's differentiation between the conscious and unconscious, or surface and underlying levels of meaning in "Kaddish" is more clearly characteristic of a hermeneutic of suspicion's theory that texts withhold "meanings or implications that are not intended and that remain inaccessible to their authors as well as to ordinary readers" (Felski 216). Hence, Breslin speculates that, "on an unconscious level the writing of the poem may have been an act of private communication between the poet" and his mother (430). His response to the previously quoted passage of the poem suggests that while a cursory glance will restore its conscious meaning, a more attentive or suspicious gaze will uncover its unconscious: At first glance this passage seems a daring revelation of an incest wish and a shockingly realistic description of the mother's body. But what we really see here is how one post-Freudian writer, pretending to be open and at ease about incestuous desire, affects sophisticated awareness as a defense [sic] against intense longings and anxieties. The lines are charged with feelings that the poet, far from "confessing out," appears eager to deny. (Breslin 422; my emphasis)Breslin's temporary suspicious gaze in an otherwise trusting and sympathetic reading accuses the poet of revealing incestuous desire paradoxically in order to conceal incestuous desire. It exposes the exposé as an ironic guise, an attempt at subterfuge that the poet fails to conceal from the suspicious reader, evoking a hermeneutic of suspicion's conviction that in spite of itself "the text is not fully in control of its own discourse" (Felski 223). Breslin's view of Ginsberg's denial through the veil of his confession illuminates two possible ways of sustaining a suspicious reading of "Kaddish." One is to distrust its claim to confess Ginsberg, to recognise that "confession's reality claim is an extremely artful manipulation of the materials of poetry, not a departure from them" (Gregory 34). It is worth mentioning that in response to his interviewer's perception of the "absolute honesty" in his poem "Ego Confession," Ginsberg commented: "they're all poems, ultimately" (Spontaneous 404–05). Another way is to resist the double seduction operative in the text: Naomi's attempted seduction of Allen, and, in narrating it, Allen's attempted seduction of the psychoanalytic critic.Sarah Macfarlane's effort to unmask the gender politics that psychoanalytic critics arguably protect characterises her "socio-cultural analysis" (5) of "Kaddish" as unmistakably suspicious. While psychoanalytic critics "identify a 'psychic' context for the literary work, at the expense of social or historical context" (Barry 105), Macfarlane in her thesis "Masculinity and the Politics of Gender Construction in Allen Ginsberg" locates Allen's "perception of Naomi as the 'Monster of the Beginning Womb'" in the social and historical context of the 1950s "concept of the overbearing, dominating wife and mother who, although confined to the domestic space, looms large and threatening within that space" (48). In so doing, she draws attention to the Cold War discourse of "momism," which "envisioned American society as a matriarchy in which dominant mothers disrupted the Oedipal structure of the middle-class nuclear family" (Macfarlane 33). In other words, momism engaged Freudian explanations of male homosexuality as arising from a son's failure to resolve unconscious sexual desire for his mother, and blamed mothers for this failure and its socio-political ramifications, which, via the Cold War cultural association of homosexuality with communism, included "the weakening of masculine resolve against Communism" (Edelman 567). Since psychoanalysis effectively colludes with momism, psychoanalytic criticism on "Kaddish" is unable to expose its perpetuation in the poem. Macfarlane's suspicious reading of "Kaddish" as perpetuating momism radically departs from the dominant restorative criticism on the poem. Trigilio, for example, argues that "Kaddish" revises the Cold War "discourse of containment—'momism'—in which the exposure of communists was equated to the exposure of homosexuals" (781). "Kaddish," he claims, (which exposes both Allen's homosexuality and Naomi's communism), "does not portray internal collapse—as nationalist equations of homosexual and communist 'threats' would predict—but instead produces […] a 'Blessed' poet who 'builds Heaven in Darkness'" (782). Nonetheless, this blessed poet wails, "I am unmarried, I'm hymnless, I'm Heavenless" ("Kaddish" 212), and confesses his homosexuality as an overwhelming burden: "a mortal avalanche, whole mountains of homosexuality, Matterhorns of cock, Grand Canyons of asshole—weight on my melancholy head"("Kaddish" 214). In "Confessing the Body," Gregory asks whether confessional poetry "disclose[s] secrets in order to repent of them, thus reinforcing the initial negative judgement that kept them secret," or "to decathect that judgement" (35). While Allen's confession of homosexuality exudes exhilaration and depression, not guilt—Ginsberg critic Anne Hartman is surely right that "in the context of [the 1950s] public rituals of confession and repentance engendered by McCarthyism, […] poetic confession would carry a very different set of implications for a gay poet" (47)—it is pertinent to question his confession of Naomi. Does he expose Naomi in order to applaud or condemn her maternal transgressions? According to the logic of the Cold War "urge to unveil, [which] produces greater containment" (Trigilio 794), Allen's unveiling of Naomi veils his desire to contain her, unable as she is "to be contained within the 1950's [sic] domestic ideal of womanhood" (Macfarlane 44). "Ginsberg has become such a public issue that it's difficult now to read him naturally; you ask yourself after every line, am I for him or against him. And by and large that's the criticism he has gotten—votes on a public issue. (I see this has been one of those reviews.)" (Shapiro 90). Harvey Shapiro's review of Kaddish and Other Poems (1961) in which "Kaddish" first appeared illuminates the polarising effect of Ginsberg's celebrity on interpretations of his poetry. While sympathetic readings and romantic portrayals are themselves reactions to the "hostility to Ginsberg" that prevails (Perloff 223), often they do not sprout the intellectual vigour and fresh perspectives that a hermeneutic of suspicion has the capacity to sow. Yet it is difficult to read confessional texts such as "Kaddish" suspiciously; they appear to expose themselves without need of a suspicious reader. Readers of "Kaddish" such as Breslin are seduced into sympathetic biographical-psychoanalytical interpretations due to the poem's purported confession of Ginsberg's autobiography. As John Osborne argues, "the canon of Beat literature has been falsely founded on biographical rather than literary criteria" (4). The result is that "we are for the immediate future obliged to adopt adversarial reading strategies if we are to avoid entrenching an already stale orthodoxy" (Osborne 4). Macfarlane obliges in her thesis; she succeeds in reading "Kaddish" suspiciously by resisting its self-inscribed psychoanalysis to expose the gender politics of Allen's exposés. While Allen's confession of his homosexuality suggests that "Kaddish" subverts a heterosexist model of masculinity, a suspicious reading of his exposure of Naomi's maternal transgressions suggests that the poem contributes to momism and perpetuates a sexist model of femininity. Even so, a suspicious reading of a text such as "Kaddish" "contains a tacit tribute to its object, an admission that it contains more than meets the eye" (Felski 230). Ginsberg's own prophetic words bespeak as much:The worst I fear, considering the shallowness of opinion, is that some of the poetry and prose may be taken too familiarly, […] and be given the same shallow treatment, this time sympathetic, as, until recently, they were given shallow unsympathy. That would be the very we of fame. (Ginsberg, Deliberate 252)ReferencesBarry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. 2nd ed. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2002. Breslin, James. "The Origins of 'Howl' and 'Kaddish.'" On the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg. Ed. Lewis Hyde. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1984. 401–33.Edelman, Lee. "Tearooms and Sympathy, or, The Epistemology of the Water Closet." The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader. Ed. Henry Abelove, Michèle Aina Barale, and David M. Halperin. New York: Routledge, 1993. 553–74.Felski, Rita. "Suspicious Minds." Poetics Today 32.2 (2011): 215–34. Ginsberg, Allen. Deliberate Prose: Selected Essays 1952-1995. Ed. Bill Morgan. London: Penguin, 2000.---. "Kaddish." Collected Poems 1947–1980. New York: Harper and Row, 1984. 209–27. ---. Spontaneous Mind: Selected Interviews 1958–1996. Ed. David Carter. New York: Harper Collins, 2001. Grace, Nancy M. "Seeking the Spirit of Beat: The Call for Interdisciplinary Scholarship." Rev. of Kerouac, the Word and the Way: Prose Artist as Spiritual Quester, by Ben Giamo, and The Bop Apocalypse: The Religious Visions of Kerouac, Ginsberg, and Burroughs, by John Lardas. Contemporary Literature 43.4 (2002): 811–21.Gregory, Elizabeth. "Confessing the Body: Plath, Sexton, Berryman, Lowell, Ginsberg and the Gendered Poetics of the 'Real.'" Modern Confessional Writing: New Critical Essays. Ed. Jo Gill. London: Routledge, 2006. 22–49. Hartman, Anne. "Confessional Counterpublics in Frank O'Hara and Allen Ginsberg." Journal of Modern Literature 28.4 (2005): 40–56. Howl. Dir. Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman. Perf. James Franco. Oscilloscope Pictures, 2010.Macfarlane, Sarah. "Masculinity and the Politics of Gender Construction in Allen Ginsberg." MA thesis. Brown U, 1999.Nicol, Bran. "Reading Paranoia: Paranoia, Epistemophilia and the Postmodern Crisis of Interpretation." Literature and Psychology 45.1/2 (1999): 44–62.Osborne, John. "The Beats." A Companion to Twentieth Century Poetry. Blackwell Reference Online. Ed. Neil Roberts. 2003. 16 Oct. 2011 ‹http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=1205/tocnode?id=g9781405113618_chunk_g978140511361815&authstatuscode=202›.Perloff, Marjorie. "A Lion in Our Living Room: Reading Allen Ginsberg in the Eighties." Poetic License: Essays on Modernist and Postmodernist Lyric. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1990. 199–230.Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. Trans. Denis Savage. New Haven: Yale UP, 1970. Shapiro, Harvey. "Exalted Lament." Rev. of Kaddish and Other Poems 1958-1960, by Allen Ginsberg. On the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg. Ed. Lewis Hyde. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1984. 86–91. Shreiber, Maeera Y. "'You Still Haven't Finished with Your Mother': The Gendered Poetics of Charles Reznikoff and Allen Ginsberg." Singing in a Strange Land: A Jewish American Poetics. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2007. 46–97.Trigilio, Tony. "'Strange Prophecies Anew': Rethinking the Politics of Matter and Spirit in Ginsberg's Kaddish." American Literature 71.4 (1999): 773–95.

In 1991 the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival evicted two female identified transsexual attendees on the grounds that they violated its women only policy of admittance. The Festival, established in 1976 and now the largest of its kind, turned into a "microcosm of the conflicts that have plagued the women's movement" (Rubin 18) and revived widespread debate about the place of trans and non-standard gender performances in feminist activism. A pro-trans event, aptly named Camp Trans, was held outside the Festival's gates with the aim of inciting greater interest in the area. The Festival's founder and on going organiser, Lisa Vogel, responded with a statement in 2001 claiming the "intention is for the Festival to be for womyn-born womyn, meaning people who were born and have lived their entire life experience as female" (Vogel 2000). This resulted in the exclusion of not only trans individuals, but also a plethora of non-conventional gender identities. Bitter debate ensued, revealing the Festival's role not just in appealing to a defined, recognisable demographic, but in constructing and maintaining an entire category of identity. My initial encounters with the Festival occurred through independent media and the internet. It become particularly widely debated after artists from the Queer orientated Mr Lady record label (most famously Le Tigre, fronted by riot grrl icon Kathleen Hanna) confirmed that they would perform at the event, despite knowledge of the anti-trans policy. Perhaps the most poignant reflection came from Ciara Xyerra's 2001 zine A Renegade's Handbook To Love And Sabotage. She comments that the Festival's intent was to provide "not only just a 'safe space' for women, but specifically for 'womyn born womyn.'" […] this essentialist logic is […] flawed in that it assumes every "womyn born womyn" was socialized in exactly the same way, that differences regarding race, class, ability, personal history, have no bearing on how a woman perceives herself as a woman […](69). Certainly the revised womyn born womyn label is a problematic way of dealing with the situation. The standard woman is assumed not to encounter trans issues, at least not in a way that impacts on her sense of gendered self. This issue provokes comparisons to the race debates that wreaked havoc through US feminism in early eighties. The sentiments of the Camp Trans protest echo Audre Lorde's 1984 criticism that: As white women ignore their built-in privilege of whiteness and define women in terms of their experience alone, then women of Color become 'other', the outsider whose experience is too alien to comprehend (632). In retrospect what remains most striking about the race debates is how incredibly poorly they were handled. The period is marked by a tendency towards splinter and separatist groups, evident in the writing of people like bell hooks and Mary Daly. Communication between various factions collapsed amid accusations of racism and ignorance of the wider struggle, leaving ruptures still visible today. (Gubar 884-890) The emphasis has shifted from presumed racial background to presumed biological characteristics, but at its core this is the same argument about which performances of self are given legitimacy, and which are passed off as outside the interests of the feminist community. Indeed the Festival's anti-trans policy can also be traced back to the early 1980's, stemming from clashes between separatists and post-operative transsexuals entering feminist activism. In both instances there has been an assumption that the majority of members within the community experience the world from a common perspective, a collective sense of self at the core of the movement, outlining its wider agenda. I am reminded of Gayatri Spivak's comment that "We take the explanations we produce to be the grounds of our action; they are endowed with coherence in terms of our explanation of self" (In Other Worlds 104). Conflict arises when internal factions find their concerns being overlooked, and begin questioning exactly whose experience is taken as the model for the collective self. There is a tendency towards viewing this as a threat to the movement's solidarity. In an effort to maintain wider group cohesion, divergent voices are often dealt with by claiming they arise from entirely different strains of selfhood. New identities, or at the least hyphenated subcategories, proliferate under "the essentialist's claim that there must be an ultimate (that is, comprehensive), complete, consistent, coherent set of types" (Spinosa and Dreyfus 72). These redefinitions explain and dispel difference without actually addressing it. It would be naive to assume this sort of essentialism exists only for the Festival and older activist methodology. While Queer theory has certainly given us new tools for understanding the issues, its practical application does not necessarily avoid "knitting out more fashionably an otherwise reconstructed […] essentialism" (Jagose). As people like Martha Nussbaum and Benita Parry have argued, if somewhat problematically, there is a fine line between fluidity and dissolution. Activist and liberal scepticism towards deconstructive methodology contains an at least reasonably justified trepidation towards tinkering with political communities which have proved historically successful. The unfortunate revival of the 'old school' activism versus 'new school' theory attitude, itself founded on an essentialist belief in a single, correct ideological stance, has further complicated matters. Festival attendee Janel Smith, writing for one of the bastions of 'old school' activism, Off Our Backs, voiced activist scepticism when commenting that post structuralism is "an entire movement and theory […] designed to debunk these 'myths' about gender and racial identity." She continues: We often make sense of other people by categorizing them into labels and boxes that we ourselves feel comfortable with. Dominant discourse tends to dismiss this process as inherently negative, one that limits people and their understanding of self and projected identity (17). The criticism of dominant academic discourse is worth consideration. If it "is not possible for us to describe our own archive, since it is from within these rules that we speak" (Foucault 130), we need to be acutely aware of the way we act within culture, and wary of any movement which claims to fully recognise and transcend its boundaries. Our treatment of identity needs to "avoid the mistake of slipping between 'no absolute truth' and 'absolutely no truth,'" as Felicity Newman, Tracey Summerfield and Reece Plunkett suggest. From the alternate perspective, Aviva Rubin argues "our activism is characterized by seemingly incompatible inclinations to generalize and to particularize" (17). She writes that the Festival's attempt to develop a "theoretical 'she'" with which we "identify sameness – she shares our politics, our goals, our place" is fundamentally flawed as "the notion collapses when confronted with the differences we've deliberately ignored" (8). This leaves the situation double bound. A standard sense of gendered self provides unity and a workable common agenda, but comes into conflict with the identities it has excluded from its definition. The unified self combats repression, but, as Judith Butler so aptly puts it, "exclusion operates prior to repression" (71). However there are certainly areas of common ground. Rubin's "plea for grey", or an area "between absolutes," (20) is remarkably similar to Smith's endeavour to exist "somewhere in-between butch and femme" (14). Yet, for the Festival, that difference was enough to cause a gap between those who found it "an atmosphere of unparalleled safety" (Smith 13) and the pro-trans attendees who felt they needed "an escort to get out safely after darkness fell" (Wilchins 2000). As these relative similarities exist, it is disappointing to see that the arising differences have met with such aggressively negative reactions. Given the unlikeliness of everyone agreeing on a definitive understanding in the near future, it would seem beneficial to shift the focus away from searches for correct identities and ideologies, and develop new approaches to the debates themselves. I am again reminded of a comment from Gayatri Spivak, this time from her 1992 essay "More on Power/Knowledge". She comments that "if the lines of making sense of something are laid down in a certain way, then you are able to do only those things with that something which are possible within and by arrangement of those lines" (151). This is as true for our concepts of self as it is for any other issue. If we cannot reach outside of the structures of culture to find more universally true categories, or expect an ideological stance to present entirely new and more correct understandings, how we handle the arising debate is of major importance. Homi Bhabha's comment that "our political references and priorities […] are not there in some primordial, naturalistic sense" (26) does not necessarily render them null and void. There is a difference between needing to debate an identity or ideology, and needing to discard or reinvent it. Instead of looking for a true model of self or a correct ideology, the problem becomes looking at the cultural structure we have, trying to "recognise it as best one can and, through one's necessarily inadequate interpretation, to work to change it" (Spivak 1988 120). From this perspective the conflict that emerges from the Festival is as important as the possibilities for final resolution. Rather than treating differences as immediate problems and being "shocked, disappointed and instantly sidetracked into seeking resolution" (Rubin 20), it seems possible to consider the debate important in its own right. In practice this would mean keeping the lines of communication between the various factions open, and treating debate as an integral and on going process, rather than an unwelcome confrontation to be settled as quickly and quietly as possible. The commitment of the Camp Trans protesters to "workshops to educate festival goers" (Wilchins 2000), and their modest success, indicates that maintaining ongoing debate is a workable and productive approach. On the other hand Vogel's unwillingness to talk to the Camp Trans group is perhaps as open to criticism as her definitions of gender identity. Surely if a definitive concept of self cannot be settled upon easily, the lines of communication between Camp Trans and the Festival can at least be expected to keep the search from stagnating. The role the Festival has served as "a locus of political and cultural debate" (Delany) combined with its relatively successful negotiations of class and race issues indicates that it can play this role successfully. Although the womyn born womyn policy might not have changed, it is difficult to imagine many other platforms on which trans related debates could occur on such a large scale. In light of this it does not seem unrealistic to think of the debate as beneficial in ensuring continued rethinking of the issues, and not just as part of some potential revision or creation of identities which will hopefully be completed some time in the future. References Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. 1994 London: Routledge. 2000. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. New York: Routledge, 1999. Delany, Anngel. "Michigan Womyn's Music Festival celebrates 25 years of controversy." Gay.Com (2002) May 10th, 2002. http://content.gay.com/people/women_spac... Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Trans. A Sheridan Smith. Ed. R.D Laing, London: Routledge, 2000. Gubar, Susan. "What Ails Feminist Criticism?" Critical Inquiry 24.4 (1998): 878-903. Jagose, Annamarie. "Queer Theory." Australian Humanities Review 4 (1996) http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AHR/archiv... (28-6-02). Lorde, Audre. "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference". Literary Theory: An Anthology. Ed. Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan. 4th Ed. Malden: Blackwell, 1998: 630-636. Newman, Felicity, Summerfield, Tracy and Plunkett, Reece. "Three Cultures from the 'Inside': or, A Jew, a Lawyer and a Dyke Go Into This Bar…" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.2 (2000). http://www.api-network.com/mc/0005/count.... (28-5-02) Nussbaum, Martha. "The Professor of Parody: The Hip Defeatism of Judith Butler." The New Republic 22 Feb. 1999: 38-45. Parry, Benita. "Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse." Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 27-58. Rubin, Aviva. "The Search for Grey: an agree-to-disagree." Canadian Dimensions 31.5 (1997) 17-21. Smith, Janel. "Identity Crisis: Fuches Rise up and Unite." Off Our Backs 30.9 (2000): 13-20. Spinosa, Charles and Hubert Dreyfus. "Two Kinds of Antiessentialism and Their Consequences." Critical Inquiry 22.4 (1996) 735-764. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravority. In Other Worlds. London: Routledge, 1988. ---, "More On Power/Knowledge." The Spivak Reader. Ed. Donna Landry and Gerald Maclean. New York: Routledge, 1996: 141-174. Vogel, Lisa. "Official Statement of Policy by MWMF." (2000).http://www.camptrans.com/press/2000_mwmf... (30-6-2002). Wilchins, Riki Ann. Interview with In Your Face. (2000) http://www.camptrans.com/stories/intervi... (30-6-02). Xyerra, Ciara. A Renegades Handbook to Love and Sabotage 4. Madford: Independently Published, 2001. Links http://www.camptrans.com/ http://www.api-network.com/mc/0005/country.html http://www.camptrans.com/stories/interview.html http://www.camptrans.com/press/2000_mwmf.html http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AHR/archive/Issue-Dec-1996/jagose.html http://content.gay.com/people/women_space/michigan_000807.html Citation reference for this article Substitute your date of access for Dn Month Year etc... MLA Style Ware, Ianto. "Conflicting Concepts of Self and The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5.5 (2002). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Ware.html &gt. Chicago Style Ware, Ianto, "Conflicting Concepts of Self and The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5, no. 5 (2002), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Ware.html &gt ([your date of access]). APA Style Ware, Ianto. (2002) Conflicting Concepts of Self and The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5(5). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Ware.html &gt ([your date of access]).