Journal articles on the topic '1917-1992 Criticism and interpretation'

This study aims to reveal and to describe the condition of Indonesian literary criticismin a century of H.B. Jassin (1917-2017). The research problem is how the condition of Indonesian literary criticism in a century of H.B. Jassin? The method used is the historical and descriptive method. The research proves that the condition of Indonesian literary criticism in a century of H.B. Jassin progressing quite encouraging on four genres of literary criticism, namely: (1)general literary criticism or practical literary criticism developed in printed media and electronic, (2) history of academic literary that thrives in academic research focusing on philology, (3) literature appreciation and interpretation that developes in the academic and scientific journal of literature, and (4) literary theory that developes in academic world as a basic reference for writing literature scientific papers. From these results it can be concluded that the condition of Indonesian literary criticism in a century of H.B. Jassin has never been stagnant or vacuum.

Despite various interpretations of Heidegger's philosophy, he is undeniably a deep critic of the metaphysical tradition in European philosophy. His task of overcoming metaphysics once again aroused interest in the fundamental issues of life in the era of the total dominance of private sciences. In the article, the authors explore the concept of metaphysics and its criticism in the work of M. Heidegger, as well as subsequent interpretations, in particular by O. Peggeler (“New Ways with Heidegger”, 1992). Criticism of metaphysics was a necessary condition for overcoming it to build a fundamental ontology. Having experienced the influence of Nietzsche, Heidegger does not remain a Nietzschean, because he considers him the last metaphysician to be overcome. In this regard, Peggeler recognizes Heidegger's main work not as “Being and Time”, but as “Reports to Philosophy” (1936), where he sought to reveal the primary sources of the concept of metaphysics. Heidegger's views regarding the interpretation of the development of metaphysics in different historical eras are specially considered.

Herbert Beerbohm Tree (1853–1917) is remembered today as a great character actor, as a personality, and as a wit: but as a producer he is seldom considered an important or even a positive influence on the course of Shakespearean interpretation in the twentieth century. Focusing on Tree's 1904 production of The Tempest, Brian Pearce argues that Tree was in fact an original and inventive director. Contrasting the faint praise or contempt of theatre historians with the adoption of many of Tree's ideas in later literary criticism of The Tempest, Pearce also suggests that the acceptance of the right of contemporary experimental directors to act in effect as ‘scenic artists’ sits oddly with attitudes to Tree's work, in which he fulfilled precisely such a role. Brian Pearce completed his PhD at the University of London in 1992, and since returning to South Africa has worked as a theatre director. He is a member of the board of directors of the Durban Theatre Workshop Company, and also teaches drama at Technikon Natal.

Using the views of bishop Andrey ( Ukhtomsky) as an example, the article discusses an understudied problem of the attitude of Russian Orthodox priests to the theory and practice of Russian nationalism of the late 19th — early 20th centuries. The authors analyze the bishop’s views on national empowerment, political nationalism and the issue of the non-Russians (inorodtsy). It is demonstrated how bishop Andrey’s Slavophil views shaped his Russian nationalism. The authors also consider the reasons for bishop Andrey’s cooperation with rightwing parties and unions, as well as the events that led to his disillusionment with these political forces. This turn is documented by the inedited materials showing the debate on “the national issue” in press between bishop Andrey and right-wing politicians in 1910, which led to their final break. Based on bishop Andrey’s journalistic texts published between 1899 and 1917 the authors conclude that he endorsed Russian national self-assertion but never aligned himself with nationalism that he condemned as anti-Christian as long as it acquired xenophobic, racist and secular aspects. Ultimately, while remaining the supporter of the Russian national idea in its Orthodox and Slavophil interpretation, by 1917 he had become a staunch opponent of Russian political nationalism.

The article presents the criticism of R. Avenarius’s empiriocriticism by representatives of the Russian spiritual and academic philosophy of the early twentieth century. The theistic model of cognition, based on Platonic ontology and an extended interpretation of the phenomenon of faith, is contrasted with the biopsychologism of Avenarius. The article substantiates the point of view that the criticism of the ideas of empiriocriticism stimulated the construction of its own version of philosophical and religious anthropology in Orthodox academic theism

Philosophical understanding of the economy and economics is not the main, but significant topic of the reflections of Russian religious philosophers. It is important to trace the specifics of the formation of the Russian view on the economy and economics, on the basic principles of the economic systems’ structure (among which we can single out capitalism and socialism), since the interpretation of Russian thinkers, including N. А. Berdyaev, cannot be included in the mainstream of Western economic thought. The article examines the criticism of capitalism and socialism in the post-revolutionary works of Nikolai Berdyaev, highlights the key contradictions of the two basic principles of economic organization with the post-revolutionary views of the thinker, which were significantly strengthened after the revolutionary events of 1917; these views can be conditionally called socialist-personalistic. Inheriting the tradition of Russian thought, Berdyaev unequivocally rejects the capitalist principles (in many respects this attitude was formed by the period of his legal Marxism), while he assesses socialist concepts ambiguously, with a certain amount of sympathy for the very socialist formulation of the problem of justice and the fight against “slavery”, exploitation of a man by a man. The article indicates the main line of criticism of Christian socialism by Berdyaev, and also describes his preferred variant of socialism, that he called “social personalism”.

Current trends in assessment, no longer based on the view that language learning entails a passive accumulation of skills, have led to the increasingly more common use of assessment procedures that differ quite drastically from standardized norm-referenced measures of language proficiency (Calfee and Hiebert 1991, Calfee and Perfumo 1993, Gifford and O'Connor 1991). Increasing criticism of standardized tests, especially in light of current educational reform movements, has also brought into question the value of other indirect approaches to assessment (Clay 1990, Cohen 1994, Damico 1992, Haladyana 1992, Oller 1992, Pikulski 1990, Worthen 1993). Additionally, interest groups representing both linguistically and culturally diverse students and students with special education needs have called for a change in our approaches to assessment. The goal is to ensure equity in educational opportunities and to strive toward educational excellence for all students (Council of Chief State School Officers 1992, Fradd, McGee and Wilen 1994, Hamayan and Damico 1991, LaCelle-Peterson and Rivera 1994). Although some researchers suggest that it is false to assume that alternative assessment approaches automatically ensure equity for diverse populations (Darling-Hammond 1994), these approaches nonetheless provide a wealth of information which must minimally serve as a context for a more valid interpretation of all standardized test results. In a more central capacity, information from these alternative assessment procedures can constitute the sole basis for much educational and instructional decision-making (Damico 1992).

As one of the disciples of Titu Maiorescu (1840–1917) together with Constantin Radulescu–Motru (1868–1957) and Petre Paul Negulescu (1872–1951), they are regarded as the most prolific thinkers in Romanian modern thought and founders of the Romanian modern culture. History changes which they could not foresee have left the marks upon the perception, reception and interpretation of their work and Ion Petrovici is no exception to that. In order to understand and interpret his work reflected in his writings on philosophy, logic, philosophical monographs, travel diaries, speeches and notes, biographical method, along with text analysis, hermeneutical approach and criticism have been adopted. Bridging his prolific philosophical endowment with his epoch realities remains a wish and an ideal to which this paper aims with the respect that it would offer us a much clear image of the past and would increase our wisdom as how to act upon the future. Keywords: Education, philosophy, Romanian culture.

The “Cambridge pragmatists”, Charles S. Peirce, William James and Josiah Royce, are at least in two respects significantly indebted to Kant: first, as von Kempski, Apel and Murphey have shown, with regard to the epistemological issues investigated in pragmatism; secondly, with regard to the various pragmatic approaches to religion, something which has been long overlooked. These approaches are best understood as innovative re-readings of Kant’s postulates of freedom, immortality, and God. Since Hilary Putnam pointed out — in his 1992 book Renewing Philosophy — that James’s essay, “The Will to Believe”, in spite of having received a great deal of hostile criticism, is in “its logic, in fact, precise and impeccable”, James’s thoughts are considered by many contemporary philosophers (by Charles Taylor, e.g., and by Hans Joas) as particularly inspiring. James’s approach is based on the modern experience of secularism and interprets Kant’s “postulate” as the “option” to believe. A deepening of the debate on the relevance of Kant’s analysis of the horizon of religious hope with regard to human praxis for a pragmatism-inspired philosophy of religion can be expected from a detailed discussion of the thoughts of Peirce and Royce, of thoughts, which, in complex ways, relate to, as well as criticise, James’s individuum-focused interpretation of religious faith.

The article is devoted to the discussion between «pessimists» and «optimists» about the causes of the Russian revolution of 1917-1922. «Pessimists» traditionally believe that the main reason for the revolution was the low standard of living of the masses. «Optimists» argue that the economy of the Russian Empire progressed rapidly, and the level of consumption gradually increased. The next stage in this discussion was the book by B. N. Mironov «Russian Modernization and Revolution» published in 2019. In the new book, B.N. Mironov declares the development of Russia an «economic miracle» and cites 12 signs of this «miracle». In 2022, the Sociological History magazine held a round table discussion on Mironov's book and published the author's responses to critical statements made in the same issue. The article is devoted to the analysis of this criticism and the answers of the author of the book. It is shown that Mironov's argumentation is largely based on the use of unreliable yield statistics and an erroneous interpretation of the results of anthropometric measurements.

A disciple of Titu Maiorescu (1840–1917), Petre Paul Negulescu, along with Constantin Radulescu-Motru (1868–1957) and Ion Petrovici (1882–1972), is regarded as being among the most prolific thinkers in Romanian modern thought and one of the founders of the modern Romanian culture. Historical changes he could never envisage have left their mark upon the perception, reception and interpretation of his work. The paper reviews the key characteristics of Petre Paul Negulescu’s work as reflected in his studies on the origin of culture, the philosophy of Renaissance and two magnificent works, The History of Contemporary Philosophy and The Destiny of Humanity. The aim is to contextualise these works within the field of philosophy in terms of their sources, conceptual approach and hermeneutics. As well as furnishing the Romanian culture with a wealth of original thought, his pertinent analysis of social, economic, cultural and political changes, and his involvement in improving the educational system through his position as Minister of Instruction, have made him worthy of criticism and an outstanding reference point in times of revival. Keywords: Education, philosophy, culture.

This paper examines why the Dutch colonial government did ecological mapping for the development of salt centres in Indonesia and how it was carried out? It is analysed by historical method which includes heuristics, criticism, interpretation and historiography. Ecological mapping was carried out by the Dutch colonial government for the development of salt production centre sourced from sea water. It is the important factor to develop salt production centres concerning the situations of the coastal area in which sloping parallel to sea level, humid, dry air temperatures, low rainfall, non-porous soil types, and high wind speeds. The wind speed required for salt production is at least 5 m/sec, with air temperatures above 32o C during the day, as well as a maximum humidity of 50%. During the Dutch colonial government, it was recorded that in 1904-1917 the average wind speed was above 5 m/sec. Continued with the development of the salt production ecosystem, which includes the establishment of production areas equipped with bozem development, land layout, etc. By the ecological mapping, the salt development centre areas cover coastal area of Madura, several areas of Java’s north coast, and coastal areas of Sulawesi, including Jeneponto.

This article contributes a new analysis of verbal irony to the literature. It presents the main analyses of verbal irony – and the main criticisms of these analyses – found in both older and modern literatures as part of its attempt to build a new account for verbal irony. Thus, this paper discusses traditional, echoic and pretense accounts of irony and the limitations of these analyses. In traditional account, verbal irony is analyzed as a type of a trope or a figurative, in which the speaker communicates the opposite of the literal meaning (see Utsumi (2000)). In echoic analysis, verbal irony is assumed to be an echoic interpretation of an attributed utterance or thought (see Wilson and Sperber (1992)). As for pretense account of verbal irony, it views the ironist as pretending to be an injudicious speaker talking to an uninitiated hearer (see Clark and Gerrig (1984)). The three analyses of verbal irony attract some criticism in the literature (see Kreuz and Glucksberg (1989) and Utsumi (2000)). This paper argues for a new analysis, suggesting that there are multiple types of verbal irony that should be examined under more than one analytical approach based on their meanings. This paper suggests that ironic verbal expressions that communicate the opposite of their literal meaning should be analyzed as a type of metaphor with two oppositional subjects in which the ironist pretends to believe that they resemble one another.

The interpretation of Kant’s philosophy by thinkers in pre-Soviet Belarus has been the subject of not a few publications. They described the reception of his seminal ideas, the analysis, polemic and occasionally sharp criticism of these ideas. It is helpful now to look at Kantian studies beginning from the 1920s to the present time. I will show that immediately after the October 1917 revolution and until the 1930s interest in Kant’s teaching was waning. When they turned to his ideas during that period Belarusian authors described and analysed them primarily in textbooks or when examining, or rather criticising, the views of Western philosophers, thereby rigidly adhering to Lenin’s assessments. During and after World War II the number of studies was also very insignificant. It was not until the beginning of Perestroika that an urgent need was felt for a new reading of Western philosophy, and interest in Kant’s heritage in the country increased sharply. A surge of interest was registered beginning from 2004 which was declared “Immanuel Kant Year” by UNESCO. From that time onward Belarus has hosted a number of international forums devoted to Kant, materials of conferences, articles and textbooks have been published, dissertations defended etc. The article reviews the main trends of these studies in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods.

In its judgments on the preliminary objections in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court held that the FRY was not a UN member in the period between 1992 and 2000. This finding is controversial, at odds with previous decisions of the Court, and has indeed attracted criticism from various judges. This article proposes a different construction of the question of the FRY's membership within the UN and reviews arguments that allow doubts to be cast on the reasoning of the Court. Because of the link between UN membership and the FRY's participation in the Genocide Convention, the Court's finding in the Legality of Use of Force cases may have some implications for two sets of proceedings still pending before the Court (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro and Croatia v. Serbia and Montenegro). In the former case, an interpretation of the extent of the res judicata principle may allow the Court not to reopen the issue of jurisdiction, already decided in 1996 on the basis of Article IX of the Genocide Convention. In the latter case, various options might allow the FRY to be regarded as a party to the Genocide Convention.

Russian Marxism turned rather late to constructing of its concepts of the Russian historical process and/or attempts to give a coherent interpretation of the history of the Russian Empire/Russian people/peoples of the Eastern European Plain. The Bolsheviks, who came to power in late 1917 and from the middle of 1918, increasingly determined to claim if not the fullness of ideological control, then intellectual hegemony, did not have their historiography of “Russian history”. The situation between 1918 and the early 1920s was a confrontation between “Marxist” in the broad sense of the term and “non-Marxist” concepts and approaches. The “Marxist” historiography by the early 1920s was represented by three approaches associated with the names of G.V. Plekhanov, N.A. Rozhkov and M.N. Pokrovsky. Rozhkov's historical constructions initially fell by the wayside in historical discussions; the real confrontation within Marxist-historians was reduced to a confrontation between the versions of the historical process proposed by G.V. Plekhanov and M.N. Pokrovsky in the 1910s. In this article, we analyze the different levels of this confrontation, from topical political implications, such as attitudes to the state and the question of “defence”, to epistemological assumptions, the understanding of “science”, the place of “historical facts” and the role of interpretation. At the same time, both G.V. Plekhanov's concept (and L.D. Trotsky's related, though politically opposed, interpretation of Russian history) and M.N. Pokrovsky's concept are closely linked to the “school of Klyuchevsky” and carry not only an explicit, but, even more significant, largely implicit and unproblematized heritage of both the Klyuchevsky historical scheme and, in turn, the “state school” that lies at its base. M.N. Pokrovsky's criticism of this legacy from his opponents was purposeful, but implicitly for him, it conditioned his interpretation of the very object of historical consideration. The “historical synthesis” of “high Stalinism” of the late 1930s–1950s, the union of the “red professors” and the successors of pre-revolutionary schools of historiography, especially the Moscow and Petersburg universities, was facilitated not only by the elaboration of the dogmatic foundation of historical materialism in “Brief Course...” by the late 1930s but also by the real community of conceptual foundations going back to the “Klyuchevskii school” and the “state school” of Russian historiography.

The article is devoted to the problem of interpretation of the well-known Yesenin lines about N. A. Klyuev in the poem “In the Caucasus”. In literary criticism, the point of view has been established, according to which the eleventh verse of the poem by S. A. Yesenin contains a well-known “epigrammatic definition” expressing the extremely sharp “negative attitude” of the poet towards his former mentor. The systemic analysis of Yesenin’s poetic definitions of Klyuev, “gentle apostle” (“O muse, my flexible friend...”, 1917) and “Ladoga deacon” (“In the Caucasus”, 1924) in the historical and literary context, made it possible to find their close semantic correlation and identify the lines about Klyuev in the poem “In the Caucasus” as the author’s self-irony, expressed in the form of a comic demotion of his former teacher. It is proved that in the poem “In the Caucasus”, ironically putting himself in the place of a “dead canary”, a poet who categorically does not accept imitation in poetry, not only declares that singing “from the voice of someone else” is destructive for any talent, but also clearly makes it known that he is “not a canary,” imitating Klyuev, that their paths diverged long ago, that the canary in him “died” in his youth; and the self-ironic, harmless lines about his mentor in the poem “In the Caucasus” testify to Yesenin’s creative maturity as a great national poet who has comprehended his significance and place in Russian Parnassus.

K.H. Muhammad Yahya (commonly known as Abuya Sepuh or Abuya Mamad) is an Islamic scholar from Cimahi. He is a Da'i, Murshid Tariqah, and also a Judge in the Religious Courts. He was the founder of Pesantren Darussurur Cimahi, and extensively wrote Sundanese nadhom, and participated in spreading the Islamic da'wah in the City of Cimahi. He contributed to education, social, religion, and Islamic da’wah. This study aims at finding out the biography of K.H. Muhammad Yahya and his Da'wah Activities in Cimahi. The method used is a historical research method which consists of four stages, namely heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that, first, K.H. Muhammad Yahya was born in 1917 and died in 2009 in the Main Village, Cimahi. He is the son of K.H. Muhammad Azhari and Hj. Khadijah, his nasab through his father reached Maulana Syarif Hidayatullah. His educational genelogy was formed from the environment and education he got from various teachers, such as Habib Ali al-Attas (Jakarta), Habib Abdullah Bilfaqih (Malang), Muhaddist Assayid Alwi bin Abbas al-Malik (Mecca), K.H. M. Kurdi (Cibabat), K.H. M. Zarkasyi (Cibaduyut). Second, the da'wah activities K.H. Muhammad Yahya in Cimahi covers several aspects and media, namely da’wah through educational institutions with the establishment of pesantren Darussurur (1947-2009), da’wah through religious teachings (1947-2009), da’wah through Tariqah (TQN) (1960s), and da’wah through writing (1979-2009), in which he wrote and translated Arabic books composed in the form of Sundanese nadhom, such as Nadhom Shoibul Iman, Aqidatul awam, Lawang Setan, and many others.

Abstrak: Tulisan ini bertujuan untuk mengelaborasi dan menganalisis bagaimana perkembangan dunia pers di Sumatra’s Westkust? Seberapa besar perempuan Minangkabau mengambil bagian di dalam kemajuan pers Bumiputra di Sumatra’s Westkust? Apa kontribusi kemajuan pers ini bagi peningkatan kualitas kehidupan perempuan Minangkabau masa itu? Berpijak pada empat tahapan metode sejarah yakni heuristik, kritik, interpretasi dan historiografi, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa keterlibatan perempuan Minangkabau dalam dunia pers di Sumatra’s Westkust ditandai dengan kemunculan mereka sebagai penulis, editor dan redaktur surat kabar seperti Roehana Koeddoes, Zoebeidah Ratna Djoewita, Saadah Alim, Rasoena Said, dan Rangkaja Ch. Sjamsoe isteri Datoek Toemenggoeng. Kehadiran perempuan Minangkabau dalam dunia pers ini semakin kokoh melalui penerbitan beberapa surat kabar khusus perempuan seperti Soenting Melajoe (1912), Soeara Perempoean (1917), ASJRAQ (1925), Soeara Kaoem Iboe Soematra (1925), Medan Puteri, Suara Puteri. Kemunculan surat kabar khusus perempuan ini berhasil menjadi pemantik yang sukses mengobarkan semangat kemajuan di antara perempuan Minangkabau saat itu dan menginiasiasi perempuan-perempuan lainnya di Hindia-Belanda untuk semakin sadar akan pentingnya eksistensi perempuan dalam kemajuan kaumnya serta pergerakan kemerdekaan bangsanya. Kata kunci: perempuan Minangkabau, pers, Sumatra’s Westkust.Abstract: This paper aims to elaborate and analyze how the development of the press world in Sumatra’s Westkust? How much the Minangkabau women had taken part in the progress of the Bumiputra’s press in Sumatra’s Westkust? What was the contribution of this press progress to improving the quality of life of the Minangkabau woman at that time? Based on four stages of historical methods namely heuristics, criticism, interpretation and historiography, the results showed that the involvement of Minangkabau women in the press world in Sumatra's Westkust was marked by their emergence as journalism, editor and newspapers editor in chief such as Roehana Koeddoes, Zoebeidah Ratna Djoewita, Saadah Alim, Rasoena Said and Rangkaja Ch. Sjamsoe. The presence of Minangkabau women in the press world was strengthened through the publication of several women’s newspapers such as Soenting Melajoe (1912), Soeara Perempoean (1917), ASJRAQ (1925), Soeara Kaoem Iboe Soematra (1925), Medan Puteri, Suara Puteri. The publication of this women's newspaper became a successful flintstone that fueled the spirit of progress among the Minangkabau women at the time and initiated other women in the Dutch East Indies to become increasingly aware of the importance of women's existence in the advancement of their people and the independence movement of their nation.Keywords: Minangkabau women, press, Sumatra’s Westkust.

Grundtvig på anklagebænken[Grundtvig in the dock]By Kim Arne PedersenThe article opens with a review of Gr’s position after the second World War. The Heretica-era’s positive disposition towards religion and Christianity is inspired by the life-philosophy of Vilhelm Grønbech which in turn serves as a preliminary understanding of Gr’s thinking on the relationship between Christianity and folkelighed, the nourishing of a popular culture. Four significant currents have characterised Danish identity: Grundtvigianism, pietism, Brandes-influenced cultural radicalism and the social-democratic movement. Social-democratic thinking on social equality is examined in connection with the Grundtvigian-tendency’s elevation of the concept of folkelighed.With Reinhart Kosellek’s concept-historical methodology as aprompt, the Grundtvig-based concept offolkelighed is analysed in its association with the concept of liberty, ideas of social equilibrium, the question of a Constitution, and the concept of popular enlightenment (oplysning) in Gr’s authorship. The starting-point is an analysis of Gr’s ideas on Christianity andfolkelighed where it is pointed out that Gr, with his background in a Christian anthropology, emphasises their reciprocal bearing upon each other (vekselvirkning). The chief aim of the article is to demonstrate that the reception of Gr in the period 1883-1983 is characterised by a contest between, on the one hand, a philosophical interpretation of Gr which is linked with an understanding of the folkelighed-concept as an aspiration towards social equality and, on the other hand, a theological interpretation of Gr which concentrates upon humankind’s interaction with God in dialogue as the nub of Gr’s outlook on humankind.The article focuses upon the 1930s, when the social-democratic Education Minister Frederik Borgbjerg seizes upon the egalitarian aspect of Gr’s concept of folkelighed and uses it in the development of Social-Democracy into a national party. Borgberg’s interpretation of Gr embraces those components which characterise the following generation’s image of Gr: he is the supporter of liberty (and thereby tolerance), democracy and social equality, all as understood from their basis in the concept of folkelighed.Borgberg’s and Grønbech’s interpretations of Gr constitute the background to the understanding formed by Professor Hal Koch, church-historian and pillar of the folk-highschool system, of both Gr and the concept offolkelighed. But it is to be emphasised that Koch, in contrast to Borgberg and Grønbech, but in line with the author Jørgen Bukdahl, draws his understanding of the concept offolkelighed from the idea that the interaction between folkelighed and Christianity - that is, between the particular and the universal - is the underpinning perception in Gr’s writings.However, in the post-war period it is the thoughts of Pastor Kaj Thaning concerning the differentiation between Christianity and folkelighed which become dominant. Like Hal Koch, Thaning writes out of inspiration from the life-philosophy of Grønbech, but also like Koch he traces this back to its anchorage within Gr’s Christian universe.Thaning’s differentiation-thesis forms - against his own wishes – a starting-point for the 1970s convergence between the ideas of Gr and left-wing thinking on political emancipation, whereby the tendency from the 1930s now reaches its culmination: grounded in the construction of an adversarial relationship between Gr and grundtvigianism, and in a non-theological interpretation of Gr, the way is clear for Gr to become the leading figure in Danish national self-perception.In 1990 the literary historian and publicist Henning Fonsmark initiated the surge of criticism of Gr which from about 1992 has permeated the Danish public. With its starting-point in the debate over Denmark’s relationship to the European Union and over immigration into Denmark, one may observe a steadily more violent criticism of Gr among intellectuals who have a more or less loose connection to traditional cultural-radical milieus. At the same time the Danish immigration-opposed right wing, identifies itself with Gr - as in the case of the theological ‘Tidehverv’-movement, The Danish Association (Den Danske Forening) and The Danish National Party (Dansk Folkeparti). In contrast to the understanding of Gr hitherto prevailing, Gr is now widely interpreted as hostile to foreigners, intolerant, and the opponent of democracy and social equality.The viewpoint of the article is that both the right-wing use of Gr and the criticism of him are made possible only by an underestimation of his Christian premisses. When Gr’s Christian anthropology - and thereby the fellowship of dialogue between God and humankind - are appreciated as being the very core of his writings, then it becomes possible to maintain an image of Gr as the supporter of liberty, of social equality and of an enlightenment of and for life, which on the one hand appears as a consequence of modernity’s breakthrough in Western Europe and on the other takes its distinctive form from Gr’s understanding of Christianity as the bearer of that universality in whose light the particularity offolkelighed is to be understood. And it is this relationship which renders problematical a nationalistic reading of Gr’s authorship.

The article is devoted to understanding the origins of the formation and development of the theory of folk art. The relevance of the topic is determined by the existing contradiction: on the one hand, the positioning of folk art and traditional folk art crafts as an important part of the national artistic culture, an independent field of art criticism, which can be seen in legal documents, popular science literature and scientific works of the 20th century, and, on the other hand, the limited range of modern research in this area, insufficient development of the theoretical aspect of this issue.Based on the analysis of a wide range of sources, the author identifies five stages of the formation of the theory of folk art (the beginning of the 18th century — 1870s; 1870—1910s; 1917—1930s; 1930—1990s; 1990—2020s), gives a brief description of them, and names the main results of studying each of the periods. The provisions of the theory of folk art were most fully and systematically formulated and justified by M.A. Nekrasova in the 1980s.The article considers the process of forming interest in works of folk art in the middle of the 18th — the last third of the 19th century, and in the next period of “initial accumulation of facts” (until the 1910s), as the first experience of developing scientific approaches to the analysis of the specifics of folk art. The author reveals the significance of Peter the Great’s transformations in the field of culture for the formation of public interest in the traditions of Russian culture; defines the Russian folklore researchers’ contribution (songs, rituals, fairy tales) to drawing attention to the problems of preserving national features of Russian culture and their interpretation in works of literature; describes the activities of artists, critics, and public figures in creating the first collections of folk art, their analysis and description from a scientific point of view.

ArgumentFriedrich August von Hayek (1899–1992) is mainly known for his defense of free-market economics and liberalism. His views on science – more specifically on the methodological differences between the physical sciences on the one hand, and evolutionary biology and the social sciences on the other – are less well known. Yet in order to understand, and properly evaluate Hayek's political position, we must look at the theory of scientific method that underpins it. Hayek believed that a basic misunderstanding of the discipline of economics and the complex phenomena with which it deals produced misconceptions concerning its method and goals, which led in turn to the adoption of dangerous policies. The objective of this article is to trace the development of Hayek's views on the nature of economics as a scientific discipline and to examine his conclusions concerning the scope of economic prediction. In doing so, I will first show that Hayek's interest in the natural sciences (especially biology), as well as his interest in epistemology, were central to his thought, dating back to his formative years. I will then emphasize the important place of historical analysis in Hayek's reflections on methodology and examine the reasons for his strong criticism of positivism and socialism. Finally, in the third and fourth sections that constitute the bulk of this article, I will show how Hayek's understanding of the data and goal of the social sciences (which he distinguished from those of the physical sciences), culminated in an analogy that sought to establish economics and evolutionary biology as exemplary complex sciences. I will challenge Hayek's interpretation of this analogy through a comparison with Darwin's views inThe Origin of Species, and thus open a door to re-evaluating the theoretical foundations of Hayek's political claims.

This article critically investigates the Qur’ānic exegesis and the methodology of Leopold Weiss aka Muhammad Asad (d. 1992), a prominent Muslim scholar of the last century. The exegesis addressing the Western intellectual audience is considered by many to be among the best in the English Language. The work inculcates traditional exegesis as well as traditional hermeneutics producing a contemporary interpretation. His work is controversial – well received by the academia attributed to ingenious scholarship, criticised by conservative Muslims for alleged neo-rationalistic tendencies. The work was labelled ‘unorthodox’ by neo-conservatives while banned by the Saudi Government as ‘heretical’, which led the work to become unpopular. The article examines the criticisms and his produce against mainstream sources. It argues that the exegesis in examination is able to withstand its criticisms, and further, rank among the best of its kind.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the origins of domestic constitutionalism – the most important attribute of such starting indicators, for example, as a legal, constitutional state, separation of powers, constitutionalism. Its concise definition and characteristics are presented. There are three main periods of the emergence and development of Russian parliamentarism. The first - until October 1917. The most important result here is the bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia of 1905 - 1907. It was the creation of the parliament for the first time in our country. This is the beginning of domestic practical parliamentarism. The second period - 1917 - 1991, characterized by the rejection of parliamentarism and its criticism in capitalist states. The third is the modern period, from 1992 to the present day.

This article analyzes the reflection on the myth of Faust in the work of Eduardas Mieželaitis (1919–1997). The author’s initial hypothesis that the interpretation of this myth can be used as another argument for revealing the poet’s dramatic feelings and self-reflection of inauthentic Soviet existence is tested. Together with other signs of existential self-abuse (such as the metaphors of “the ringed bird” and “the masked word”), this could help answer the question of whether the description of the 1920s generation (Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, Bronius Krivickas, etc.) as “tragic” would fit Mieželaitis. Intertextuality is the best way to describe the nature of the analysis and socio-criticism would describe the interpretation of the results.E. Mieželaitis was (and still is) one of the most intertextual Lithuanian authors. The use of the “alien word” in his texts was a conceptual position of the poet’s creative consciousness. For him the world’s culture has become a central topic, and his texts have been occupied by the masters of arts and sciences of antiquity, Renaissance, or New Age, as well as modern European authors, Oriental classics, Bible quotations, paraphrases, allusions and other forms of culture. For the poet, Goethe’s Faust is one of such foundational texts, even if the Soviet era did not favor the “myths of the great contemplation” (Vytautas Kubilius). The forever relevant myth of Faust raises a fundamental question of person’s life choice – what one is prepared to sacrifice for one’s purpose, and what the results of that “sacrifice” are. But in the Soviet times Mieželaitis did not focus on this myth as a “symbol of the duality of human’s nature” – his human is rather one-dimensional and monolithic, full of positive energy directed towards technological progress and an absolute belief in the cognitive powers of man. This is the exact aspect that Faust embodies in Mieželaitis’ works, as if it was his “new man”, the product of the Enlightenment era. Mieželaitis did not care about the moment of negotiations between Faust and Mephistopheles – for him there could easily be no Mephistopheles. However, in late works (Postskriptumai, 1986; Gnomos, 1987; Laida, 1992), where the poet reflects on his life and creative path, there are many signs of disillusionment with the myth of human omnipotence as the results of his labor have turned against him – he wanted to create a heaven, but got a hell in the form of Hiroshima. It is at this point that Mephistopheles dominates the duet with Faust, but in general they have both become a “common place” and their function is limited by the text’s aesthetic figurativeness.My conclusion is that eventually the rich allusions to Faust in Mieželaitis’ works did not translate into reflections on the essence or meaning of being – he was not concerned with the problematics of human’s choices, duality, or contradictions. Thus, my initial expectation that the interpretation of the Faust myth may be another argument for revealing the poet’s dramatic feelings and self-reflection of inauthentic existence in the Soviet times was essentially not confirmed. And that could have been another argument for adding him to the social group of the 1920s.On the other hand, looking from the distant present, it is my opinion that Mieželaitis is still a part of the tragic generation, as the whole generation – whether they retreated to the West, or remained in Soviet Lithuania, collaborated or resisted – became hostages of the Second World War and the Soviet occupation.

ABSTRACT In the early 1950s the American physicist David Bohm (1917-1992) produced a new interpretation of quantum mechanics and had to flee from McCarthyism. Rejected at Princeton, he moved to Sãão Paulo. This article focuses on the reception of his early papers on the causal interpretation, his Brazilian exile, and the culture of physics surrounding the foundations of quantum mechanics. It weighs the strength of the Copenhagen interpretation, discusses the presentation of the foundations of quantum mechanics in the training of physicists, describes the results Bohm and his collaborators achieved. It also compares the reception of Bohm's ideas with that of Hugh Everett's interpretation. The cultural context of physics had a more significant influence on the reception of Bohm's ideas than the McCarthyist climate.

The February 1992 issue of the British Journal of Psychiatry contained the summary report from the Second Phase of the Cross-National Collaborative Panic Study (CNCPS) on a clinical treatment trial of panic disorder. This manuscript was submitted in 1988 and took four years of response to critiques and revisions to generate a manuscript that was acceptable to the Editor of the British Journal of Psychiatry. In the same issue, Marks et al (1992) provided a ‘Comment’ which was critical of the study, calling it an “elephantine labour” which “resulted in the delivery of a mouse” and was highly critical of the statistical analyses and interpretation. Moreover, their ‘Comment’ was a springboard for discussing general issues in the treatment of panic disorder and the relative value of pharmacological versus psychological treatments. In our opinion, the Marks et al ‘Comment’ is inaccurate and misleading. At many points, they make reference to topics being missing that are actually addressed to our manuscript and they presented a statistical summary in Table 1 (p. 203) of our data which was inaccurate. In this Comment, we address each item criticised.

Hans Wagner (1917–2000), using the achievements of German transcendental philosophy, gives a transcendental argument for the idea of human dignity. He claims that to ground the validity of human thinking and all its products (e.g. culture), we must accept the validity of the idea of human dignity. The structure of my paper is as follows: First, I consider what it means to give a transcendental justification of something. I reconstruct the neo-Kantian’s understanding of transcendental method. Then I argue that Wagner’s idea of human dignity as a foundation of every ethics and law is nothing other than a fruitful interpretation and continuation, perhaps only making explicit Kant’s main ethical ideas. To make this more clear I present the relation between Kant’s ethics and the material ethics of values and, following Wagner, I argue that grounding ethics on the idea of self-determination of human will does not necessarily lead to formalism in the form in which it was criticised by the representatives of the material ethics of values. Finally, I reconstruct Wagner’s argument for the claim that the idea of human dignity is a transcendental condition for the possibility of ethics and law in general.

Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens in Akron, Ohio, is a historical estate of national significance. Originally the home of the wealthy Seiberling family in the early 1900s, Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens was designed by renowned Boston landscape architect Warren Manning between 1911 and 1917. In 1915, the English Garden, one of several garden rooms on the estate, was designed by Manning as a walled, hidden garden. Thirteen years later, the garden's style was reconceived and its spatial dimensions restructured by Ellen Biddle Shipman, the foremost among women landscape architects of that time. Historic photographs document the implementation and maintenance of Shipman's design from 1928 to 1946. After 1946, the English Garden, lacking proper maintenance, was transformed into a shady retreat under towering evergreens on its perimeter. Few of the plantings from the Shipman period remained by 1989, whereas the architectural and structuring elements of the garden were still intact. The decision to restore the English Garden to Shipman's planting design provides a highly accurate representation of the garden during a particular period in its history (1928–46). Architectural rehabilitation of the garden's walls, walks, pathways, and pools was followed by an exacting restoration of the plantings according to Shipman's plans. In 1991, restoration of the English Garden was completed and it was opened to the public in 1992. Objectives of this paper are to 1) illustrate and illuminate contemporary historic landscape preservation practice and theory as applied to the English Garden at Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens and 2) document the horticultural methods associated with this historic garden restoration.

The article is devoted to the publication of “A Mortifying Disclosure” in the British newspaper “The Times” on August 24, 1917, with criticism of British foreign policy towards the Ottoman Empire, in particular the actions of Louis Mallet, the British ambassador in Constantinople. The mentioned publication, as well as the discussion caused by it, are little covered in historiography. Much more information is provided by the primary sources, represented by the documents of the British National Archives (The National Archives, TNA), and also by the memoirs of the participants of researched events. In the mentioned article, Louis Mallet was criticized for short-sightedness and excessive credulity. According to the author of the publication, the Turkish grand vizier deceived the British ambassador, even when the choice of the Ottoman Empire in favor of entering the war on the side of the Central Powers became obvious. In turn, the fact that British diplomats failed to find out about the existence of the German-Turkish treaty became the basis for sharp criticism of the Foreign Office at all. In response to this publication, Louis Mallet spoke in defense of his actions in Constantinople. He was supported by other Foreign Office officials, including former Foreign Secretary Edward Grey. They argued that the Foreign Office was fully aware of the pro-German course of the Porte, but intended to delay the state of war with her as far as possible in order to prepare for the defense of Egypt, the Suez Canal and India. These circumstances led to the accommodating position of British diplomacy. The characteristics of both Mallet himself and the grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire, Said Helim, are separately analyzed from the point of view of historiography and their contemporaries. Also the importance of the defense of India and Egypt, its importance as a key factor in shaping the course of British diplomacy was researched. Finally, the work contains the author's interpretations and evaluations of the analyzed events

Since Romaine's (1982) pioneering work, historical sociolinguistics has been studying the relationships between language and society in its socio-historical context by focusing on the study of language variation and change with the use of variationist methods. Work on this interdisciplinary sub-field subsisting on sociology, history and linguistics is expanding, as shown, for example, by Milroy (1992), Nevalainen & Raumolin-Brunberg (1996; 2003), Ammon, Mattheier & Nelde (1999), Jahr (1999), Kastovsky & Mettinger (2000), Bergs (2005), Conde-Silvestre (2007), Trudgill (2010), or Hernández-Campoy & Conde-Silvestre (2012). These works have been elucidating the theoretical limits of the discipline and applying the tenets and findings of contemporary sociolinguistic research to the interpretation of linguistic material from the past. Yet in the course of this development historical sociolinguistics has sometimes been criticised for lack of representativeness and its empirical validity has occasionally been questioned. Fortunately, in parallel to the development of electronic corpora, the assistance of corpus linguistics and social history has conferred ‘empirical’ ease and ‘historical’ confidence on the discipline.

Aijaz Ahmad has made serious critical interventions in Marxist and Postcolonialist readings of literature and culture. His book, In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (1992) has made significant contribution to the postcolonial critical debates. It is a collection of critical articles with deliberations on postcolonial theory from different perspectives. In this book, one article on Edward Said discusses Said’s contribution to postcolonial discourse in the paradigm of Western influence on Eastern cultural narratives. Ahmad argues that Said’s critical writings on orientalism suffer from inconsistencies, overgeneralizations and selective applications. These methodological aberrations, Ahmad asserts, have shaped the trajectories of Said’s critical oeuvre. He criticizes Said for adopting western theoretical models for the cultural analysis and interpretations which are deeply immersed in the capitalist power structures. Ahmad accuses him of appropriating the western knowledge-structures for theorizing the Orient. His analysis of Said goes beyond the limits of critical debates as he questions Said’s vocation and space. He, in effect, considers Said an inauthentic critical voice. According to Ahmad, Said’s successful career in the West has rendered him incapable of a genuine engagement with the Orient. In this paper, I have attempted a critical re-reading of Ahmad’s arguments to suggest that Ahmad’s criticism of Said is intentionally provocative, seeking attention without engaging with Said’s theoretical perspectives in a comprehensive manner.

Purpose. The aim of the article is to analyze the book “Leaders of the Dnieper Insurgent Movement: a collection of documents”, published with the support of the South-Eastern Department of the Ukrainian Institute of National Memory. Methods. The author uses the method of scientific and logical criticism to analyze the author’s texts that supplement the collection of documents. The use of this method allows for a critical analysis of the author’s texts: introductory article, historical essay and archeographic preface. Results. It is established that the publication contains scientific novelty, as a significant part of the documents collected by O. Chepurko and Y. Pakhomenkov is introduced into scientific circulation for the first time. These materials contain 15 archival and criminal files of the leaders of the Dnieper insurgent movement, their brief biographical references. Much of the surnames were previously unknown to researchers. Organized documents make it possible to trace the methods of struggle of the punitive Bolshevik authorities against the insurgent movement in the Dnieper, to find out the attitude of the population to the members of the insurgent movement, to find out little-known facts. The authors outline the prospects for new research, modern interpretations and innovations in understanding the insurgency. Publications of future researchers of the period of liberation struggles and local historians. Сonclusions. Despite the critical remarks that are a mandatory element of any scientific criticism, the peer-reviewed work is a successful example of research work in archival institutions and is a valuable achievement of Ukrainian archeography of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917–1921. The documents contained in the book open wide research perspectives for historians and local historians. The book was published with the support of the South-Eastern Department of the Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance.Key words: Ukrainian revolution, ataman, insurgent movement, otamanshchyna, Dnieper region, archive, source, document, historiography. Метою статті є аналіз книги «Провідники повстанського руху Придніпров’я: збірник документів», виданої за підтримки Південно-Східного відділу Українського інституту національної пам’яті. Методи. Автор використовує метод науково-логічної критики для аналізу авторських текстів, що доповнюють збірник документів. Застосування такого методу дозволяє здійснити критичний аналіз авторських текстів: вступної статті, історичного нарису та археографічної передмови. Результати. Видання складається з двох частин: документів, які стосуються лідерів повстанського руху Придніпров’я, та аналітичних супровідних матеріалів: вступної статті, історичного нарису, археографічної довідки. Значна частина документів, зібраних упорядниками, вперше вводиться у науковий обіг. Це матеріали 15 архівно-кримінальних справ лідерів повстанського руху Придніпров’я, що супроводжуються короткими біографічними довідками. Більшість прізвищ раніше була невідомою для дослідників. Упо-рядковані документи також дозволяють простежити за методами боротьби каральних більшовицьких органів із повстанським рухом на Придніпров’ї; з’ясувати ставлення населення до учасників повстанського руху; встановити маловідомі факти з історії повстанства Придніпров’я. Окреслено перспективи нових досліджень, сучасних інтерпретацій та інновацій осмислення повстанства. Видання призначене для майбутніх дослідників періоду визвольних рухів та краєзнавців.Збірник документів доповнюють супровідні аналітичні матеріали. Саме вони стали предметом критики. Автор звертає увагу на не досить ґрунтовний аналіз історіографії проблематики повстанського руху на Придніпров’ї, термінологічні неоднозначності; викликає питання визначення хронологічних меж дослідження, зокрема його верхньої межі, аналіз окремих етапів повстанського руху на Катеринославщині містить фактографічні недоліки.Висновки. Попри критичні зауваження, що є обов’язковим елементом будь-якої наукової критики, рецензована праця – вдалий приклад пошукової роботи в архівних установах, тому є цінним здобутком української археографії періоду Української революції 1917–1921 рр. Документи, що містяться в книзі, відкривають широкі дослідницькі перспективи для істориків та краєзнавців. Ключові слова: Українська революція, отаман, повстанський рух, отаманщина, Придніпров’я, архів, джерело, документ, історіографія.

The paper presents a brief history of literary theories that have been used in Lithuania for the last century (1918–2018). Certain general patterns of development are visible in Lithuanian literary studies: movements from positivist (M. Biržiška) to anti-positivist (V. Mykolaitis-Putinas) history and from Marxist history (K. Korsakas) to postmodern New Historicism. The mid-20th century marked the first applications of modern literary theories (first in exile, later among those who stayed in occupied Lithuania). A. J. Greimas became an eminent theoretician in exile, having established a world-famous school of semiotics in Paris. A large number of Lithuanian scholars worked in this field in Lithuania and abroad (J. Ambrazevičius-Brazaitis, Rimvydas Šilbajoris, Vytautas Kavolis, Bronius Vaškelis, Violeta Kelertienė, Ilona Gražytė-Maziliauskienė, Viktorija Skrupskelytė, Tomas Venclova, Vanda Zaborskaitė, Kęstutis Nastopka, Albertas Zalatorius, Vytautas Kubilius, Viktorija Daujotytė, Irena Kostkevičiūtė), but except for the Greimas Paris School of Semiotics, which created its own field, literary theories had mostly a practical and educational impact on interpretations of Lithuanian disciplines. After the restoration of Lithuanian independence in 1990, the renewal of literary theory reached its peak that lasted for about two decades. The J. Greimas Semiotics Studies and Research Centre (now the A. J. Greimas Centre for Semiotics and Literary Theory) was established at Vilnius University in 1992, books written by A. J. Greimas were translated into Lithuanian and the publishing of academic journals “Semiotika” and “Baltos lankos” started. The so-called second wave of postmodern theories (intertextuality, narratology, feminism, postcolonialism, sociology, anthropology, new historicism deconstruc tion, reader response) has attracted the attention of literary scholars, bringing discussions about literature back to the fields of history, culture and politics (Nijolė Keršytė, Paulius Subačius, Irina Melnikova, Marijus Šidlauskas, Birutė Meržvinskaitė, Eugenijus Ališanka). Theories have updated the concepts and vocabulary of literary studies and reading strategies and helped literary scholars integrate themselves into international research more successfully. Along with the hermeneutics of trust, the hermeneutics of suspicion – questioning and complicating interpretations and identities of all texts, was taking an increasingly important place in Lithuanian literary research. Nevertheless, at this time the strengthened position of post-theoretical criticism cannot be anti-theoretical, ignoring the entire heritage of the 20th century.

Gumersindo de Azcárate (León, 1840— Madrid, 1917) fue uno de los más influyentes catedráticos de derecho y políticos de la España contemporánea. Fue un miembro activo del denominado movimiento krausista que desempeñó un importante papel en la cultura y política española tras la revolución de 1868. Desde diferentes revistas y desde la propia Universidad defendió los principios liberales y democráticos que conducían al establecimiento de su ideal: Estado de derecho. En ese contexto apoyó la nueva constitución de 1869, que Azcárate considerará siempre un referente y el mejor código fundamental de la España moderna. Con la Restauración en 1874 de la Monarquía inspirada en el doctrinarismo francés Azcárate se mostró muy crítico y propuso dirigir la mirada hacia la constitución de Inglaterra como el modelo jurídico-político a tener en cuenta. A su juicio el sistema constitucional inglés se articulaba en torno al principio del self-goverment o soberanía de la sociedad a partir del cual se construía un régimen parlamentario democrático con una administración descentralizada, un poder judicial independiente y una opinión pública que actuaba a la vez como fuente, guía y límite de los distintos poderes del Estado. Entre 1886 y 1916 Azcárate fue Diputado en el Congreso de los Diputados por el partido republicano y se implicó activamente, como presidente del Instituto de Reformas Sociales (1903), en la mejora de las condiciones de vida las clases obreras.Gumersindo de Azcárate (León, 1840— Madrid, 1917) was one the most influential Law professor and politician in Contemporary Spain. He was an active member of the so-call krausist movement that played a major role in Spanish culture and politics after the revolution of 1868. From both, journals and University he defended the liberal and democratic principles that lead to his ideal: a rule of law. In that context he supported the new constitution of 1869, regarded by Azcárate for the rest of his life as the best one in Spanish modern history. When the Restoration took place in 1874 and a constitutional Monarchy inspired in French doctinaires’ political theory was set up, Azcárate criticised it proposing to look over the Constitution of England as a model. According to his interpretation of English constitutional system, the principle of self-government or the sovereignty of society was the key principle for building a true democratic parliamentary government based on the free association of individuals, a decentralized administration, an independent judicial power and public opinion as the very source, guide and limit of all the powers of the State. From 1886 up to 1916 Azcárate became Member of the Parliament as representative of the republican party and was actively involve in the Intitute for Social Reforms (1903) that tried to improve the condition of the working classes.

<div class="trans-abstract"><p>A partir dos textos reunidos no livro <em>Situating the self: gender, community and postmodernism in contemporary ethics</em> (1992), sabe-se que Seyla Benhabib responde aos excessos racionalistas de Habermas e aos limites da tradição universalista moderna com uma releitura da concepção arendtiana de “pensamento alargado”. Neste artigo, eu me proponho a mostrar que a presença de Arendt no pensamento de Benhabib é ainda mais radical do que parece à primeira vista, pois a autora de <em>A condição humana</em> está na raiz do seu projeto teórico orientando o enfrentamento filosófico que Benhabib faz com a tradição, na sua primeira grande obra, <em>Critique, norm, and utopia: a study of the foundations of Crítical theory</em> (1986). A minha hipótese interpretativa é a de que a tese central deste livro, segundo a qual a teoria crítica é assombrada pela filosofia do sujeito, carrega as marcas da crítica arendtiana à filosofia política ocidental.</p><p><strong>Palavras-Chave: </strong>Hannah Arendt; Seyla Benhabib; Filosofia do Sujeito; Filosofia Política; Pluralidade</p></div><div class="trans-abstract"><p class="sec"><span>SEYLA BENHABIB WITH HANNAH ARENDT AGAINST THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SUBJECT</span></p><p class="sec">ABSTRACT</p><p>From <em>Situating the self: gender, community and postmodernism in contemporary ethics</em> (1992), we know that SeylaBenhabib answers Habermas’ excesses and the limits of the modern universalist tradition with a reinterpretation of the Arendtian conception of “enlarged thought”. In this article, I propose to show that Arendt’s presence in Benhabib’s thought is even more radical than it seems at first, because the author of The human condition is at the root of Benhabib’s theoretical project, guiding her in her philosophical confrontation with tradition at her first major work,<em>Critique, norm, and utopia: a study of the foundations of Crítical theory</em>(1986). My interpretive hypothesis is that the central thesis of this book, according to which Crítical theory is haunted by the philosophy of the subject, bears the marks of Arendt’s criticism to Western political philosophy.</p><p><strong>Key words: </strong>Hannah Arendt; Seyla Benhabib; Philosophy of the Subject; Political Philosophy; Plurality</p></div><div class="trans-abstract"><p class="sec"><span>SEYLA BENHABIB AVEC ARENDT CONTRE LA PHILOSOPHIE DU SUJET</span></p><p class="sec">ABSTRACT</p><p>A partir des textes rassemblés dans le livre Situating the self: gender, community and postmodernism in contemporary ethics (1992), on sait que Seyla Benhabib répond aux excès rationalistes d’Habermas et aux limites de la tradition universaliste moderne par une réinterprétation de la conception arendtienne du «mentalité élargie». Dans cet article, je propose de montrer que la présence d’Arendt dans la pensée de Benhabib est encore plus radicale qu’il n’y paraît au premier abord, car Arendt est à l’origine de son projet théorique guidant la confrontation philosophique que Benhabib fait avec tradition, dans son premier grand ouvrage, Critique, norm, and utopia: a study of the foundations of crítical theory (1986). Mon hypothèse interprétative est que la thèse centrale de ce livre, selon laquelle la théorie critique est hantée par la philosophie du sujet, porte les marques de la critique arendtienne de la philosophie politique occidentale.</p><p><strong>Key words: </strong>Hannah Arendt; Seyla Benhabib; Philosophie du sujet; Philosophie politique; Pluralité</p></div>

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Wallach & O’Neill (2009) recently suggested that poison baiting for dingoes (Canis lupus dingo and hybrids) caused the localized extinctions of kowaris (Dasyuroides byrnei) through mesopredator release effects. However, in this paper I briefly highlight some weaknesses in their approach to show that the information presented adds little to our knowledge of dingo-mesopredator or dingo-kowari interactions. Wallach & O’Neill (2009) visited two cattle properties in northeast South Australia once each in the winter of 2007 where they used sand plot activity indices to compare the relative abundance of several carnivore and herbivore species at each site. Observations of dingo howling and scat counts were used as measures of social structure. In line with the mesopredator release hypothesis (Crooks & Soulé, 1999), the lethal control of dingoes (usually achieved through 1080 baiting campaigns), followed by abundance increases of mesopredators and herbivores was the suggested mechanism that produced the localized extinction of kowaris at one of the sites. Unfortunately though, the study design suffers from multiple critical weaknesses in the methods applied, considerably limiting its ability to make inferences about dingo populations and ecosystem processes. 1. The authors stated that across Australia, ‘it is extremely rare to find dingo populations that are not being subjected to lethal control’ (Wallach & O’Neill, 2009, pg. 127). This is misleading, and in the context of their paper, gives the reader the mistaken impression that stable dingo packs are rare across Australia due to widespread control. Dingoes and dingo packs are, in fact, extremely common (Fleming et al., 2001; West, 2008), and control practices in South Australia are quite conservative (Allen, 2010b). ‘Lethal control’ is also an ambiguous term, because it includes everything from occasional shooting through to intensive and coordinated poison baiting campaigns. Hence, the degree of control can vary immensely, and in the context of their paper, different forms of lethal control are unlikely to influence social structure in the same way. For example, it is possible that occasional shooting may simply replace natural mortality and have a minor overall effect on dingo social structure, though these processes would need to be investigated. Furthermore, in the northeast pastoral district of South Australia where their two sites were located, official 1080 bait supply records (B. Allen, unpublished data, kept since 1972) indicate that poison baiting seldom occurs, with an average rate of 25% properties receiving baits in any given year (range: 0% in 1984 to 68% in 1991). Legislation permits a baiting intensity of up to 10 baits/km2 (APVMA, 2008). But the greatest supply of baits occurred in 1989, and equated to a regional baiting intensity of only 0.07 baits/km2 (Allen, 2010b). Requests for poison baits from the whole of the northern pastoral district have also reduced dramatically over the last five years to the point where only three (out of 19) properties in the northeast region received baits in the three years prior to their study and no baits at all were supplied in 2009. This means that approximately 600,000 km2 of South Australia experienced very little dingo control that year (dingo populations in the indigenous lands in the northwest of the state -255,000 km2- have rarely, if ever, been subject to lethal control by Europeans). On a property level (i.e. 10,000 km2), even the most intensive baiting campaigns in northern pastoral areas rarely exceed 0.25 baits/km2. Therefore, lethal control of any kind may be a relatively minor fraction of total dingo mortality across the region in which Wallach & O’Neill (2009) conducted their study. 2. The use of sand plot activity indices are a common and useful tool for sampling dingo populations. However, their proper use is governed by principles that ensure that the data obtained from them can be used reliably in subsequent analyses. Specifically, activity indices cannot be validly compared between different habitats/land uses, seasons, or species because of the way these factors potentially influence animal activity (Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Engeman, 2005). Scat counts and howling can also be useful indicators of some population parameters when sampled properly (Corbett, 2001; Mitchell & Balogh, 2007). Wallach & O’Neill (2009) understandably chose these useful methods to assess populations, but their application of them did not follow the sampling principles that ensure their reliability. For example: – The ‘index of abundance’ was calculated by multiplying a continuous measure (tracks/transect/night) with a binary measure (presence/absence of tracks on 2 ha plots). This could be argued as providing a potential synergy of assumption violations -leaving little prospect for a valid variance estimate- and unnecessary if the track sampling was representative of animal usage (Engeman et al., 1998; Blaum et al., 2008). – Even before combining them, these measures included invalidated assumptions about the ability to distinguish between “fresh” and “old” tracks and the distance of one track to another as an indication of the same individual animal. Wind can have a dramatic effect on the readability of tracks in sand, often obliterating them within minutes, and the size, shape and direction of footprints on separated but sequential sand plots/transects reveals little about the identity of the individual responsible for them (Triggs, 2004; Funston et al., 2010). – The relative abundance estimates derived from activity indices were invalidly compared between species, potentially confusing abundance differences with behavioural differences (Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Engeman, 2005). – A once-off collection of scats around 119 rabbit warrens, water points and carcasses in two ~500 km2 areas will provide a limited ability to assess the structure of dingo packs (or infer causal processes) at extensive rangeland sites (Wilson & Delahay, 2001; Mitchell & Balogh, 2007), and the representativeness of scats collected from resource points is unknown (Allen, 2010a). – The opportunistic recording of dingo howls at remote water points in the presence of people (and companion dogs, A. Wallach pers. comms.) is also a particularly weak technique for making inferences about pack structure. To be useful, the sampling of vocalizations must be objective and repeatable. Vocalizations are also communicative behaviours, and in the case of Wallach and O’Neill’s observations, dingoes may have simply been alerting any other dingoes to the presence of humans and/or other dogs. Assessments of pack structure or social stability are founded in behavioural observations between individually identifiable animals (Whitehead, 2008), and is usually undertaken through radio collaring and/or direct observations (e.g. Corbett, 1988; Thomson, 1992). Identification of individuals was not attempted by Wallach & O’Neill (2009), and scats or howling cannot provide this information. Moreover, the once-off, opportunistic collection of dingo spoor (i.e. tracks and scats) and vocalizations cannot account for the known seasonal changes in their expression (Corbett, 2001), the multiple explanations for any given observation (Williams et al., 2002; MacKenzie et al., 2006), or the mechanisms/causes underlying any observed correlations (Caughley, 1977). 3. Ignoring these methodological issues, alternative explanations may equally describe the observations of Wallach & O’Neill (2009). For example, the greater abundance of dingoes observed at Pandie Pandie may not be due to relaxed dingo control but may be a symptom of the site’s closer proximity to Goyder’s Lagoon, a well-watered and resource-rich section of the Warburton Creek, which is not fed from local rainfall. Publicly available water-level data recorded upstream in the years preceding the study show significant flows into the lagoon which were not matched by local rainfall events on Mungerannie during the same period. Additionally, the observed rarity of some small mammals on Mungerannie may reflect bottom-up processes, whereby rabbit abundance provides competition for vegetation, reduces it’s availability to invertebrates, and supports larger numbers of feral carnivores (increasing the risk of hyperpredation), which all work in concert to cause the localized extinction of some small mammals. These processes are known to occur with or without dingoes in the landscape. Furthermore, the recorded activity of predators and prey alike can change rapidly in response to environmental perturbations, and their presence or absence on sand plots during a once-off survey may merely reflect such stochastic events. Such surveys have a limited ability to infer causal process because there may be multiple alternative explanations for the data (Caughley, 1977; Williams et al., 2002; MacKenzie et al., 2006). Causal processes involving dingoes are best addressed using rigorous experimental techniques (such as BACI experiments) where confounding factors can be controlled (Glen et al., 2007). In summary, while ecological data is scant for arid areas and is always welcomed, it is important to use research resources wisely in order to provide scientifically defensible information (Platt, 1964), used ultimately to inform threatened species recovery. While the conclusions of Wallach & O’Neill (2009) align nicely with the mesopredator release hypothesis, their foundations, methods, and interpretation are undermined by misleading contextual information, the poor application of otherwise robust sampling methods, and a lack of discussion on alternative explanations. As such, the study contributes little insight into the effect of dingo control on kowaris. The study sites, methods, and results presented in Wallach & O’Neill (2009) have also been used elsewhere (Wallach et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2010), and these criticisms equally apply to those reports, and others similar to them. Researchers, reviewers and readers should therefore be vigilant in looking for design issues that may be more important than initially appears to be the case, before accepting intuitively sound conclusions on face value. Improving the quality of dingo-mesopredator studies is necessary if threatened species are to be managed more effectively.

RESUMENLa historia del cristianismo no se entiende sin el complejo fenómeno mariano. El culto mariano ha afianzado la construcción de identidades colectivas, pero también individuales. La figura de la Virgen María estableció un modelo de conducta desde cada contexto histórico-cultural, remarcando especialmente los ideales de maternidad y virginidad. Dentro del imaginario católico, la Europa contemporánea ha estado marcada por la formación de una cultura aparicionista que se ha generadoa partir de diversas apariciones marianas que han establecido un canon y un marco de interpretación que ha alimentado las guerras culturales entre secularismo y catolicismo.PALABRAS CLAVE: catolicismo, Virgen María, cultura aparicionista, Lourdes, guerras culturales.ABSTRACTThe history of Christianity cannot be understood without the complex Marian phenomenon. Marian devotion has reinforced the construction of collective, but also of individual identities. 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Su presencia en veinte siglos de cultura, Madrid, PPC, 1997.Perica, V., Balkan Idols: Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002.Rahner, K., Tolerancia, libertad, manipulación, Barcelona, Herder, 1978.Ramón Solans, F. J. y di Stefano, R. (eds.), Marian Devotions, Political Mobilization, and Nationalism in Europe and America, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2016.Ramón Solans, F. J., “A New Lourdes in Spain: The Virgin of El Pilar, Mass Devotion, National Symbolism and Political Mobilization”, en Ramón Solans, F. J. y di Stefano, R. (eds.), Marian Devotions, Political Mobilization, and Nationalism in Europe and America, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2016, pp. 137-167.Ramón Solans, F. J., “La hidra revolucionaria. Apocalipsis y antiliberalismo en la España del primer tercio del siglo XIX”, Hispania, 56 (2017), pp. 471-496.Ramón Solans, F. J., La Virgen del Pilar dice... 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Isolation, characterization of natural products dimeric amide alkaloids from roots of the Piper chaba Hunter. The synthesis of these products using intermolecular [4+2] cycloaddition reaction has been described. Obtained products were characterized using IR, 1HNMR, 13CNMR and Mass Spectroscopy. Introduction The awesome structural diversity and complexity of natural products inspire many chemists to consider how nature creates these molecules. Nature’s biosynthetic enzymes offer a powerful and practical route to many organic compounds, and synthetic chemists sometimes seek to imitate the efficiency and elegance of the biosynthetic machinery by designing biomimetic reactions that approximate natural reaction pathways. Probably the most astonishing biomimetic reactions1 are tandem processes that combine several transformations in sequence and produce complicated structures from comparably simple starting materials in a single laboratory operation. Biosynthesis is described as “the reaction or reaction sequence occurred in organism or its immediate environment will be viewed as biosynthesis” where as biomimetic synthesis describes as “A specific reaction or a sequence of reactions that mimic a proposed biological pathway is defined as bimimetic synthesis. An early example is Sir Robert Robinson’s landmark synthesis of tropinone in 1917.2 Forty-two years later, Gilbert Stork and Albert Eschenmoser independently proposed that the steroid ring system could be formed by tandem cation-π cyclizations of a polyene in an ordered transition state.3 A non-enzymatic version of this reaction type was demonstrated in W. S. Johnson’s classic synthesis of progesterone in 1971.4 Chapman’s synthesis of carpanone is a striking example of the power of biomimetic strategies.5 In 1980, Black proposed that the endiandric acids could arise biosynthetically from linear polyenes.6 In 1982, K. C. Nicolaou gave chemical support to Black’s hypothesis by chemically synthesizing endiandric acids A-G.7 Biomimetic Synthesis of Natural Products which involves, The biomimetic polyene carbocyclizations reaction, The biomimetic cycloaddition reaction, The biomimetic electrocyclization reaction, The polyether biomimetic synthesis, The biomimetic oxidative coupling of phenol, Some other interesting biomimetic synthesis, The present biomimetic synthesis of chabamides or dimeric amide alkaloids involves cycloaddition reactions. The Diels Alder reaction In the Diels-Alder reaction a six membered ring is formed through fusion of a 4 π component, usually a diene and a 2 π component which is commonly referred to as the Figure 1. dienophile. The Diels Alder reaction has proven to be great synthetic value, forming a key-step in the construction of compounds containing six-membered rings. Cyclohexene ring generated all the way through the formation of two new σ-bonds and one π bond with four adjacent stereocenters. The reaction is named after Otto Diels and Kurt Alder, two German chemists who studied the synthetic and theoretical aspects of this reaction in great detail.8 Their efforts have been rewarded with the 1950 Noble prize. Figure 2 Schematic representation of the Diels-Alder reaction. Cis principle In Diels-Alder reactions, the stereoselectivity is generally high due to the “cis principle”, which states that Diels-Alder reactions require a cisoid conformation for the diene and suprafacial-suprafacial mode of reaction, meaning that both ends of the diene attack from the same face of the dienophile in a syn fashion. Frontier Molecular Orbital (FMO) Approach Diels-Alder rections can be devided into, normal electron demand and inverse electron demand additions. This difference is based on the way the rate of the reaction responds to the introduction of electron withdrawing and electron donating substituents. Normal electron demand Diels-Alder reactions are promoted by electron donating substituents on the diene and electron withdrawing substituents on the dienophile. In contrast, inverse electron demand reactions are accelerated by electron withdrawing substituents on the diene and electron donating ones on the dienophile. There also exists an intermediate class, the neutral Diels-alder reaction, which is accelerated by both electron withdrawing and donating substitutents. The way the substituents affect the rate of the reaction can be rationalized with aid of Frontier Molecular Orbital (FMO) theory. This theory was developed during a study of the role of orbital asymmetry in pericyclic reactions by Woodward and Hoffmann9 and, independently, by fukui10 Later, Houk contributed significantly to the understanding of the reactivity and selectivity of these processes.11 The FMO theory states that a reaction between two compounds is controlled by the efficiency with which the molecular orbitals of the individual reaction partners interact. The interaction is most efficient for the reactivity is completely determined by interactions of the electrons that are highest in energy of the of the reaction partners (those in the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital, the HOMO) with the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) of the other partner, applied to the Diels-alder reactions, two modes of interaction are possible. The reaction can be controlled by the interaction of the HOMO of the diene and the LUMO of the Dienophile (normal electron demand), or by the interaction between the LUMO of the diene and the HOMO of the dienophile (inverse electron demand), as illustrated in Fig-B. In the former case, a reduction of the diene-HOMO and dienophile-LUMO energy gap can be realized by either raising the energy of the HOMO of the diene by introducing electron donating substituents or lowering the energy of the dienophile LUMO by the introduction of electron donating substituents or lowering the energy of the dienophile LUMO by the introduction of electron withdrawing substituents. A glance at Fig-A confirms that in the formation of two new bonds, orbital symmetry is conserved so that, according to Woodward and Hoffmann, the reaction is concerted. In other words, no intermediate is involved in the pericyclic process such as the Diels-Alder reaction.12 This conclusion is consistent with a number of experimental observations. The cis or trans conformation of the dienophile is fully conserved in the configuration of the cycloadduct, which proves that there is no intermediate involved with a lifetime long enough to allow rotation around C-C bond. Selectivity can arise when substituted dienes and dienophiles are employed in the Diels-Alder reaction. Two different cycloadducts denoted as endo and exo are possible. Under the usual conditions their ratio is kinetically controlled. Alder and Stein already discerned that there usually exists a preference for formation of the endo isomer i.e formulated as tendency of maximum accumulation of unsaturation, (the Alder-Stein rule)13 Indeed, there are only very few examples of Diels-Alder reactions where the exo isomer is major product.14 The interactions underlying this behavior have been subject of intensive research. Since the reactions leading to endo and exo product share the same initial state, the difference between the respective transition-state energies fully account for the observed selectivity. These differences are typically in the range of 10-15 kJ per mole.15 Woodward and Katz16 suggested that secondary orbital interactions are of primary importance. These interactions are illustrated in fig-B for the normal electron demand (HOMO-diene, LUMO-dienophile controlled). The symmetry allowed overlap between π-orbital of the carbonyl group of the dienophile and the diene-HOMO is only possible in the endo activiated complex. Hence, only the endo transition state is stabilized so that the reaction forming the endo adduct is faster than that yielding exo product. This interpretation has been criticized by Mellor, who attributed the endo selectivity to steric interactions. Steric effects are frequently suggested as important in determining the selectivity of Diels-Alder reactions, particularly of α-subsituted dienophiles, and may ultimately lead to exo-selectivity. 17 For other systems, steric effects in the exo activated complex can enhance endo selectivity. 18 In summary, it seems for most Diels-Alder reactions secondary orbital interactions afford a satisfactory rationalization of the endo-exo selectivity. However, since the endo-exo ratio is determined by small differences in transition state energies, the influence of other interactions, most often steric in origin and different for each particular reaction is likely to be felt. The compact character of the Diels-Alder activated complex (the activation volume of the retro Diels-Alder reaction is negative) will attenuate these effects.19 Results and Discussions Chabamides F & G as dimeric amide alkaloids were isolated from this plant Piper chaba Hunter. These two dimers were formed by Diels-Alder reaction employing monomer trichostachine. This hypothesis was further confirmed by the mass spectrum, which showed a significant peak at m/z 294.113 [M++Na], assigned to the trichostachine ion arising by the Retro-Diels–Alder cleavage of molecular ion into two halves. Finally, to confirm the existence of the compounds F and G, we extracted the roots of P.chaba with MeOH at room temperature followed HPLC/electron spray ionization (ESI) MS experiments. In HPLC/ESIMS of the MeOH extract showed the presence of peaks at m/z 563 [M++Na] and 543 [M++1] at about 8.8 min and 10.6 min of LC retention time, respectively. To prove this biosynthetic hypothesis we have carried out the intermolecular [4+2] cycloaddition reaction with the trichostachine under solvent free conditions (Scheme 1). Reaction mixture was analysed by the LC-MS, which clearly indicted the presence of the compounds 1 and 2 (retention time and mass). In HPLC analysis, retention times of the synthetic 1 and 2 were identical to those of chabamide F and G, confirming the structure and stereochemistry are same as that of isolated alkaloids. Based on above result during Diels-Alder reaction of trichostachine, we developed two kinds of methodologies for this biomimetic synthesis of dimeric amide alkaloids based on catalytic. On the basis of a biosynthetic hypothesis (described in Chapter I) by the intermolecular Diels-Alder reaction, we chosen piperine (1a), pellitorine (1c) and trans-fagaramide (1c) as substrates to perform the biomimetic synthesis of the dimeric chabamides (Compound H-K) and this study also identified plausible products between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1c). This study not only explains formation of cyclo adducts but also explains the different mechanistic aspects in Diels-Alder reaction (endo and exo products) of copper salts in aqueous medium. Under normal conditions only combinations of dienes and dienophiles that have FMO’s of similar energy can be transformed into a Diels-Alder adduct. When the gap between the FMO’s large, forcing conditions are required, and undesired side reactions and retro Diels-Alder reactions can easily take over. These cases challenge the creativity of the organic chemist and have led to the invention of a number of methods for promoting reluctant Diels-Alder reactions under mild conditions.20 Plausible mechanism for Diels-Alder reaction: Sijbren Otto. et. al studied extensively on copper (II) catalyzed Diels-Alder reactions on various moieties. 25, 26 Based on these reports we proposed plausible mechanism for this copper catalyzed Diels-Alder reaction. The first step in the cycle comprises rapid coordination of the lewis acid to the dienophile leading to a complex in which the dienophile is activated for reaction with the diene. The cycloadduct has dissociated from the lewis acid in order to make the catalyst available for another cycle. However we didn’t carry any kinetic studies to prove this mechanism. Plausible mechanism of Diels-Alder reaction catalyzed by copper (II) salts Use of lewis acids in Diels-Alder reaction is to lower LUMO dienophile energy to result in the decrease of the LUMO dienophile-HOMO diene gap (normal electron demand) or reduce LUMO diene energy to result in the decrease of the LUMO diene-HOMO dienophile gap (inverse electron demand). The presence of Lewis acids, the Diels-Alder dimerization of piperine, pellitorine, piperine with fagaramide, peperine with pellitorine, gave much lower combined yields in neat conditions. Wie et al. previously reported 21, 22 Diels-Alder reaction of piperine and in both thermal and by lewis acid of Co(II) Cl2.6H2O/P(Ph)3/Zn (1:10:10 mol %) in 3-octanol at 170oC with isomerised product (24 %) and 77 % over all yield. To find the optimum conditions towards the catalyst, piperine (1a) was taken to perform the Diels-Alder reaction in presence of variety of lewis acids and metal salts (Table 1). The highest catalytic activity was attained for the reaction using 10 mol % of Cu (II) salts. The role of copper salts in this reaction can be attributed to its Lewis acid ability, which enhances both the electron donating capacity of diene and electron withdrawing capacity of the dienophile (required for normal electron demand for Diels-Alder reaction). The The catalytic activitiy of Lewis acids like Cu+2 mainly relies on their coordinating character to assemble both dienophile and diene to such a way that promote the reaction to wards the reaction barrier. To find the optimum conditions towards the solvent several reactions were carried out under the solvents like benzene, toluene, xylene, water and results were tabulated (Table 2). Among organic solvents xylene is better to get considerable yield with copper salts. Later water was found to be the best for both yield and selectivity of this cycloaddition. Cycloaddition reactions of piperine (1a): Lewis acids catalyzed cycloaddition reactions (Scheme 2) of piperine (1a) under organic and aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a and 6a, among them 2a is major ortho-exo cyclohexene type dimeric amide alkaloid and also known as chabamide, which is previously isolated23 from this plant, isomer 3a is previously isolated from Piper nigrum21 Remaining isomers (4a-6a) were synthesized from piperine by Diels-Alder reaction by Kun Wei. et al. its physical and spectroscopic data were identical with reported data22 (1H-NMR, 13C-NMR & Mass spectra). In the cycloaddition of piperine (1a), solvents toluene, xylene and water were used in presence of cuper (II) salts. Reaction showed good overall yield and more exo selectivity in organic solvent like xylene. Water catalyzed reactions were ended with good overall yield and minute decrease in exo selectivity, infinitesimal increase in endo selectivity (Table 2). This reaction showed completely regioselectivity (yield of 2a+3a>4a+5a+6a) due to maximum involvement of α-double bond rather than γ-double bond of 1a during Diels-Alder reaction. Cycloaddition reactions of pellitorine (1b): Same catalytic and solvent conditions were employed for pellitorine (1b) as used in piperine (1a) for the biomimetic synthesis (Scheme 3) of chabamide J & K (Chapter-II). These dimers were plausibly generated by monomer pellitorine by cycloaddtion reactions in biosynthesis. During cycloaddition of pellitorine (1b), solvents like toluene xylene and water were used in presence of cupper (II) salts. In former catalyzed reaction showed good overall yield and more endo selectivity in both organic (xylene) and water. Increase in endo selectivity is more in aqueous medium rather than organic solvent like xylene (Table 2). Cycloaddition of pellitorine under above said catalytic conditions gave corresponding cycloadducts 2b, 3b, 4b and 5b. Physical and spectral data of adducts 2b & 3b are identical with compound J & K (chabamide J & K mentioned in Chapter-II) and all physical and spectral data of adduct 4b is identical with nigramide O which is isolated previously from piper nigrum.21 The structure of 5b a new cycloadduct formed during this biomoimetic synthesis employ pellitorine as monomer, its structure was elucidated by 1D and 2D spectral data. This reaction showed completely regioselectivity (yield of 2b+5b≈3b+4b) due to maximum involvement of α-double bond rather than γ-double bond of 1b during Diels-Alder reaction. Structure elucidation of compound 5b: Compound 5b was obtained as a pale yellow oil, had the molecular formula of C28H50N2O2, as deduced from the HRESIMS (Fig-9) m/z, 447.3958 [M++H]. IR spectrum (Fig-1) implied the presence of carbonyl (1648 cm-1) and NH (3304 cm-1). The 1H NMR spectrum of 5b revealed the presence of a trans double bond at δ 5.28 (dd, J = 15.0, 10.0 Hz, H-4"), 5.63 (m, H-5"), two isobutylamide groups at δ 3.15 (m), 3.17 (m), 3.17 (m, H2-1'), 1.74 (m, H-2'), 0.91 (d, J = 6.7 Hz, H-3'), 0.90 (d, J = 6.7, H- 3'), 5.53 (br t, J = 5.7 Hz, NH) and δ 2.96 (m, H1-1'''), 2.97 (m, H2-1'''), 1.73 (m, H-2'''), 0.87 (d, J = 6.7 Hz, H-3'''), 0.86 (d, J = 6.7 Hz, H-3'''), 3.15 (br t, J = 6.0 Hz, NH), n-amyl group and 1-heptene unit at δ 1.96 (m, H-6), 1.40 (m, H-7), 1.20 (m, H-8), 1.27 (m, H-9), 0.86 ( t, J = 6.5 Hz, H-10) and δ 5.28 (dd, J = 15.0, 10.0 Hz, H-4"), 5.63 (m, H-5"), 1.89 (m, H-6"), 1.30 (m, H-7"), 1.28 (m, H-8"), 1.27 (m, H-9"), 0.88 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, H-10"), respectively (Table 3). The 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-3) displayed the presence of 28 carbon atoms and were further classified by DEPT experiments (Fig-4) into categories of 6 methyls, 10 methylenes, 10 methines and 2 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.80 and 173.04). ' The analyses of the 1H and 13C NMR spectral data of 5b showed a high degree of similarity to dimeric alkaloid, compound J naturally isolated from this plant (Chapter-II) compound is meta-endo while 5b is meta-exo product. Furthermore, the detailed elucidation of the 2D NMR data (COSY, HSQC and HMBC) had determined the planar structure of 5b. The 1H homodecoupling NMR (Fig-7) experiments of 5b revealed the connectivities H-2 (δ 2.45, m) to H-3 (δ 5.56, ddd, J = 10.0, 4.3, 2.6 Hz) to H-4 (δ 5.98, dt, J = 10.0, 1.8 Hz) to H-5 (δ 2.41, m) to H-2"( δ 2.68, dd, J = 11.3, 10.0 Hz) to H-3" (δ 2.82, ddd, J = 10.1, 10.0, 5.0 Hz ) via cyclohexene ring protons. The meta-orientation of the carbonyl and isobutylamide groups were established by HMBC (Fig-6) correlations for δ 2.45 (m, H-2), 5.56 (ddd, J = 10.0, 4.3, 2.6 Hz, H-3), 2.82 (ddd, J = 10.3, 10.0, 5.0 Hz, H-3")/δ 173.80 (C-1) and δ 2.68 (dd, J = 10.3, 10.0 Hz, H-2"), 2.41 (m, H-5), 2.82 (ddd, J = 10.3, 10.0, 5.0 Hz, H-3")/δ 173.04 (C-1"). Furthermore, the 1H-1H COSY (Fig-7) cross-peaks between δ 2.82 (ddd, J = 10.3, 10.0, 5.0 Hz, H-3") and δ 5.28 (dd, J = 15.0, 10.0 Hz, H-4"), and δ 5.63 (m, H-5") and δ 2.41 (m, H-5), 1.96 (m, H-6), 1.40 (m, H-7), coupled with the HMBC correlation for δ 5.63 (m, H-5'') to δ 28.35 (C-7"), δ 1.40 (m, H-7) to δ 37.04 (C-5) established the attachment of the 1-heptene and n-amyl groups at C-3" and C-5, respectively. The analysis of the 1H-1H coupling constants and NOESY (Fig- 8) data allowed us to determine the relative stereochemistry of compound 5b. The coupling constants of H-2"/H-5 and H-2"/H-3" (10.3 Hz) indicated anti relations of H-2"/H-5 and H-2"/H-3". In the NOESY spectrum correlations were observed at δ 2.45 (H-2) δ 2.82 (H-3") and δ 2.41 (H-5) and correlations were not observed at δ 2.68 (H-2") with δ 2.82 (H-3") and δ 2.68 (H-2") with δ 2.41 (H-5). These data were in agreement with the β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-3" and H-5. Thus, based on these spectral data the stereostructure of 5b was confirmed and trivially named as chabamide L. Cycloaddition reaction between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b): Our aim of this cycloaddition reaction is to explain to study different cycloadducts and selectivity of diene among piperine and pellitorine (Scheme 4). This biomimetic synthesis will explain the probability of diene, which participated in Diels-Alder reaction between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b) both were isolated from same plant (P. chaba). Nigramide N, which is formed biosynthetically via cycloaddition reaction between piperine and pellitorine, this adduct previously isolated from roots of P. nigrum 21 by Wei. et. al. Lewis acid catalyzed cycloaddition reactions of piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b) under organic and aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2c, 3c, 4c, 2a and 3b. Cycloadduct 2c and 3c is new cycloadducts and their structures were illustrated by 1D and 2D spectral data. Structure elucidation of compound 2c: Compound 2c was obtained as pale yellow liquid. The molecular formula of 2c was established as C31H44N2O4 by HRESIMS (Fig-18), which provided a molecular ion peak at m/z 509.3381 [M++H], in conjunction with its 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-12). The IR spectrum displayed absorption bands diagnostic of carbonyl (1640 cm-1) (Fig-10). The 300 MHz 1H NMR spectrum (in CDCl3) indicated the presence of two signals at δ 5.86 (dd, J = 15.6, 10.1 Hz) and 6.27 (d, J = 15.6 Hz), which were assigned to trans-olefinic protons by the coupling constant of 15.6 Hz. It also displayed aromatic protons due to two 1, 3, 4-trisubstituted aromatic rings at δ 6.82 (1H, br s), 6.76 (1H, dd, J = 7.8, 1.4 Hz), 6.75 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz) (Fig-11), (Table 4). In addition to the above-mentioned moieties, combined inspection of 1H NMR and 1H–1H COSY revealed the presence of cyclohexene ring, one isobutylamide and one pyrrolidine ring. The 13C NMR spectrum displayed the presence of 31 carbon atoms and were further confirmed by DEPT experiments into categories of 11 methylenes, 12 methines and 5 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.01 and 172.50). On the basis of these characteristic features, database and literature search led the skeleton of compound 2c as a dimeric alkaloidal framework. A comprehensive analysis of the 2D NMR data of compound 2c facilitated the proton and carbon assignments. 1H–1H COSY spectrum suggested the sequential correlations of δ 3.51 (dq, J = 5.0, 2.6 Hz)/5.62 (dt, J = 9.8, 2.6 Hz)/6.10 (ddd, J = 9.8, 1.5 Hz)/2.20 (m)/2.72 (ddd, J = 11.1, 10.1, 5.2 Hz)/3.35 (dd, J = 11.1, 9.8 Hz) assignable to H-2-H-3-H-4-H-5-H-3"-H-2" of the cyclohexene ring. Concerning the connections of the n-amyl and 3, 4-methylenedioxy styryl groups, HMBC spectrum (Fig-15) showed correlations of H-4, H-6, H-7/C-5; H-5", H-4"/C-3", which implies that these units were bonded to the cyclohexene ring at C-5 and C-3". Further, HMBC correlations of two methylene protons at δ 5.95 with 147.91 (C-8"), 146.87 (C-9"), confirmed the location of methylenedioxy group at C-8", and C-9". Remaining units, isobutylamine and pyrrolidine (rings) were connected through carbonyl groups at C-2 and C-2", which was confirmed by HMBC correlations of H-2 and H-1' to C-1 (δ 173.01) and H-2" and H-1''' to C-1" (δ 172.50). The assignment of the relative configuration of compound 2c, and confirmation of overall structure were achieved by the interpretation of the NOESY spectral data and by analysis of 1H NMR coupling constants. The large vicinal coupling constants of H-2"/H-2 (11.1 Hz) and H-2"/H-3" (11.1 Hz) indicated anti-relations of H-2"/H-2 and H-2"/H-3" and the axial orientations for these protons. In the NOESY spectrum (Fig-17), the occurrence of the correlations between H-2/H-3" and the absence of NOE effects between H-2/H-2" and H-2"/H-3" supported the above result. This data indicated β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-2 and H-3". The α-orientation of H-5 was suggested by the coupling constant of H-5/H-3" (5.2 Hz) and the absence of the NOESY correlations between H-3" and H-2". On the basis of these spectral data, the structure of compound 2c was unambiguously established and trivially named as chabamide M. Structure elucidation of compound 3c: Compound 3c was obtained as pale yellow liquid. The molecular formula of 3c was established as C31H44N2O4 by HRESIMS (Fig-27), which provided a molecular ion peak at m/z 509.3391 [M++H], in conjunction with its 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-21). The IR spectrum displayed absorption bands diagnostic of carbonyl (1624 cm-1) moiety (Fig-19). The 300 MHz 1H NMR spectrum (in CDCl3) indicated the presence of two signals at δ 4.63 (dd, J = 15.6, 10.0 Hz) and 5.46 (dt, J = 15.6, 6.8 Hz), which were assigned to trans-olefinic protons by the coupling constant of 15.6 Hz. It also displayed aromatic protons due to two 1, 3, 4-trisubstituted aromatic ring at δ 6.75 (1H, br s), 6.73 (1H, d, J = 7.8, 1.4 Hz), 6.71 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz) (Fig-20). In addition to the above-mentioned moieties, combined inspection of 1H NMR and 1H–1H COSY revealed the presence of cyclohexene ring, one isobutylamide and one pyrrolidine ring. The 13C NMR spectrum displayed the presence of 31 carbon atoms (Table 5), and were further classified by DEPT experiments (Fig-22) into categories of 11 methylenes, 12 methines and 5 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.34 and 173.88). On the basis of these characteristic features, database and literature searches led the skeleton of compound 3c as a dimeric alkaloidal framework. A comprehensive analysis of the 2D NMR data of compound 3c facilitated the proton and carbon assignments. 1H–1H COSY spectrum (Fig-25) suggested the sequential correlations of δ 2.82 (m)/5.63 (dt, J = 9.7, 1.9 Hz)/5.82 (ddd, J = 9.7, 4.8, 1.9 Hz)/3.94 (dq, J =.10.0, 1.9 Hz)/2.76 (ddd, J = 11.7, 10.0 Hz)/3.36 (dt, J = 11.7, 4.8 Hz) assignable to H-2-H-3-H-4-H-5-H-3"-H-2" of the cyclohexene ring. Concerning the connections of the 3, 4-methylenedioxyphenyl and 1-heptene groups, HMBC spectrum (Fig-24) showed correlations of H-7, H-11, H-3"/C-5; H-5", H-4", H-5/C-3", which implies that these units were bonded to the cyclohexene ring at C-5 and C-3". Further, HMBC correlations of two methylene protons at δ 5.92 with 147.42 (C-8"), 146.49 (C-9"), confirmed the location of methylenedioxy group at C-8", and C-9". Remaining units, pyrrolidine and isobutylamine were connected through carbonyl groups at C-2 and C-2", which was confirmed by HMBC correlations of H-2 and H-1' to C-1 (δ 171.34) and H-2" and H-1''' to C-1" (δ 173.88). The assignment of the relative configuration of compound 3c, and confirmation of overall structure were achieved by the interpretation of the NOESY spectral data and by analysis of 1H NMR coupling constants. The large vicinal coupling constants of H-3"/H-2" (11.7 Hz) and H-5/H-3" (10.0 Hz), indicated anti-relations of H-3"/H-5 and H-3"/H-2" and the axial orientations for these protons. In the NOESY spectrum (Fig-26), the occurrence of the correlations between H-2"/H-5 and the absence of NOE effects between H-3"/H-2" and H-3"/H-5 supported the above result. These data indicated β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-2 and H-3". The α-orientation of H-2 was suggested by the coupling constant of H-2/H-2" (4.8 Hz) and the occurrence of the NOESY correlations between H-2" and H-2. On the basis of this spectral data, the structure of compound 3c was unambiguously established and trivially named as Chabamide N. Cycloaddition reaction between piperine (1a) and E-fagaramide (1c) Lewis acid catalyzed cycloaddition reactions (Scheme 5) of piperine (1a) and trans-fagaramide (1c) under aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2d, 3d and 2a. To carry this biomimetic synthesis to explain compound H and I (mentioned in chapter-II), we taken piperine (1a) which is isolated from same plant and trans fagaramide was synthesized by reported method.24 Cycloaddition reaction between 1a and 1c end up with overall yield 70% in xylene and 75% in water. In both solvents ortho products were formed dominantly compared with meta products. Spectral data 1D and 2D of cycloadducts 2d & 3d were identical with compound H & I (see chapter I, compound H & K). Cycloadduct 2a is identical with chabamide. This cycloaddition reaction practically proved as biomimetic synthesis for compound H and I. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to Director IICT for his constant encouragement and CSIR New Delhi for providing the fellowship References and Notes Braun, M. Synth. Highlights 1991, 232 Robinson, R. Chem. Soc. 1917, 762. Stork, G.; Burgstahler, A. W. Am. Chem. Soc. 1955, 38, 1890. Johnson, W. S.; Gravestock, M. B.; McCarry, B. E. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 4332. Chapman, O. L.; Engel, M. R.; Springer, J. P.; Clardy, J. C. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 6696. Bandaranayake, W. M.; Banfield, J. E.; Black, D. St. C. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1980, 902. Nicolaou, K. C.; Zipkin, R. E.; Petasis, N. A. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982, 104, 5558. O.; Alder, K. Ann. 1928, 460, 98. Woodward, R. B.; Hoffmann, R. Chem. 1969, 81, 797. Fakui, K. Chem. Res. 1971, 4, 57. Houk, K. N. Chem.. Res. 1975, 8, 361. Houk, K. N.; Li, Y.; Evanseck, D. Angew Chem., Ed. Engl. 1992, 31, 682. Alder, K.; Stein, G. Chem. 1937, 50, 510. Fotiadu, F.; Michel, F.; Buono, G. Tetraheron Lett. 1990, 34, 4863. Gleiter, R.; Bohm, M. C. Pure Appl. Chem. 1983, 55, 237. Woodward, R. B.; Katz, T. J. Terahedron 1958, 5, 70. Kakushima, M. J. Chem. 1979, 57, 2564. Houk, K. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1970, 30, 2621. Houk, K. N.; Luskus, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 4606. Otto, S.; Bertoncin, F.; Engberts, J. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc., 1996, 118, 7702–7707. Wei, K.; Li, W.; Koike, K.; Chen, Y-J.; Nikaido, T. Org. Chem. 2005, 70, 1164. Wei, K.; Li, W.; Koike, K.; Chen, Y-J.; Nikaido, T. Lett. 2005, 7, 2833–2835. Rukachaisirikul, T.; Prabpai, S.; Champung, P.; Suksamrarn, A. Planta Med. 2002, 68, 850-853. Nagao, Y.; Seno, K.; Kawabata, K.; Miyasaka, T.; Takao, S.; Fujita, Tetrahedron Lett. 1980, 21, 841. Otto, S.; Boccaletti, G.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 120, 4238–4239. Otto, S.; Bertoncin, F.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 7702–7707. O.; Alder, K. Ann. 1931, 490, 243. Woodward, R. B.; Baer, H. Am. Chem. Soc. 1948, 70, 1161. Breslow, R.; Rideout, D. C. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7816. Breslow, R.; Guo, T. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988, 110, 5613. Grieco, P.A.; Nunes, J. J.; Gaul, M. D. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 4595.

V. Rama Subbaraoa* aNatural Products Laboratory, Organic Chemistry Division-I, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Habsiguda, Hyderabad 500007, India. Study and optimization of Diels-Alder reaction of piperine in aqueous ionic solutions using Gn.HCl as a catalyst. The semi-synthesis of these products using intermolecular [4+2] cycloaddition reaction has been described. Obtained products were characterized using IR, HNMR, CNMR and Mass Spectroscopy. Introduction An outsized number of phenomena concern to and are conducted in liquid phase involving ionic species (Millions of years ago, Mother Nature discovered the secrets of water molecule) in different biological and other natural processes. Salt present in the oceans, a striking example from Nature, is a multi component salt solution reflecting the distant marine origin of life on earth together with the composition of physiological fluids. In general the ionic solutions play roles in several industrial and geological processes in addition to their deep impact on the biological molecules. This enormous power of ionic solutions is based on the interactions of ion with solvent. In this work, we present some interesting results with comprehensive implications on the application of ion-solvent (i-s) interactions on organic reactions. Ion-Solvent interactions Cohesion among molecules in the liquid phase results from intermolecular forces. These forces include hydrogen-bonding, dipole-dipole, multi polar, dispersion interactions and also interactions emerging from the repulsion between two molecules. The cohesion due to intermolecular forces gives rise to a 'pressure' which is experienced by the solvent molecules. A liquid undergoing a small, isothermal volume expansion does work against the cohesive forces which causes a change in the internal energy, U. The function (∂U/∂V)T, is called as internal pressure (Pi) of a liquid and is supported by the equation of state. Internal pressure increases upon the addition of some solutes like NaCl, KCI, etc. and decreases by salts like of guanidinium salts. Diels-Alder Reaction in aqueous medium For long time water was not a popular solvent for the Diels-Alder reaction. Before 1980 its use had been reported only incidentally. Diels and Alder themselves performed the reaction between furan and maleic acid in an aqueous medium in 1931,27 an experiment which was repeated by Woodward and Baer in 1948. 28 They noticed a change in endo-exo selectivity when comparing the reaction in water with ether. The extreme influence of water can exert on the Diels-Alder reaction was rediscovered by Breslow in 1980, much by coincidence 29,30 while studying the effect of β-cyclodextrin on the rate of a Diels-Alder reaction in water, accidentally. Schem 1. Alternatively, Grieco et al., have repeatedly invoked the internal pressure of water as an explanation of the rate enhancement of Diels-Alder reactions in these solvents. 31 They probably inspired by the well known large effects of the external pressure on rates of cycloadditions. However the internal pressure of water is very low and offers no valid explanation for its effects on the Diels-Alder reaction. The internal pressure is defined as the energy required bringing about an infinitesimal change in the volume of the solvent at constant temperature. Due to the open and relatively flexible hydrogen-bond network of water, a small change in volume of these solvents does not require much energy. A related, but much more applicable solvent parameter is the cohesive energy density. This quantity is a measure of energy required for evaporation of the solvent per unit volume. The reactions in water were less accelerated by pressure than those in organic solvents, which is in line with notion that pressure diminishes hydrophobic interactions. The effect of water on the selectivity of Diels-Alder reactions Three years after the Breslow report on the large effects of water on the rate of the Diels-Alder reaction, he also demonstrated that the endo-exo selectivity of this reaction benefits markedly from employing aqueous media. Based on the influence of salting-in and salting-out agents, Breslow pinpoints hydrophobic effects as the most important contributor to the enhanced endo-exo selectivity. Hydrophobic effects are assured to stabilize the more compact endo transition state more than the extended exo transition state. In Breslow option the polarity of water significantly enhances the endo-exo selectivity. In conclusion, the special influence of water on the endo-exo selectivity seems to be a result of the fact that this solvent combines in it three characteristics that all favors formation of the endo/exo adduct. 1. water is strong hydrogen bond donor 2. water is polar and water induces hydrophobic interactions. Study of salting-out and salting-in reagents towards the Diels-Alder reaction of piperine (1): The special effects of water as solvent for valuable Diels-Alder reaction (Scheme 1) of piperine (1), greatly altered by the addition of ionic solutes (Table 1) such as LiCl, LiBr, LiClO4,- NaCl, NaBr, KF, KCl, KBr, MgCl2, CaCl2, guanidinium chloride, guanidinium carbonate, guanidinium nitrate. Aqueous salts solutions accelerated cycloaddition reactions (Scheme 1) of piperine (1) to give resultant cycloadducts 2, 3 and 4 among them 2 is major ortho-exo cyclohexene type dimeric amide alkaloid and also known as chabamide, which is previously isolated from this plant, isomer 3 is also known adduct and previously isolated from Piper nigrum. 21 Cycloadduct 4 was synthesized from piperine by Diels-Alder reaction by Wei. et al. its physical and spectroscopic data were identical with reported data22 (1H-NMR & Mass spectra). Table 1: Study of different salts towards the Diels-Alder reaction of piperine (1). aOverall yield of adducts after HPLC, un-reacted piperine was recovered in all reactions. Reaction showed good overall yield and more exo selectivity. This reaction showed completely regioselectivity (yield of 2+3>4) due to maximum involvement of α-double bond rather than γ-double bond of 1 during Diels-Alder reaction. Table 2: Comparision of salting-out and salting-in reagents towards the Diels-Alder reaction of piperine (1). Study of Salting-out reagents Increased rate in Diels-Alder reaction (over all yield up to 79 %) of piperine (1) has been attributed to the hydrophobic effect. Owing to the difference in polarity between water and the reactants, water molecules tend to associate amongst themselves, excluding the organic reagents and forcing them to associate together forming small drops surrounded by water. A further method of increasing the rate of Diels-Alder reaction in water is so called ‘salting-out’ effect. Among the salting-out reagents used (Table 1) in this methodology CaCl2 is the best reagent and gave 79 % over all yield. If anion size increases, reaction yield decreases, where as cation size increases, reaction yield increases. Here a salt such as calcium chloride is added to the aqueous solution. In this case water molecules attracted to the polar ions, increasing the internal pressure and reducing the volume. This has the effect of further excluding the organic reagents. For reactions such as Diels-Alder, which have negative activation volumes, the rates are enhanced by this increase in internal pressure in much the same way as expected for an increase in external pressure. This salting-out reagent showed good exo selectivity, due to formation of cycloadduct 2 (ortho-exo) is major up to 69 % (cycloadduct ratio) compare to cycloadducts 3 (21 %, meta-exo) and 4 (10%, meta-exo) are poor in yield. Schem 2. Plausible mechanism of Diels-Alder reaction catalyzed by Gn.HCl. Study of Salting-in reagents Among the tested salting-in reagents used in this methodology (Table 1) guanidinium chloride (Gn.HCL) is the best reagent and gave 81 % overall yield, where as LiClO4 end up with only 15 % overall yield. Gn.HCL reagent exhibited well selectivity towards the Diels-Alder reaction of piperine in given conditions (scheme 1). Formation of cycloadduct 2 in 80 %, 3 in 15 % and 4 in 5 % ratio is clearly indicates this methodology received good attention towards the exo selectivity in Diels-Alder reaction of piperine. Overall yield is also high with salting-in reagents when compare to salting-out reagents. Procedure for aqueous ionic salts catalyzed Diels–Alder reactions of piperine (1): To a stirred mixture of piperine (1) (50.0 mg, 0.175 mmol), 6M aqueous guanidinium. Hydrochloride (2 mL) in a round bottom flask fitted with condenser and refluxed for 70 h in an oil bath. After completion of the reaction, monitored by TLC (dipped in 5% solution of phosphomolybdic acid in methanol and heating), the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with water (3 mL). Then extracted with EtOAc (2x5 mL), the combined organic layers were dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuo. The residue obtained was then purified by reversed-phase (RP) HPLC (column: Phenomenex Luna C18, 250 x 10 mm, 10µ), solvent system: 80% acetonitrile in water, flow rate: 1.5 mL/min, to give pure compounds of adducts (2) 0.065 g, (3) 0.012 g and (4) 0.004 g. Cycloaddition reaction between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b): Our aim of this cycloaddition reaction is to explain to study different cycloadducts and selectivity of diene among piperine and pellitorine (Scheme 4). This biomimetic synthesis will explain the probability of diene, which participated in Diels-Alder reaction between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b) both were isolated from same plant (P. chaba). Nigramide N, which is formed biosynthetically via cycloaddition reaction between piperine and pellitorine, this adduct previously isolated from roots of P. nigrum 21 by Wei. et. al. Lewis acid catalyzed cycloaddition reactions of piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b) under organic and aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2c, 3c, 4c, 2a and 3b. Cycloadduct 2c and 3c is new cycloadducts and their structures were illustrated by 1D and 2D spectral data. Structure elucidation of compound 2c: Compound 2c was obtained as pale yellow liquid. The molecular formula of 2c was established as C31H44N2O4 by HRESIMS (Fig-18), which provided a molecular ion peak at m/z 509.3381 [M++H], in conjunction with its 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-12). The IR spectrum displayed absorption bands diagnostic of carbonyl (1640 cm-1) (Fig-10). The 300 MHz 1H NMR spectrum (in CDCl3) indicated the presence of two signals at δ 5.86 (dd, J = 15.6, 10.1 Hz) and 6.27 (d, J = 15.6 Hz), which were assigned to trans-olefinic protons by the coupling constant of 15.6 Hz. It also displayed aromatic protons due to two 1, 3, 4-trisubstituted aromatic rings at δ 6.82 (1H, br s), 6.76 (1H, dd, J = 7.8, 1.4 Hz), 6.75 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz) (Fig-11), (Table 4). In addition to the above-mentioned moieties, combined inspection of 1H NMR and 1H–1H COSY revealed the presence of cyclohexene ring, one isobutylamide and one pyrrolidine ring. The 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-12) displayed the presence of 31 carbon atoms and were further confirmed by DEPT experiments (Fig-13) into categories of 11 methylenes, 12 methines and 5 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.01 and 172.50). On the basis of these characteristic features, database and literature search led the skeleton of compound 2c as a dimeric alkaloidal framework. A comprehensive analysis of the 2D NMR data of compound 2c facilitated the proton and carbon assignments. 1H–1H COSY spectrum (Fig-16) suggested the sequential correlations of δ 3.51 (dq, J = 5.0, 2.6 Hz)/5.62 (dt, J = 9.8, 2.6 Hz)/6.10 (ddd, J = 9.8, 1.5 Hz)/2.20 (m)/2.72 (ddd, J = 11.1, 10.1, 5.2 Hz)/3.35 (dd, J = 11.1, 9.8 Hz) assignable to H-2-H-3-H-4-H-5-H-3"-H-2" of the cyclohexene ring. Concerning the connections of the n-amyl and 3, 4-methylenedioxy styryl groups, HMBC spectrum (Fig-15) showed correlations of H-4, H-6, H-7/C-5; H-5", H-4"/C-3", which implies that these units were bonded to the cyclohexene ring at C-5 and C-3". Further, HMBC correlations of two methylene protons at δ 5.95 with 147.91 (C-8"), 146.87 (C-9"), confirmed the location of methylenedioxy group at C-8", and C-9". Remaining units, isobutylamine and pyrrolidine (rings) were connected through carbonyl groups at C-2 and C-2", which was confirmed by HMBC correlations of H-2 and H-1' to C-1 (δ 173.01) and H-2" and H-1''' to C-1" (δ 172.50). The assignment of the relative configuration of compound 2c, and confirmation of overall structure were achieved by the interpretation of the NOESY spectral data and by analysis of 1H NMR coupling constants. The large vicinal coupling constants of H-2"/H-2 (11.1 Hz) and H-2"/H-3" (11.1 Hz) indicated anti-relations of H-2"/H-2 and H-2"/H-3" and the axial orientations for these protons. In the NOESY spectrum (Fig-17), the occurrence of the correlations between H-2/H-3" and the absence of NOE effects between H-2/H-2" and H-2"/H-3" supported the above result. This data indicated β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-2 and H-3". The α-orientation of H-5 was suggested by the coupling constant of H-5/H-3" (5.2 Hz) and the absence of the NOESY correlations between H-3" and H-2". On the basis of these spectral data, the structure of compound 2c was unambiguously established and trivially named as chabamide M. Compound 3a: IR (KBr) nmax: 2923, 2855,1628, 1489, 1242, 1128, 1035 cm-1 d ppm 0.69 & 1.25 (2H, m, H-2'"), 1.15 & 1.23 (2H, m, H-4'"), 1.31 & 1.40 (2H, m, H-3'"), 1.52 (2H, m, H-2'), 1.56 (2H, m, 4'), 1.61 (2H, m, H-3'), 2.94 (1H, td, J = 10.1, 10.1, 5.5 Hz, H-3"), 3.02 & 3.60 (2H, m, H-5'"), 3.09 & 3.32 (2H, m, H-1'"), 3.51 (2H, m, H-1'), 3.61 (1H, m, H-2), 3.61 (2H, m, H-5'), 3.78 (1H, dq, J = 10.0, 2.3 Hz, H-5), 4.07 (1H, t, J = 10.1, H-2"), 5.72 (1H, ddd, J = 9.8, 5.0, 2.7 Hz, H-3), 5.88 (2H, s, H-12), 5.89 (1H, dt, 10.3, 1.8 Hz, H-4), 5.90 (1H, J =15.8, 9.8 Hz, H-4"), 5.92 (1H, s, H-12"), 6.37 (1H, d, J = 15.8 Hz, H-5"), 6.68 (1H, brs, H-7), 6.69 (1H, d, J = 8.0 Hz, H-10"), 6.70 (1H, dd, J = 8.0, 1.4 Hz, H-11), 6.69 (1H, d, J = 8.0 Hz, H-10), 6.74 (1H, dd, J = 8.0, 1.6 Hz, H-11"), 6.79 (1H, brs, H-7"). ESIMS (m/z): 571 [M+ +H] Table 4: 1H & 13C NMR data of cycloadduct 2c in CDCl3 (300 MHz, δ in ppm, mult, J in Hz) Compound 4a: IR (KBr) nmax: 2926, 2857,1627, 1484, 1440, 1240, 1034 cm-1 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3): d ppm 0.81 & 1.35 (2H, m, H-2'), 1.29 & 1.47 (2H, m, H-4'), 1.35 (2H, m, H-2"'), 1.36 & 1.51 (1H, m, H-3'), 1.47 (2H, m, H-4"'), 1.51 (2H, m, H-3"'), 2.92 (2H, m, H-1"'), 2.99 (1H, ddd, J = 12.5, 9.7, 5.5 Hz, H-4"), 3.22 (2H, m, H-1'), 3.29 & 3.71 (2H, m, H-5'), 3.38 (1H, m, H-4"'), 3.44 (1H, dd, J = 12.1, 10.1 Hz, H-5"), 3.59 (1H, t, J = 5.3 Hz, H-5), 3.70 (1H, dq, J = 12.1, 2.1, H-2), 5.65 (1H, dd, J = 15.6, 9.5 Hz, H-3"), 5.70 (1H, dt, J = 9.9, 1.6, H-3), 5.81 (1H, d, J = 15.6 Hz, H-2"), 5.84 (1H, s, H-12"), 5.90-5.92 (2H, brs, H-12), 5.96 (1H, ddd, J = 9.2, 5.8, 2.6 Hz, H-4), 6.55 (1H, dd, J =7.9, 1.5 Hz, H-11"), 6.61 (1H, d, J = 8.2 Hz, H-10"), 6.62 (1H, d, J = 1.4 Hz, H-7"), 6.79 (1H, d, J = 7.9 Hz, H-10), 6.92 (1H, dd, J = 8.0, 1.5 Hz, H-11), 7.01 (1H, d, J = 1.5 Hz, H-7). ESIMS (m/z): 571 [M+ +H] Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Director IICT for his constant encouragement and CSIR New Delhi for providing the fellowship References Braun, M. Synth. Highlights 1991, 232 Robinson, R. Chem. Soc. 1917, 762. Stork, G.; Burgstahler, A. W. Am. Chem. Soc. 1955, 38, 1890. Johnson, W. S.; Gravestock, M. B.; McCarry, B. E. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 4332. Chapman, O. L.; Engel, M. R.; Springer, J. P.; Clardy, J. C. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 6696. Bandaranayake, W. M.; Banfield, J. E.; Black, D. St. C. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1980, 902. Nicolaou, K. C.; Zipkin, R. E.; Petasis, N. A. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982, 104, 5558. O.; Alder, K. Ann. 1928, 460, 98. Woodward, R. B.; Hoffmann, R. Chem. 1969, 81, 797. Fakui, K. Chem. Res. 1971, 4, 57. Houk, K. N. Chem.. Res. 1975, 8, 361. Houk, K. N.; Li, Y.; Evanseck, D. Angew Chem., Ed. Engl. 1992, 31, 682. Alder, K.; Stein, G. Chem. 1937, 50, 510. Fotiadu, F.; Michel, F.; Buono, G. Tetraheron Lett. 1990, 34, 4863. Gleiter, R.; Bohm, M. C. Pure Appl. Chem. 1983, 55, 237. Woodward, R. B.; Katz, T. J. Terahedron 1958, 5, 70. Kakushima, M. J. Chem. 1979, 57, 2564. Houk, K. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1970, 30, 2621. Houk, K. N.; Luskus, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 4606. Otto, S.; Bertoncin, F.; Engberts, J.B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc., 1996, 118, 7702–7707. Wei, K.; Li, W.; Koike, K.; Chen, Y-J.; Nikaido, T. Org. Chem. 2005, 70, 1164. Wei, K.; Li, W.; Koike, K.; Chen, Y-J.; Nikaido, T. Lett. 2005, 7, 2833–2835. Rukachaisirikul, T.; Prabpai, S.; Champung, P.; Suksamrarn, A. Planta Med. 2002, 68, 850-853. Nagao, Y.; Seno, K.; Kawabata, K.; Miyasaka, T.; Takao, S.; Fujita, Tetrahedron Lett. 1980, 21, 841. Otto, S.; Boccaletti, G.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 120, 4238–4239. Otto, S.; Bertoncin, F.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 7702–7707. O.; Alder, K. Ann. 1931, 490, 243. Woodward, R. B.; Baer, H. Am. Chem. Soc. 1948, 70, 1161. Breslow, R.; Rideout, D. C. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7816. Breslow, R.; Guo, T. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988, 110, 5613. Grieco, P.A.; Nunes, J. J.; Gaul, M. D. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 4595.

In Europe there have appeared several important collections on Marxist literary theory, such as Francis Mulhern’s Contemporary Marxist Literary Criticism (1992) and Terry Eagleton and Drew Milne’s Marxist Literary Theory: A Reader (1996). However, Chinese voices are not included at all in these volumes. Maybe this lacuna results from a lack of awareness of Chinese Marxist aesthetics on the part of most European literary historians and critics. In this article, we seek to discuss the circumstances of European scholars’ contacts with Chinese Marxist aesthetics, mainly in the 1960s and 1970s. Starting from the variation theory perspective proposed by Shunqing Cao we will discuss how European scholars read and misread what they perceived as the meaning and universal applicability of what was happening in China at the time. The discussion is divided into three parts: the utopian interpretation of the Chinese theory of revolution in France, the critical reception by Eastern European Marxists, and the sympathetic interpretation by sinologists such as the Dutch diplomat and literary scholar Douwe Fokkema.

Anyone contemplating the role of a “hermeneutics of suspicion” in literary and cultural studies must concede that the phrase is rarely used—even by its most devout practitioners, who usually think of themselves engaged in something called “critique.” What, then, are the terminological differences between “critique” and “the hermeneutics of suspicion”? What intellectual worlds do these specific terms conjure up, and how do these worlds converge or diverge? And what is the rationale for preferring one term over the other?The “hermeneutics of suspicion” is a phrase coined by Paul Ricoeur to capture a common spirit that pervades the writings of Marx, Freud, and Nietzsche. In spite of their obvious differences, he argued, these thinkers jointly constitute a “school of suspicion.” That is to say, they share a commitment to unmasking “the lies and illusions of consciousness;” they are the architects of a distinctively modern style of interpretation that circumvents obvious or self-evident meanings in order to draw out less visible and less flattering truths (Ricoeur 356). Ricoeur’s term has sustained an energetic after-life within religious studies, as well as in philosophy, intellectual history, and related fields, yet it never really took hold in literary studies. Why has a field that has devoted so much of its intellectual energy to interrogating, subverting, and defamiliarising found so little use for Ricoeur’s phrase?In general, we can note that hermeneutics remains a path not taken in Anglo-American literary theory. The tradition of hermeneutical thinking is rarely acknowledged (how often do you see Gadamer or Ricoeur taught in a theory survey?), let alone addressed, assimilated, or argued over. Thanks to a lingering aura of teutonic stodginess, not to mention its long-standing links with a tradition of biblical interpretation, hermeneutics was never able to muster the intellectual edginess and high-wattage excitement generated by various forms of poststructuralism. Even the work of Gianni Vattimo, one of the most innovative and prolific of contemporary hermeneutical thinkers, has barely registered in the mainstream of literary and cultural studies. On occasion, to be sure, hermeneutics crops up as a synonym for a discredited model of “depth” interpretation—the dogged pursuit of a hidden true meaning—that has supposedly been superseded by more sophisticated forms of thinking. Thus the ascent of poststructuralism, it is sometimes claimed, signaled a turn away from hermeneutics to deconstruction and genealogy—leading to a focus on surface rather than depth, on structure rather than meaning, on analysis rather than interpretation. The idea of suspicion has fared little better. While Ricoeur’s account of a hermeneutics of suspicion is respectful, even admiring, critics are understandably leery of having their lines of argument reduced to their putative state of mind. The idea of a suspicious hermeneutics can look like an unwarranted personalisation of scholarly work, one that veers uncomfortably close to Harold Bloom’s tirades against the “School of Resentment” and other conservative complaints about literary studies as a hot-bed of paranoia, kill-joy puritanism, petty-minded pique, and defensive scorn. Moreover, the anti-humanist rhetoric of much literary theory—its resolute focus on transpersonal and usually linguistic structures of determination—proved inhospitable to any serious reflections on attitude, disposition, or affective stance.The concept of critique, by contrast, turns out to be marred by none of these disadvantages. An unusually powerful, flexible and charismatic idea, it has rendered itself ubiquitous and indispensable in literary and cultural studies. Critique is widely seen as synonymous with intellectual rigor, theoretical sophistication, and intransigent opposition to the status quo. Drawing a sense of intellectual weightiness from its connections to the canonical tradition of Kant and Marx, it has managed, nonetheless, to retain a cutting-edge sensibility, retooling itself to fit the needs of new fields ranging from postcolonial theory to disability studies. Critique is contagious and charismatic, drawing everything around it into its field of force, marking the boundaries of what counts as serious thought. For many scholars in the humanities, it is not just one good thing but the only conceivable thing. Who would want to be associated with the bad smell of the uncritical? There are five facets of critique (enumerated and briefly discussed below) that characterise its current role in literary and cultural studies and that have rendered critique an exceptionally successful rhetorical-cultural actor. Critique, that is to say, inspires intense attachments, serves as a mediator in numerous networks, permeates disciplines and institutional structures, spawns conferences, essays, courses, and book proposals, and triggers countless imitations, translations, reflections, revisions, and rebuttals (including the present essay). While nurturing a sense of its own marginality, iconoclasm, and outsiderdom, it is also exceptionally effective at attracting disciples, forging alliances, inspiring mimicry, and ensuring its own survival. In “Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam?” Bruno Latour remarks that critique has been so successful because it assures us that we are always right—unlike those naïve believers whose fetishes we strive to expose (225–48). At the same time, thanks to its self-reflexivity, the rhetoric of critique is more tormented and self-divided than such a description would suggest; it broods constantly over the shame of its own success, striving to detect signs of its own complicity and to root out all possible evidence of collusion with the status quo.Critique is negative. Critique retains the adversarial force of a suspicious hermeneutics, while purifying it of affective associations by treating negativity as an essentially philosophical or political matter. To engage in critique is to grapple with the oversights, omissions, contradictions, insufficiencies, or evasions in the object one is analysing. Robert Koch writes that “critical discourse, as critical discourse, must never formulate positive statements: it is always ‘negative’ in relation to its object” (531). Critique is characterised by its “againstness,” by its desire to take a hammer, as Latour would say, to the beliefs of others. Faith is to be countered with vigilant skepticism, illusion yields to a sobering disenchantment, the fetish must be defetishised, the dream world stripped of its befuddling powers. However, the negativity of critique is not just a matter of fault-finding, scolding, and censuring. The nay-saying critic all too easily calls to mind the Victorian patriarch, the thin-lipped schoolmarm, the glaring policeman. Negating is tangled up with a long history of legislation, prohibition and interdiction—it can come across as punitive, arrogant, authoritarian, or vitriolic. In consequence, defenders of critique often downplay its associations with outright condemnation. It is less a matter of refuting particular truths than of scrutinising the presumptions and procedures through which truths are established. A preferred idiom is that of “problematising,” of demonstrating the ungroundedness of beliefs rather than denouncing errors. The role of critique is not to castigate, but to complicate, not to engage in ideas’ destruction but to expose their cultural construction. Barbara Johnson, for example, contends that a critique of a theoretical system “is not an examination of its flaws and imperfections” (xv). Rather, “the critique reads backwards from what seems natural, obvious, self-evident, or universal in order to show that these things have their history” and to show that the “start point is not a (natural) given, but a (cultural) construct, usually blind to itself” (Johnson xv–xvi). Yet it seems a tad disingenuous to describe such critique as free of negative judgment and the examination of flaws. Isn’t an implicit criticism being transmitted in Johnson’s claim that a cultural construct is “usually blind to itself”? And the adjectival chain “natural, obvious, self-evident, or universal” strings together some of the most negatively weighted words in contemporary criticism. A posture of detachment, in other words, can readily convey a tacit or implicit judgment, especially when it is used to probe the deep-seated convictions, primordial passions, and heart-felt attachments of others. In this respect, the ongoing skirmishes between ideology critique and poststructuralist critique do not over-ride their commitment to a common ethos: a sharply honed suspicion that goes behind the backs of its interlocutors to retrieve counter-intuitive and uncomplimentary meanings. “You do not know that you are ideologically-driven, historically determined, or culturally constructed,” declares the subject of critique to the object of critique, “but I do!” As Marcelo Dascal points out, the supposedly non-evaluative stance of historical or genealogical argument nevertheless retains a negative or demystifying force in tracing ideas back to causes invisible to the actors themselves (39–62).Critique is secondary. A critique is always a critique of something, a commentary on another argument, idea, or object. Critique does not vaunt its self-sufficiency, independence, and autotelic splendor; it makes no pretense of standing alone. It could not function without something to critique, without another entity to which it reacts. Critique is symbiotic; it does its thinking by responding to the thinking of others. But while secondary, critique is far from subservient. It seeks to wrest from a text a different account than it gives of itself. In doing so, it assumes that it will meet with, and overcome, a resistance. If there were no resistance, if the truth were self-evident and available for all to see, the act of critique would be superfluous. Its goal is not the slavish reconstruction of an original or true meaning but a counter-reading that brings previously unfathomed insights to light. The secondariness of critique is not just a logical matter—critique presumes the existence of a prior object—but also a temporal one. Critique comes after another text; it follows or succeeds another piece of writing. Critique, then, looks backward and, in doing so, it presumes to understand the past better than the past understands itself. Hindsight becomes insight; from our later vantage point, we feel ourselves primed to see better, deeper, further. The belatedness of critique is transformed into a source of iconoclastic strength. Scholars of Greek tragedy or Romantic poetry may mourn their inability to inhabit a vanished world, yet this historical distance is also felt as a productive estrangement that allows critical knowledge to unfold. Whatever the limitations of our perspective, how can we not know more than those who have come before? We moderns leave behind us a trail of errors, finally corrected, like a cloud of ink from a squid, remarks Michel Serres (48). There is, in short, a quality of historical chauvinism built into critique, making it difficult to relinquish a sense of in-built advantage over those lost souls stranded in the past. Critique likes to have the last word. Critique is intellectual. Critique often insists on its difference from everyday practices of criticism and judgment. While criticism evaluates a specific object, according to one definition, “critique is concerned to identify the conditions of possibility under which a domain of objects appears” (Butler 109). Critique is interested in big pictures, cultural frameworks, underlying schema. It is a mode of thought well matched to the library and seminar room, to a rhythm of painstaking inquiry rather than short-term problem-solving. It “slows matters down, requires analysis and reflection, and often raises questions rather than providing answers” (Ruitenberg 348). Critique is thus irresistibly drawn toward self-reflexive thinking. Its domain is that of second-level observation, in which we reflect on the frames, paradigms, and perspectives that form and inform our understanding. Even if objectivity is an illusion, how can critical self-consciousness not trump the available alternatives? This questioning of common sense is also a questioning of common language: self-reflexivity is a matter of form as well as content, requiring the deployment of what Jonathan Culler and Kevin Lamb call “difficult language” that can undermine or “un-write” the discourses that make up our world (1–14). Along similar lines, Paul Bove allies himself with a “tradition that insists upon difficulty, slowness, complex, often dialectical and highly ironic styles,” as an essential antidote to the “prejudices of the current regime of truth: speed, slogans, transparency, and reproducibility” (167). Critique, in short, demands an arduous working over of language, a stoic refusal of the facile phrase and ready-made formula. Yet such programmatic divisions between critique and common sense have the effect of relegating ordinary language to a state of automatic servitude, while condescending to those unschooled in the patois of literary and critical theory. Perhaps it is time to reassess the dog-in-the-manger attitude of a certain style of academic argument—one that assigns to scholars the vantage point of the lucid and vigilant thinker, while refusing to extend this same capacity to those naïve and unreflecting souls of whom they speak.Critique comes from below. Politics and critique are often equated and conflated in literary studies and elsewhere. Critique is iconoclastic in spirit; it rails against authority; it seeks to lay bare the injustices of the law. It is, writes Foucault, the “art of voluntary insubordination, that of reflected intractability” (194). This vision of critique can be traced back to Marx and is cemented in the tradition of critical theory associated with the Frankfurt School. Critique conceives of itself as coming from below, or being situated at the margins; it is the natural ally of excluded groups and subjugated knowledges; it is not just a form of knowledge but a call to action. But who gets to claim the mantle of opposition, and on what grounds? In a well-known essay, Nancy Fraser remarks that critical theory possesses a “partisan though not uncritical identification” with oppositional social movements (97). As underscored by Fraser’s judicious insertion of the phrase “not uncritical,” critique guards its independence and reserves the right to query the actions and attitudes of the oppressed as well as the oppressors. Thus the intellectual’s affiliation with a larger community may collide with a commitment to the ethos of critique, as the object of a more heartfelt attachment. A separation occurs, as Francois Cusset puts it, “between academics questioning the very methods of questioning” and the more immediate concerns of the minority groups with which they are allied (157). One possible strategy for negotiating this tension is to flag one’s solidarity with a general principle of otherness or alterity—often identified with the utopian or disruptive energies of the literary text. This strategy gives critique a shot in the arm, infusing it with a dose of positive energy and ethical substance, yet without being pinned down to the ordinariness of a real-world referent. This deliberate vagueness permits critique to nurture its mistrust of the routines and practices through which the everyday business of the world is conducted, while remaining open to the possibility of a radically different future. Critique in its positive aspects thus remains effectively without content, gesturing toward a horizon that must remain unspecified if it is not to lapse into the same fallen state as the modes of thought that surround it (Fish 446).Critique does not tolerate rivals. Declaring itself uniquely equipped to diagnose the perils and pitfalls of representation, critique often chafes at the presence of other forms of thought. Ruling out the possibility of peaceful co-existence or even mutual indifference, it insists that those who do not embrace its tenets must be denying or disavowing them. In this manner, whatever is different from critique is turned into the photographic negative of critique—evidence of an irrefutable lack or culpable absence. To refuse to be critical is to be uncritical; a judgment whose overtones of naiveté, apathy, complacency, submissiveness, and sheer stupidity seem impossible to shrug off. In short, critique thinks of itself as exceptional. It is not one path, but the only conceivable path. Drew Milne pulls no punches in his programmatic riff on Kant: “to be postcritical is to be uncritical: the critical path alone remains open” (18).The exceptionalist aura of critique often thwarts attempts to get outside its orbit. Sociologist Michael Billig, for example, notes that critique thinks of itself as battling orthodoxy, yet is now the reigning orthodoxy—no longer oppositional, but obligatory, not defamiliarising, but oppressively familiar: “For an increasing number of younger academics,” he remarks, “the critical paradigm is the major paradigm in their academic world” (Billig 292). And in a hard-hitting argument, Talal Asad points out that critique is now a quasi-automatic stance for Western intellectuals, promoting a smugness of tone that can be cruelly dismissive of the deeply felt beliefs and attachments of others. Yet both scholars conclude their arguments by calling for a critique of critique, reinstating the very concept they have so meticulously dismantled. Critique, it seems, is not to be abandoned but intensified; critique is to be replaced by critique squared. The problem with critique, it turns out, is that it is not yet critical enough. The objections to critique are still very much part and parcel of the critique-world; the value of the critical is questioned only to be emphatically reinstated.Why do these protestations against critique end up worshipping at the altar of critique? Why does it seem so exceptionally difficult to conceive of other ways of arguing, reading, and thinking? We may be reminded of Eve Sedgwick’s comments on the mimetic aspect of critical interpretation: its remarkable ability to encourage imitation, repetition, and mimicry, thereby ensuring its own reproduction. It is an efficiently running form of intellectual machinery, modeling a style of thought that is immediately recognisable, widely applicable, and easily teachable. Casting the work of the scholar as a never-ending labour of distancing, deflating, and diagnosing, it rules out the possibility of a different relationship to one’s object. It seems to grow, as Sedgwick puts it, “like a crystal in a hypersaturated solution, blotting out any sense of the possibility of alternative ways of understanding or things to understand” (131).In this context, a change in vocabulary—a redescription, if you will—may turn out to be therapeutic. It will come as no great surprise if I urge a second look at the hermeneutics of suspicion. Ricoeur’s phrase, I suggest, can help guide us through the interpretative tangle of contemporary literary studies. It seizes on two crucial parts of critical argument—its sensibility and its interpretative method—that deserve more careful scrutiny. At the same time, it offers a much-needed antidote to the charisma of critique: the aura of ethical and political exemplarity that burnishes its negativity with a normative glow. Thanks to this halo effect, I’ve suggested, we are encouraged to assume that the only alternative to critique is a full-scale surrender to complacency, quietism, and—in literary studies—the intellectual fluff of aesthetic appreciation. Critique, moreover, presents itself as an essentially disembodied intellectual exercise, an austere, even abstemious practice of unsettling, unmaking, and undermining. Yet contemporary styles of critical argument are affective as well as analytical, conjuring up distinctive dispositions and relations to their object. As Amanda Anderson has pointed out in The Way We Argue Now, literary and cultural theory is saturated with what rhetoricians call ethos—that is to say, imputations of motive, character, or attitude. We need only think of the insouciance associated with Rortyan pragmatism, the bad-boy iconoclasm embraced by some queer theorists, or the fastidious aestheticism that characterises a certain kind of deconstructive reading. Critical languages, in other words, are also orientations, encouraging readers to adopt an affectively tinged stance toward their object. Acknowledging the role of such orientations in critical debate does not invalidate its intellectual components, nor does it presume to peer into, or diagnose, an individual scholar’s state of mind.In a related essay, I scrutinise some of the qualities of a suspicious or critical reading practice: distance rather than closeness; guardedness rather than openness; aggression rather than submission; superiority rather than reverence; attentiveness rather than distraction; exposure rather than tact (215–34). Suspicion, in this sense, constitutes a muted affective state—a curiously non-emotional emotion of morally inflected mistrust—that overlaps with, and builds upon, the stance of detachment that characterises the stance of the professional or expert. That this style of reading proves so alluring has much to do with the gratifications and satisfactions that it offers. Beyond the usual political or philosophical justifications of critique, it also promises the engrossing pleasure of a game-like sparring with the text in which critics deploy inventive skills and innovative strategies to test their wits, best their opponents, and become sharper, shrewder, and more sophisticated players. In this context, the claim that contemporary criticism has moved “beyond” hermeneutics should be treated with a grain of salt, given that, as Stanley Fish points out, “interpretation is the only game in town” (446). To be sure, some critics have backed away from the model of what they call “depth interpretation” associated with Marx and Freud, in which reading is conceived as an act of digging and the critic, like a valiant archaeologist, excavates a resistant terrain in order to retrieve the treasure of hidden meaning. In this model, the text is envisaged as possessing qualities of interiority, concealment, penetrability, and depth; it is an object to be plundered, a puzzle to be solved, a secret message to be deciphered. Instead, poststructuralist critics are drawn to the language of defamiliarising rather than discovery. The text is no longer composed of strata and the critic does not burrow down but stands back. Instead of brushing past surface meanings in pursuit of hidden truth, she dwells in ironic wonder on these surface meanings, seeking to “denaturalise” them through the mercilessness of her gaze. Insight, we might say, is achieved by distancing rather than by digging. Recent surveys of criticism often highlight the rift between these camps, underscoring the differences between the diligent seeker after buried truth and the surface-dwelling ironist. From a Ricoeur-inflected point of view, however, it is their shared investment in a particular ethos—a stance of knowingness, guardedness, suspicion and vigilance—that turns out to be more salient and more striking. Moreover, these approaches are variously engaged in the dance of interpretation, seeking to go beyond the backs of texts or fellow-actors in order to articulate non-obvious and often counter-intuitive truths. In the case of poststructuralism, we can speak of a second-order hermeneutics that is less interested in probing the individual object than the larger frameworks and conditions in which it is embedded. What the critic interprets is no longer a self-contained poem or novel, but a broader logic of discursive structures, reading formations, or power relations. Ricoeur’s phrase, moreover, has the singular advantage of allowing us to by-pass the exceptionalist tendencies of critique: its presumption that whatever is not critique can only be assigned to the ignominious state of the uncritical. As a less prejudicial term, it opens up a larger history of suspicious reading, including traditions of religious questioning and self-scrutiny that bear on current forms of interpretation, but that are occluded by the aggressively secular connotations of critique (Hunter). In this context, Ricoeur’s own account needs to be supplemented and modified to acknowledge this larger cultural history; the hermeneutics of suspicion is not just the brain-child of a few exceptional thinkers, as his argument implies, but a widespread practice of interpretation embedded in more mundane, diffuse and variegated forms of life (Felski 220).Finally, the idea of a suspicious hermeneutics does not invalidate or rule out other interpretative possibilities—ranging from Ricoeur’s own notion of a hermeneutics of trust to more recent coinages such as Sedgwick’s “restorative reading,” Sharon Marcus’s “just reading” or Timothy Bewes’s “generous reading.” Literary studies in France, for example, is currently experiencing a new surge of interest in hermeneutics (redefined as a practice of reinvention rather than exhumation) as well as a reinvigorated phenomenology of reading that elucidates, in rich and fascinating detail, its immersive and affective dimensions (see Citton; Macé). This growing interest in the ethos, aesthetics, and ethics of reading is long overdue. Such an orientation by no means rules out attention to the sociopolitical resonances of texts and their interpretations. It is, however, no longer willing to subordinate such attention to the seductive but sterile dichotomy of the critical versus the uncritical.ReferencesAnderson, Amanda. The Way We Argue Now: A Study in the Cultures of Theory. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2005.Asad, Talal. “Free Speech, Blasphemy, and Secular Criticism.” Is Critique Secular? Blasphemy, Injury, and Free Speech. Ed. Talal Asad, Wendy Brown, Judith Butler, and Saba Mahmood. Berkeley: Townsend Center for the Humanities, 2009. 20–63. Bewes, Timothy. “Reading with the Grain: A New World in Literary Studies.” Differences 21.3 (2010): 1–33.Billig, Michael. “Towards a Critique of the Critical.” Discourse and Society 11.3 (2000): 291–92. Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994.Bove, Paul. Mastering Discourse: The Politics of Intellectual Culture. Durham: Duke UP, 1992. Butler, Judith. “The Sensibility of Critique: Response to Asad and Mahmood.” Is Critique Secular? Blasphemy, Injury, and Free Speech. Ed. Talal Asad, Wendy Brown, Judith Butler, and Saba Mahmood. Berkeley: Townsend Center for the Humanities, 2009. 101–136.Citton, Yves. Lire, interpréter, actualiser: pourqoi les études littéraires? Paris: Editions Amsterdam, 2007. Culler, Jonathan and Kevin Lamb, “Introduction.” Just Being Difficult? Academic Writing in the Public Arena. Ed. Jonathan Culler and Kevin Lamb. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2003. 1–14. Cusset, Francois. French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co. Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States. Trans. Jeff Fort. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2008.Dascal, Marcelo. “Critique without Critics?” Science in Context 10.1 (1997): 39–62.Felski, Rita. “Suspicious Minds.” Poetics Today 32.2 (2011): 215–34.Fish, Stanley. Doing What Comes Naturally: Change, Rhetoric, and the Practice of Theory in Literary and Legal Studies. Durham: Duke UP, 1989.Foucault, Michel. “What is Critique?” The Political. Ed. David Ingram. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. 191–211. Fraser, Nancy. “What’s Critical about Critical Theory? The Case of Habermas and Gender.” New German Critique 35 (1985): 97–131. Hunter, Ian. Rethinking the School: Subjectivity, Bureaucracy, Criticism. New York: St Martin’s Press, 1994.Johnson, Barbara. “Translator’s Introduction.” Jacques Derrida’s Dissemination. London: Continuum, 2004. vii–xxxv. Koch, Robert. “The Critical Gesture in Philosophy.” Iconoclash: Beyond the Image Wars in Science, Religion, and Art. Ed. Bruno Latour and Peter Weibel. Cambridge: MIT, 2002. 524–36. Latour, Bruno. “Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern.” Critical Inquiry 30 (2004): 225–48.Macé, Marielle. Facons de lire, manières d’être. Paris: Gallimard, 2011. Marcus, Sharon. Between Women: Friendship, Desire, and Marriage in Victorian England. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2007.Milne, Drew. “Introduction: Criticism and/or Critique.” Modern Critical Thought: An Anthology of Theorists Writing on Theorists. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. 1–22. Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven: Yale UP, 1970. Ruitenberg, Claudia. “Don’t Fence Me In: The Liberation of Undomesticated Critique.” Journal of the Philosophy of Education 38.3 (2004): 314–50. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. “Paranoid Reading and Reparative Reading, Or, You’re So Paranoid, You Probably Think This Essay is About You.” Touching Feeling: Affect, Pedagogy, Performativity. Durham: Duke UP, 2003. 123–52. Serres, Michel and Bruno Latour. Conversations on Science, Culture, and Time. Trans. Roxanne Lapidus. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1995.Vattimo, Gianni. Beyond Interpretation: The Meaning of Hermeneutics for Philosophy. Trans. David Webb. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1997.

In this article, the God’s relationship to time is viewed from the perspective of modern physics. The purpose is to examine new perspectives by introducing a theory of time that has been unexplored in contemporary theology. The paper begins with an analysis of the two competing views of God’s relationship to time: timelessness and temporality. They are reviewed from the perspective of the special theory of relativity. In contemporary theology, God’s timelessness is usually combined with the block universe theory, which is based on the concept of unchanging spacetime. God’s temporality is usually associated with presentism, which denies the concept of spacetime. This division reflects a central conflict in physics: the mainstream interpretation of the special theory of relativity treats time as unchanging spacetime, while quantum physics treats time as dynamic and flowing. To resolve this conflict between the ontologies of the special theory of relativity and quantum physics, the implicate order theory is introduced. The implicate order theory was developed by David Bohm (1917–1992), one of the most visionary physicists of the 20th century. After introducing the theory, it is applied to the context of God’s relationship to time. This produces interesting new opportunities for theological research.

Unique in the Western world, the Court Challenges Program was an undertaking funded entirely by the Federal Government of Canada, without regard to jurisdiction, to subsidize legal test cases of national importance regarding the clarification and interpretation of language and equality rights guaranteed under Canada’s Constitution. This paper reviews the literature on the cancellation of the Court Challenges Program of Canada. Except from 1992 to 1994, when Brian Mulroney’s Conservative government withdrew all financial support for the program, it existed in its various institutional forms from 1978 to 2006, until Stephen Harper’s Conservative government cancelled it on September 25, 2006. In June 2008, the program was somewhat resurrected under the name of the Language Rights Support Program. This program, despite its questionable aspects, helped change the landscape of Canadian law in regards to access to services for Aboriginals, differently-abled people, the rights of women and sexual minorities, and access to education, health and the courts for those speaking minority languages. This paper examines the stormy history of the Court Challenges Program, explores criticisms of its administration, and considers the political motivations that led to the program’s demise in 2006 and subsequent resurrection in 2019.

AbstractThis paper analysed the nature of autonomy, in particular respect for autonomy in medical ethics/bioethics in Japan. We have undertaken a literature survey in Japanese and English and begin with the historical background and explanation of the Japanese word Jiritsu (autonomy). We go on to identify patterns of meaning that researchers use in medical ethics / bioethics discussions in Japan, namely, Beauchamp and Childress’s individual autonomy, relational autonomy, and O’Neill’s principled autonomy as the three major ways that autonomy is understood. We examine papers discussing these interpretations. We propose using the term ‘a form of autonomy’ first used by Edmund Pellegrino in 1992 and examine the nature of ‘a form of autonomy.’ We finally conclude that the crux of what Pellegrino calls ‘something close to autonomy,’ or ‘a form of autonomy' might best be understood as the minimization of physician paternalism and the maximization of respect for patient preference. Simultaneously, we introduce a family-facilitated approach to informed consent and respond to criticism by Laura Sullivan. Finally, we discuss cross-cultural approaches and global bioethics. Furthermore, we use the term ‘Bioethics across the Globe’ instead of ‘Global Bioethics’, calling for international scholars to write works to provide an in-depth understanding of each country. We conclude that deep understanding of others is pivotal for dialogue to be of value. We hope this article will deepen the reader’s understanding of Japan and will contribute to the progress of bioethics worldwide.

"Outwit, Outplay, Outlast" "All entertainment has hidden meanings, revealing the nature of the culture that created it" ( 6). This quotation has no greater relevance than for the most powerful entertainment medium of all: television. In fact, television has arguably become part of the "almost unnoticed working equipment of civilisations" (Cater 1). In other words, TV seriously affects our culture, our society, and our lives; it affects the way we perceive and approach reality (see Cantor and Cantor, 1992; Corcoran, 1984; Freedman, 1990; Novak, 1975). In this essay, I argue that the American television programme Survivor is an example of how entertainment (TV in particular) perpetuates capitalistic ideologies. In other words, Survivor is a symptom of American economic culture, which is masked as an "interpersonal game". I am operating under the assumption that television works "ideologically to promote and prefer certain meanings of the world, to circulate some meanings rather than others, and to serve some interests rather than others" (Fiske 20). I argue that Survivor promotes ideals on two levels: economic and social. On the economic level, it endorses the pursuit of money, fame, and successful careers. These values are prevalent in American society and have coalesced into the myth of the "American Dream", which stands for the opportunity for each individual to get ahead in life; someone can always become wealthy (see White, 1988; Cortes, 1982; Grambs, 1982; Rivlin, 1992). These values are an integral part of a capitalistic society, and, as I will illustrate later, Survivor is a symptom of these ideological values. On the second level, it purports preferred social strategies that are needed to "win" at the game of capitalism: forming alliances, lying, and deception. Ideology The discussion of ideology is critical if we are to better understand the function of Survivor in American culture. Ideologies are neither "ideal" nor "spiritual," but rather material. Ideologies appear in specific social institutions and practices, such as cultural artefacts (Althusser, For Marx 232). In that way, everyone "lives" in ideologies. Pryor suggests that ideology in cultural practices can operate as a "rhetoric of control" by structuring the way in which people view the world: Ideology `refracts' our social conditions of existence, structuring consciousness by defining for us what exists, what is legitimate and illegitimate, possible and impossible, thinkable and unthinkable. Entering praxis as a form of persuasion, ideology acts as a rhetoric of control by endorsing and legitimising certain economic, social and political arrangements at the expense of others and by specifying the proper role and position of the individual within those arrangements. (4) Similarly, Althusser suggests, "ideology is the system of ideas and representations which dominate the mind of a man or a social group" (Ideology 149). Thus, ideology, for Althusser, represents the way individuals "live" their relations to society (Eagleton 18). Grossberg suggests, "within such positions, textuality is a productive practice whose (imaginary) product is experience itself. Experience can no longer serve as a mediation between the cultural and the social since it is not merely within the cultural but is the product of cultural practices" (409). The "text" for study, then, becomes the cultural practices and structures, which determine humans. Althusser concludes that ideology reifies our affective, unconscious relations with the world, and determines how people are pre-reflectively bound up in social reality (Eagleton 18). Survivor as a Text In the United States, the "reality TV" genre of programming, such as The Real World, Road Rules, and Big Brother (also quite famous in Europe), are currently very popular. Debuting in May, 2000, Survivor is one of the newest additions to this "reality programming." Survivor is a game, and its theme is: "Outwit, Outplay, Outlast". The premise is the following: Sixteen strangers are "stranded" on a remote island in the South China Sea. They are divided into two "tribes" of eight, the "Pagong" and "Tagi." They have to build shelter, catch food, and establish a "new society". They must work together as a team to succeed, but ultimately, they are competitors. The tribes compete in games for "rewards" (luxury items such as food), and also for "immunity". Every third day, they attend a "tribal council" in which they vote one member off the island. Whoever won the "immunity challenge" (as a tribe early in the show, later, as an individual) cannot be voted off. After several episodes, the two tribes merge into one, "Rattana," as they try to "outwit, outlast, and outplay" the other contestants. The ultimate prize is $1,000,000. The Case of Survivor As Althusser (For Marx) and Pryor suggest, ideology exists in cultural artefacts and practices. In addition, Pryor argues that ideology defines for us what is "legitimate and illegitimate," and "thinkable and unthinkable" by "endorsing certain economic and social arrangements" (4). This is certainly true in the case of Survivor. The programme is definitely a cultural artefact that endorses certain practices. In fact, it defines for us the "preferred" economic and social arrangements. The show promotes for us the economic arrangement of "winning" money. It also defines the social arrangements that are legitimate, thinkable, and necessary to win the interpersonal and capitalistic game. First, let us discuss the economic arrangements that Survivor purports. The economic arrangements that Survivor perpetuates are in direct alignment with those of the "game" of capitalism: to "win" money, success, and/or fame (which will lead to money). While Richard, the $1,000,000 prize winner, is the personification of the capitalistic/American Dream come true, the other contestants certainly have had their share of money and fame. For example, after getting voted off the island, many of the former cast members appeared on the "talk show circuit" and have done many paid interviews. Joel Klug has done approximately 250 interviews (Abele, Alexander and Lasswell 62), and Stacey Stillman is charging $1200 for a "few quotes," and $1800 for a full-length interview (Millman et al. 16). Jenna Lewis has been busy with paid television engagements that require cross country trips (Abele, Alexander and Lasswell 63). In addition, some have made television commercials. Both B. B. Andersen and Stacey Stillman appeared in Reebok commercials that were aired during the remaining Survivor episodes. Others are making their way even farther into Hollywood. Most have their own talent agents who are getting them acting jobs. For example, Sean Kenniff is going to appear in a role on a soap opera, and Gervase Peterson is currently "sifting through offers" to act in television situation comedies and movies. Dirk Been has been auditioning for movie roles, and Joel Klug has moved to Los Angeles to "become a star". Even Sonja Christopher, the 63-year-old breast cancer survivor and the first contestant voted off, is making her acting debut in the television show, Diagnosis Murder (Abele, Alexander and Lasswell 57). Finally, two of the women contestants from Survivor were also tempted with a more "risky" offer. Both Colleen Haskell and Jenna Lewis were asked to pose for Playboy magazine. While these women are certainly attractive, they are not the "typical-looking" playboy model. It is obvious that their fame has put them in the mind of Hugh Heffner, the owner of Playboy. No one is revealing the exact amount of the offers, but rumours suggest that they are around $500,000. Thus, it is clear that even though these contestants did not win the $1,000,000, they are using their famous faces to "win" the capitalistic game anyway. Not only does Survivor purport the "preferred" economic arrangements, it also defines for us the social arrangements needed to win the capitalistic game: interpersonal strategy. The theme of the strategy needed to win the game is "nice guys don't last". This is demonstrated by the fact that Gretchen, a nice, strong, capable, and nurturing "soccer mother" was the seventh to be voted off the island. There were also many other "nice" contestants who were eventually voted off for one reason or another. However, on the other hand, Richard, the million-dollar winner, used "Machiavellian smarts" to scheme his way into winning. After the final episode, he said, "I really feel that I earned where I am. The first hour on the island I stepped into my strategy and thought, 'I'm going to focus on how to establish an alliance with four people early on.' I spend a lot of time thinking about who people are and why they interact the way they do, and I didn't want to just hurt people's feelings or do this and toss that one out. I wanted this to be planned and I wanted it to be based on what I needed to do to win the game. I don't regret anything I've done or said to them and I wouldn't change a thing" (Hatch, n.pag.). One strategy that worked to Richard's advantage was that upon arriving to the island, he formed an alliance with three other contestants: Susan, Rudy, and Kelly. They decided that they would all vote the same person off the island so that their chances of staying were maximised. Richard also "chipped in", did some "dirty work", and ingratiated himself by being the only person who could successfully catch fish. He also interacted with others strategically, and decided who to vote off based on who didn't like him, or who was more likeable than him (or the rest of the alliance). Thus, it is evident that being part of an alliance is definitely needed to win this capitalistic game, because the four people who were part of the only alliance on the island were the final contestants. In fact, in Rudy's (who came in third place) final comments were, "my advice for anybody who plays this game is form an alliance and stick with it" (Boesch, n.pag.). This is similar to corporate America, where many people form "cliques", "alliances", or "particular friendships" in order to "get ahead". Some people even betray others. We definitely saw this happen in the programme. This leads to another essential ingredient to the social arrangements: lying and deception. In fact, in episode nine, Richard (the winner) said to the camera, "outright lying is essential". He also revealed that part of his strategy was making a big deal of his fishing skills just to distract attention from his schemings. He further stated, "I'm not still on the island because I catch fish, I'm here because I'm smart" (qtd. in Damitol, n.pag.). For example, he once thought the others did not appreciate his fishing skills. Thus, he decided to stop fishing for a few days so that the group would appreciate him more. It was seemingly a "nasty plan", especially considering that at the time, the other tribe members were rationing their rice. However, it was this sort of behaviour that led him to win the game. Another example of the necessity for lying is illustrated in the fact that the alliance of Richard, Rudy, Sue, and Kelly (the only alliance) denied to the remaining competitors that they were scheming. Sue even blatantly lied to the Survivor host, Jeff Probst, when he asked her if there was an alliance. However, when talking to the cameras, they freely admitted to its existence. While the alliance strategy worked for most of the game, in the end, it was destined to dissolve when they had to start voting against each other. So, just as in a capitalistic society, it is ultimately, still "everyone for her/himself". The best illustration of this fact is the final quote that Kelly made, "I learned early on in the game [about trust and lying]. I had befriended her [Sue -- part of Kelly's alliance]; I trusted her and she betrayed me. She was lying to me, and was plotting against me from very early on. I realised that and I knew that. Therefore I decided not to trust her, not to be friends with her, not to be honest with her, for my own protection" (Wiglesworth, n.pag.). Therefore, even within the winning alliance, there was a fair amount of distrust and deception. Conclusion In conclusion, I have demonstrated how Survivor promotes ideals on two levels: economic and social. On the economic level, it endorses the pursuit of money, fame, and successful careers. On the social level, it purports preferred interpersonal strategies that are needed to "win" at the game of capitalism. In fact, it promotes the philosophy that "winning money at all costs is acceptable". We must win money. We must lie. We must scheme. We must deceive. We must win fame. Whether or not the audience interpreted the programme this way, what is obvious to everyone is the following: six months ago, the contestants on Survivor were ordinary American citizens; now they are famous and have endless opportunities for wealth. References Abele, R., M. Alexander and M. Lasswell. "They Will Survive." TV Guide 48.38 (2000): 56-63. Althusser, L. For Marx. Trans. Ben Brewster. New York: Vintage Books, 1969, 1970. ---. "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses." Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Trans. Ben Brewster. London: New Left Books, 1971. ---. Philosophy and the Spontaneous Philosophy of the Scientists. Trans. Ben Brewster. London: Verso, 1990. Boesch, R. "Survivor Profiles: Rudy." CBS Survivors Website. 2000. 26 Sep. 2000 <http://www.cbs.com/primetime/survivor/survivors/rudy_f.shtml>. Cantor, M.G., and J. M. Cantor. Prime Time Television Content and Control. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1992. Cater, D. "Television and Thinking People." Television as a Social Force: New Approaches to TV Criticism. Ed. D. Cater and R. Adler. New York: Praeger Publications, 1975. 1-8. Corcoran, F. "Television as Ideological Apparatus: The Power and the Pleasure." Critical Studies in Mass Communication 1 (1984): 131-45. Cortes, C. E. "Ethnic Groups and the American Dream(s)." Social Education 47.6 (1982): 401-3. Damitol. "Episode 9A -- 'Oh God! My Eyes! My Eyes!' or 'Richard Gets Nekkid'." Survivorsucks.com. 2000. 16 Oct. 2000 <http://www.survivorsucks.com/summaries.s1.9a.php>. Eagleton, T. Ideology: An Introduction. London: Verso, 1991. Ellis, K. "Queen for One Day at a Time." College English 38.8 (1977): 775-81. Freedman, C. "History, Fiction, Film, Television, Myth: The Ideology of M*A*S*H." The Southern Review 26.1 (1990): 89-106. Grambs, J. D. "Mom, Apple Pie, and the American Dream." Social Education 47.6 (1982): 405-9. Grossberg, L. "Strategies of Marxist Cultural Interpretation." Critical Studies in Mass Communication 1 (1984): 392-421. Jones, G. Honey, I'm Home! Sitcoms Selling the American Dream. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1992. Hatch, R. "Survivor Profiles: Richard." CBS Survivors Website. 2000. 26 Sep. 2000 <http://www.cbs.com/primetime/survivor/survivors/richard_f.shtml>. Hofeldt, R. L. "Cultural Bias in M*A*S*H." Society 15.5 (1978): 96-9. Lichter, S. R., L. S. Lichter, and S. Rothman. Watching America. New York: Prentice Hall, 1991. Millman, J., J. Stark, and B. Wyman. "'Survivor,' Complete." Salon Magazine 28 June 2000. 16 Oct. 2000 <http://www.salon.com/ent/tv/feature/2000/06/28/survivor_episodes/index.php>. Novak, M. "Television Shapes the Soul." Television as a Social Force: New Approaches to TV Criticism. Ed. D. Cater and R. Adler. New York: Praeger Publications, 1975. 9-20. Pryor, R. "Reading Ideology in Discourse: Charting a Rhetoric of Control." Unpublished Essay. Northern Illinois University, 1992. Rivlin, A. M. Reviving the American Dream. Washington, D. C.: The Brookings Institution, 1992. White, J. K. The New Politics of Old Values. Hanover: UP of New England, 1988. Wiglesworth, K. "Survivor Profiles: Kelly." CBS Survivors Website. 2000. 26 Sep. 2000 <http://www.cbs.com/primetime/survivor/survivors/kelly_f.shtml>. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Carol Morgan. "Capitalistic Ideology as an 'Interpersonal Game': The Case of Survivor." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.5 (2000). [your date of access] <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/survivor.php>. Chicago style: Carol Morgan, "Capitalistic Ideology as an 'Interpersonal Game': The Case of Survivor," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3, no. 5 (2000), <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/survivor.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Carol Morgan. (2000) Capitalistic Ideology as an 'Interpersonal Game': The Case of Survivor. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3(5). <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/survivor.php> ([your date of access]).

Elizabeth Wilmot, Countess of Rochester, is best known to most modern readers as the woman John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, abducted and later wed. As Samuel Pepys memorably records in his diary entry for 28 May 1665:Thence to my Lady Sandwich’s, where, to my shame, I had not been a great while before. Here, upon my telling her a story of my Lord Rochester’s running away on Friday night last with Mrs Mallet, the great beauty and fortune of the North, who had supped at Whitehall with Mrs Stewart, and was going home to her lodgings with her grandfather, my Lord Haly, by coach; and was at Charing Cross seized on by both horse and footmen, and forcibly taken from him, and put into a coach with six horses, and two women provided to receive her, and carried away. Upon immediate pursuit, my Lord of Rochester (for whom the King had spoke to the lady often, but with no success) was taken at Uxbridge; but the lady is not yet heard of, and the King mighty angry and the Lord sent to the Tower. (http://www.pepysdiary.com/)Here Pepys provides an anecdote that offers what Helen Deutsch has described in another context as “the elusive possibility of truth embodied by ‘things in themselves,’ by the things, that is, preserved in anecdotal form” (28). Pepys’s diary entry yields up an “elusive possibility” of embodied truth; his version of Wilmot’s abduction solidifies what he perceives to be the most notable features of her identity: her beauty, her wealth, and her sexual trajectory.Pepys’s conclusion that “the lady is not yet heard of” complicates this idea of anecdotal preservation, for he neatly ties up his story of Wilmot’s body by erasing her from it: she is removed, voiceless and disembodied, from even this anecdote of her own abduction. Pepys’s double maneuver demonstrates the complex set of interactions surrounding the preservation of early modern women’s sexual and textual selves. Written into Pepys’s diary and writing in conversation with her husband, Wilmot has generally been treated as a subordinate historical and literary figure—a character rather than an agent or an author. The richness of Wilmot’s own writing has been largely ignored; her manuscript poetry has been treated as an artefact and a source of autobiographical material, whereas Rochester’s poetry—itself teeming with autobiographical details, references to material culture, and ephemera—is recognised and esteemed as literary. Rochester’s work provides a tremendous resource, a window through which we can read and re-read his wife’s work in ways that enlighten and open up readings rather than closing them down, and her works similarly complicate his writings.By looking at Wilmot as a case study, I would like to draw attention to some of the continued dilemmas that scholars face when we attempt to recover early modern women’s writing. With this study, I will focus on distinct features of Wilmot’s sexual and textual identity. I will consider assumptions about female docility; the politics and poetics of erotic espionage; and Wilmot’s construction of fugitive desires in her poetry. Like the writings of many early modern women, Wilmot’s manuscript poetry challenges assumptions about the intersections of gender, sexuality, and authorship. Early Modern Women’s Docile Bodies?As the entry from Pepys’s diary suggests, Wilmot has been constructed as a docile female body—she is rendered “ideal” according to a set of gendered practices by which “inferior status has been inscribed” on her body (Bartky 139). Contrasting Pepys’s references to Wilmot’s beauty and marriageability with Wilmot’s own vivid descriptions of sexual desire highlights Wilmot’s tactical awareness and deployment of her inscribed form. In one of her manuscript poems, she writes:Nothing ades to Loves fond fireMore than scorn and cold disdainI to cherish your desirekindness used but twas in vainyou insulted on your SlaveTo be mine you soon refusedHope hope not then the power to haveWhich ingloriously you used. (230)This poem yields up a wealth of autobiographical information and provides glimpses into Wilmot’s psychology. Rochester spent much of his married life having affairs with women and men, and Wilmot represents herself as embodying her devotion to her husband even as he rejects her. In a recent blog entry about Wilmot’s poetry, Ellen Moody suggests that Wilmot “must maintain her invulnerable guard or will be hurt; the mores damn her whatever she does.” Interpretations of Wilmot’s verse typically overlay such sentiments on her words: she is damned by social mores, forced to configure her body and desire according to rigorous social codes that expect women to be pure and inviolable yet also accessible to their lovers and “invulnerable” to the pain produced by infidelity. Such interpretations, however, deny Wilmot the textual and sexual agency accorded to Rochester, begging the question of whether or not we have moved beyond reading women’s writing as essential, natural, and embodied. Thus while these lines might in fact yield up insights into Wilmot’s psychosocial and sexual identities, we continue to marginalise her writing and by extension her author-self if we insist on taking her words at face value. Compare, for example, Wilmot’s verse to the following song by her contemporary Aphra Behn:Love in Fantastique Triumph satt,Whilst Bleeding Hearts a round him flow’d,For whom Fresh paines he did Create,And strange Tyranick power he show’d;From thy Bright Eyes he took his fire,Which round about, in sports he hurl’d;But ’twas from mine, he took desire,Enough to undo the Amorous World. (53) This poem, which first appeared in Behn’s tragedy Abdelazer (1677) and was later printed in Poems upon Several Occasions (1684), was one of Behn’s most popular lyric verses. In the 1920s and 1930s Ernest Bernbaum, Montague Summers, Edmund Gosse, and others mined Behn’s works for autobiographical details and suggested that such historical details were all that her works offered—a trend that continued, disturbingly, into the later half of the twentieth century. Since the 1980s, Paula R. Backscheider, Ros Ballaster, Catherine Gallagher, Robert Markley, Paul Salzman, Jane Spencer, and Janet Todd have shown that Behn’s works are not simple autobiographical documents; they are the carefully crafted productions of a literary professional. Even though Behn’s song evokes a masochistic relationship between lover and beloved much like Wilmot’s song, critics treat “Love Arm’d” as a literary work rather than a literal transcription of female desire. Of course there are material differences between Wilmot’s song and Behn’s “Love Arm’d,” the most notable of which involves Behn’s self-conscious professionalism and her poem’s entrenchment in the structures of performance and print culture. But as scholars including Kathryn King and Margaret J. M. Ezell have begun to suggest, print publication was not the only way for writers to produce and circulate literary texts. King has demonstrated the ways in which female authors of manuscripts were producing social texts (563), and Ezell has shown that “collapsing ‘public’ into ‘publication’” leads modern readers to “overlook the importance of the social function of literature for women as well as men” (39). Wilmot’s poems did not go through the same material, ideological, and commercial processes as Behn’s poems did, but they participated in a social and cultural network of exchange that operated according to its own rules and that, significantly, was the same network that Rochester himself used for the circulation of his verses. Wilmot’s writings constitute about half of the manuscript Portland PwV 31, held by Hallward Library, University of Nottingham—a manuscript catalogued in the Perdita Project but lacking a description and biographical note. Teresa D. Kemp has discussed the impact of the Perdita Project on the study of early modern women’s writing in Feminist Teacher, and Jill Seal Millman and Elizabeth Clarke (both of whom are involved with the project) have also written articles about the usability of the database. Like many of the women writers catalogued by the Perdita Project, Wilmot lacks her own entry in the Dictionary of National Biography and is instead relegated to the periphery in Rochester’s entry.The nineteen-page folio includes poems by both Rochester and Wilmot. The first eight poems are autograph manuscript poems by Rochester, and a scene from a manuscript play ‘Scaene 1st, Mr. Daynty’s chamber’ is also included. The remaining poems, excluding one without attribution, are by Wilmot and are identified on the finding aid as follows:Autograph MS poem, entitled ‘Song’, by Elizabeth WilmotAutograph MS poem, entitled ‘Song’, by Elizabeth WilmotAutograph MS poem, entitled ‘Song’, by Elizabeth WilmotMS poem, untitled, not ascribed Autograph MS poem, entitled ‘Song’, by Elizabeth WilmotAutograph MS poem, untitled, by Elizabeth WilmotAutograph MS poem, untitled, by Elizabeth WilmotAutograph MS poem, untitled, by Elizabeth Wilmot Autograph MS poem, untitled, by Elizabeth WilmotTwo of the songs (including the lyric quoted above) have been published in Kissing the Rod with the disclaimer that marks of revision reveal that “Lady Rochester was not serving as an amanuensis for her husband” yet the editors maintain that “some sort of literary collaboration cannot be ruled out” (230), implying that Rochester helped his wife write her poetry. Establishing a non-hierarchical strategy for reading women’s collaborative manuscript writing here seems necessary. Unlike Behn, who produced works in manuscript and in print and whose maximization of the slippages between these modes has recently been analyzed by Anne Russell, Wilmot and Rochester both wrote primarily in manuscript. Yet only Rochester’s writings have been accorded literary status by historians of the book and of manuscript theory such as Harold Love and Arthur Marotti. Even though John Wilders notes that Rochester’s earliest poems were dialogues written with his wife, the literariness of her contributions is often undercut. Wilders offers a helpful suggestion that the dialogues set up by these poems helps “hint … at further complexities in the other” (51), but the complexities are identified as sexual rather than textual. Further, the poems are treated as responses to Rochester rather than conversations with him. Readers like Moody, moreover, draw reflections of marital psychology from Wilmot’s poems instead of considering their polysemic qualities and other literary traits. Instead of approaching the lines quoted above from Wilmot’s song as indications of her erotic and conjugal desire for her husband, we can consider her confident deployment of metaphysical conceits, her careful rhymes, and her visceral imagery. Furthermore, we can locate ways in which Wilmot and Rochester use the device of the answer poem to build a complex dialogue rather than a hierarchical relationship in which one voice dominates the other. The poems comprising Portland PwV 31 are written in two hands and two voices; they complement one another, but neither contains or controls the other. Despite the fact that David Farley-Hills dismissively calls this an “‘answer’ to this poem written in Lady Rochester’s handwriting” (29), the verses coexist in playful exchange textually as well as sexually. Erotic Exchange, Erotic EspionageBut does a reorientation of literary criticism away from Wilmot’s body and towards her body of verse necessarily entail a loss of her sexual and artefactual identity? Along with the account from Pepys’s diary mentioned at the outset of this study, letters from Rochester to his wife survive that provide a prosaic account of the couple’s married life. For instance, Rochester writes to her: “I love not myself as much as you do” (quoted in Green 159). Letters from Rochester to his wife typically showcase his playfulness, wit, and ribaldry (in one letter, he berates the artist responsible for two miniatures of Wilmot in strokes that are humorous yet also charged with a satire that borders on invective). The couple’s relationship was beleaguered by the doubts, infidelities, and sexual double standards that an autobiographical reading of Wilmot’s songs yields up, therefore it seems as counterproductive for feminist literary theory, criticism, and recovery work to entirely dispense with the autobiographical readings as it seems reductive to entirely rely on them. When approaching works like these manuscript poems, then, I propose using a model of erotic exchange and erotic espionage in tandem with more text-bound modes of literary criticism. To make this maneuver, we might begin by considering Gayle Rubin’s proposition that “If women are the gifts, then it is men who are the exchange partners. And it is the partners, not the presents, upon whom reciprocal exchange confers its quasi-mystical power of social linkage” (398). Wilmot’s poetry relentlessly unsettles the binary set up between partner and present, thereby demanding a more pluralistic identification of sexual and textual economies. Wilmot constructs Rochester as absent (“Thats caused by absence norished by despaire”), which is an explicit inversion of the gendered terms stereotypically deployed in poetry (the absent woman in works by Rochester as well as later satirists like Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope often catalyzes sexual desire) that also registers Wilmot’s autobiographical contexts. She was, during most of her married life, living with his mother, her own mother, and Rochester’s nieces in his house at Adderbury while he stayed in London. The desire in Wilmot’s poetry is textualised as much as it is sexualised; weaving this doublebraid of desires and designs together ultimately provides the most complete interpretation of the verses. I read the verses as offering a literary form of erotic espionage in which Wilmot serves simultaneously as erotic object and author. That is, she both is and is not the Cloris of her (and Rochester’s) poetry, capable of looking on and authorizing her desired and desiring body. The lyric in which Wilmot writes “He would return the fugitive with Shame” provides the clearest example of the interpretive tactic that I am proposing. The line, from Wilmot’s song “Cloris misfortunes that can be exprest,” refers to the deity of Love in its complete context:Such conquering charmes contribute to my chainAnd ade fresh torments to my lingering painThat could blind Love juge of my faithful flameHe would return the fugitive with ShameFor having bin insenceable to loveThat does by constancy it merritt prove. (232)The speaker of the poem invokes Cupid and calls on “blind Love” to judge “my faithful flame.” The beloved would then be returned “fugitive with Shame” because “blind Love” would have weighed the lover’s passion and the beloved’s insensibility. Interestingly, the gender of the beloved and the lover are not marked in this poem. Only Cupid is marked as male. Although the lover is hypothetically associated with femaleness in the final stanza (“She that calls not reason to her aid / Deserves the punishmentt”), the ascription could as easily be gendering the trait of irrationality as gendering the subject/author of the poem. Desire, complaint, and power circulate in the song in a manner that lacks clear reference; the reader receives glimpses into an erotic world that is far more ornately literary than it is material. That is, reading the poem makes one aware of tropes of power and desire, whereas actual bodies recede into the margins of the text—identifiable because of the author’s handwriting, not a uniquely female perspective on sexuality or (contrary to Moody’s interpretation) a specifically feminine acquiescence to gender norms. Strategies for Reading a Body of VerseWilmot’s poetry participates in what might be described as two distinct poetic and political modes. On one hand, her writing reproduces textual expectations about Restoration answer poems, songs and lyrics, and romantic verses. She crafts poetry that corresponds to the same textual conventions that men like Rochester, John Dryden, Abraham Cowley, and William Cavendish utilised when they wrote in manuscript. For Wilmot, as for her male contemporaries, such manuscript writing would have been socially circulated; at the same time, the manuscript documents had a fluidity that was less common in print texts. Dryden and Behn’s published writings, for instance, often had a more literary context (“Love Arm’d” refers to Abdelazer, not to Behn’s sexual identity), whereas manuscript writing often referred to coteries of readers and writers, friends and lovers.As part of the volatile world of manuscript writing, Wilmot’s poetry also highlights her embodied erotic relationships. But over-reading—or only reading—the poetry as depicting a conjugal erotics limits our ability to recover Wilmot as an author and an agent. Feminist recovery work has opened many new tactics for incorporating women’s writing into existing literary canons; it has also helped us imagine ways of including female domestic work, sexuality, and other embodied forms into our understanding of early modern culture. By drawing together literary recovery work with a more material interest in recuperating women’s sexual bodies, we should begin to recuperate women like Wilmot not simply as authors or bodies but as both. The oscillations between the sexual and textual body in Wilmot’s poetry, and in our assessments of her life and writings, should help us approach her works (like the works of Rochester) as possessing a three-dimensionality that they have long been denied. ReferencesBartky, Sandra Lee. “Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power.” In Writing on the Body: Female Embodiment and Feminist Theory. Ed. Katie Conboy, Nadia Medina, and Sarah Stanbury. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. 129-54.Behn, Aphra. “Song. Love Arm’d.” The Works of Aphra Behn. Volume 1: Poetry. Ed. Janet Todd. London: William Pickering, 1992. 53.Clarke, Elizabeth. “Introducing Hester Pulter and the Perdita Project.” Literature Compass 2.1 (2005). ‹http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/literature/article_view?article_id=lico_articles_bsl159›. Deutsch, Helen. Loving Doctor Johnson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.Diamond, Irene, Ed. Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988.Ezell, Margaret J. M. Social Authorship and the Advent of Print. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.Farley-Hill, David. Rochester’s Poetry. Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978. Greene, Graham. Lord Rochester’s Monkey. New York: Penguin, 1974. Greer, Germaine, Susan Hastings, Jeslyn Medoff, and Melinda Sansone, Ed. Kissing the Rod: An Anthology of Seventeenth-Century Women’s Verse. New York: Noonday Press, 1988. Kemp, Theresa D. “Early Women Writers.” Feminist Teacher 18.3 (2008): 234-39.King, Kathryn. “Jane Barker, Poetical Recreations, and the Sociable Text.” ELH 61 (1994): 551-70.Love, Harold, and Arthur F. Marotti. "Manuscript Transmission and Circulation." The Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 55-80. Love, Harold. "Systemizing Sigla." English Manuscript Studies 1100-1700. 11 (2002): 217-230. Marotti, Arthur F. "Shakespeare's Sonnets and the Manuscript Circulation of Texts in Early Modern England." A Companion to Shakespeare's Sonnets. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007. 185-203.McNay, Lois. Foucault And Feminism: Power, Gender, and the Self. Boston: Northeastern, 1992.Moody, Ellen. “Elizabeth Wilmot (neé Mallet), Countess of Rochester, Another Woman Poet.” Blog entry 16 March 2006. 11 Nov. 2008 ‹http://server4.moody.cx/index.php?id=400›. Pepys, Samuel. The Diary of Samuel Pepys. 23 Aug. 2008 ‹http://www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1665/05/28/index.php›. Rubin, Gayle. “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex.” Feminist Literary Theory and Criticism: A Norton Reader, ed. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, 392-413. New York: Norton, 2007.Russell, Anne. “Aphra Behn, Textual Communities, and Pastoral Sobriquets.” English Language Notes 40.4 (June 2003): 41-50.———. “'Public' and 'Private' in Aphra Behn's Miscellanies: Women Writers, Print, and Manuscript.” Write or Be Written: Early Modern Women Poets and Cultural Constraints. Ed. Barbara Smith and Ursula Appelt. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001. 29-48. Sawicki, Jana. Disciplining Foucault: Feminism, Power and the Body. New York: Routledge, 1991.Seal, Jill. "The Perdita Project—A Winter's Report." Early Modern Literary Studies 6.3 (January, 2001): 10.1-14. ‹http://purl.oclc.org/emls/06-3/perdita.htm›.Wilders, John. “Rochester and the Metaphysicals.” In Spirit of Wit: Reconsiderations of Rochester. Ed. Jeremy Treglown. Hamden: Archon, 1982. 42-57.Wilmot, Elizabeth, Countess of Rochester. “Song” (“Nothing Ades to Love's Fond Fire”) and “Song” (“Cloris Misfortunes That Can Be Exprest”) in Kissing the Rod. 230-32.

In 1991 the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival evicted two female identified transsexual attendees on the grounds that they violated its women only policy of admittance. The Festival, established in 1976 and now the largest of its kind, turned into a "microcosm of the conflicts that have plagued the women's movement" (Rubin 18) and revived widespread debate about the place of trans and non-standard gender performances in feminist activism. A pro-trans event, aptly named Camp Trans, was held outside the Festival's gates with the aim of inciting greater interest in the area. The Festival's founder and on going organiser, Lisa Vogel, responded with a statement in 2001 claiming the "intention is for the Festival to be for womyn-born womyn, meaning people who were born and have lived their entire life experience as female" (Vogel 2000). This resulted in the exclusion of not only trans individuals, but also a plethora of non-conventional gender identities. Bitter debate ensued, revealing the Festival's role not just in appealing to a defined, recognisable demographic, but in constructing and maintaining an entire category of identity. My initial encounters with the Festival occurred through independent media and the internet. It become particularly widely debated after artists from the Queer orientated Mr Lady record label (most famously Le Tigre, fronted by riot grrl icon Kathleen Hanna) confirmed that they would perform at the event, despite knowledge of the anti-trans policy. Perhaps the most poignant reflection came from Ciara Xyerra's 2001 zine A Renegade's Handbook To Love And Sabotage. She comments that the Festival's intent was to provide "not only just a 'safe space' for women, but specifically for 'womyn born womyn.'" […] this essentialist logic is […] flawed in that it assumes every "womyn born womyn" was socialized in exactly the same way, that differences regarding race, class, ability, personal history, have no bearing on how a woman perceives herself as a woman […](69). Certainly the revised womyn born womyn label is a problematic way of dealing with the situation. The standard woman is assumed not to encounter trans issues, at least not in a way that impacts on her sense of gendered self. This issue provokes comparisons to the race debates that wreaked havoc through US feminism in early eighties. The sentiments of the Camp Trans protest echo Audre Lorde's 1984 criticism that: As white women ignore their built-in privilege of whiteness and define women in terms of their experience alone, then women of Color become 'other', the outsider whose experience is too alien to comprehend (632). In retrospect what remains most striking about the race debates is how incredibly poorly they were handled. The period is marked by a tendency towards splinter and separatist groups, evident in the writing of people like bell hooks and Mary Daly. Communication between various factions collapsed amid accusations of racism and ignorance of the wider struggle, leaving ruptures still visible today. (Gubar 884-890) The emphasis has shifted from presumed racial background to presumed biological characteristics, but at its core this is the same argument about which performances of self are given legitimacy, and which are passed off as outside the interests of the feminist community. Indeed the Festival's anti-trans policy can also be traced back to the early 1980's, stemming from clashes between separatists and post-operative transsexuals entering feminist activism. In both instances there has been an assumption that the majority of members within the community experience the world from a common perspective, a collective sense of self at the core of the movement, outlining its wider agenda. I am reminded of Gayatri Spivak's comment that "We take the explanations we produce to be the grounds of our action; they are endowed with coherence in terms of our explanation of self" (In Other Worlds 104). Conflict arises when internal factions find their concerns being overlooked, and begin questioning exactly whose experience is taken as the model for the collective self. There is a tendency towards viewing this as a threat to the movement's solidarity. In an effort to maintain wider group cohesion, divergent voices are often dealt with by claiming they arise from entirely different strains of selfhood. New identities, or at the least hyphenated subcategories, proliferate under "the essentialist's claim that there must be an ultimate (that is, comprehensive), complete, consistent, coherent set of types" (Spinosa and Dreyfus 72). These redefinitions explain and dispel difference without actually addressing it. It would be naive to assume this sort of essentialism exists only for the Festival and older activist methodology. While Queer theory has certainly given us new tools for understanding the issues, its practical application does not necessarily avoid "knitting out more fashionably an otherwise reconstructed […] essentialism" (Jagose). As people like Martha Nussbaum and Benita Parry have argued, if somewhat problematically, there is a fine line between fluidity and dissolution. Activist and liberal scepticism towards deconstructive methodology contains an at least reasonably justified trepidation towards tinkering with political communities which have proved historically successful. The unfortunate revival of the 'old school' activism versus 'new school' theory attitude, itself founded on an essentialist belief in a single, correct ideological stance, has further complicated matters. Festival attendee Janel Smith, writing for one of the bastions of 'old school' activism, Off Our Backs, voiced activist scepticism when commenting that post structuralism is "an entire movement and theory […] designed to debunk these 'myths' about gender and racial identity." She continues: We often make sense of other people by categorizing them into labels and boxes that we ourselves feel comfortable with. Dominant discourse tends to dismiss this process as inherently negative, one that limits people and their understanding of self and projected identity (17). The criticism of dominant academic discourse is worth consideration. If it "is not possible for us to describe our own archive, since it is from within these rules that we speak" (Foucault 130), we need to be acutely aware of the way we act within culture, and wary of any movement which claims to fully recognise and transcend its boundaries. Our treatment of identity needs to "avoid the mistake of slipping between 'no absolute truth' and 'absolutely no truth,'" as Felicity Newman, Tracey Summerfield and Reece Plunkett suggest. From the alternate perspective, Aviva Rubin argues "our activism is characterized by seemingly incompatible inclinations to generalize and to particularize" (17). She writes that the Festival's attempt to develop a "theoretical 'she'" with which we "identify sameness – she shares our politics, our goals, our place" is fundamentally flawed as "the notion collapses when confronted with the differences we've deliberately ignored" (8). This leaves the situation double bound. A standard sense of gendered self provides unity and a workable common agenda, but comes into conflict with the identities it has excluded from its definition. The unified self combats repression, but, as Judith Butler so aptly puts it, "exclusion operates prior to repression" (71). However there are certainly areas of common ground. Rubin's "plea for grey", or an area "between absolutes," (20) is remarkably similar to Smith's endeavour to exist "somewhere in-between butch and femme" (14). Yet, for the Festival, that difference was enough to cause a gap between those who found it "an atmosphere of unparalleled safety" (Smith 13) and the pro-trans attendees who felt they needed "an escort to get out safely after darkness fell" (Wilchins 2000). As these relative similarities exist, it is disappointing to see that the arising differences have met with such aggressively negative reactions. Given the unlikeliness of everyone agreeing on a definitive understanding in the near future, it would seem beneficial to shift the focus away from searches for correct identities and ideologies, and develop new approaches to the debates themselves. I am again reminded of a comment from Gayatri Spivak, this time from her 1992 essay "More on Power/Knowledge". She comments that "if the lines of making sense of something are laid down in a certain way, then you are able to do only those things with that something which are possible within and by arrangement of those lines" (151). This is as true for our concepts of self as it is for any other issue. If we cannot reach outside of the structures of culture to find more universally true categories, or expect an ideological stance to present entirely new and more correct understandings, how we handle the arising debate is of major importance. Homi Bhabha's comment that "our political references and priorities […] are not there in some primordial, naturalistic sense" (26) does not necessarily render them null and void. There is a difference between needing to debate an identity or ideology, and needing to discard or reinvent it. Instead of looking for a true model of self or a correct ideology, the problem becomes looking at the cultural structure we have, trying to "recognise it as best one can and, through one's necessarily inadequate interpretation, to work to change it" (Spivak 1988 120). From this perspective the conflict that emerges from the Festival is as important as the possibilities for final resolution. Rather than treating differences as immediate problems and being "shocked, disappointed and instantly sidetracked into seeking resolution" (Rubin 20), it seems possible to consider the debate important in its own right. In practice this would mean keeping the lines of communication between the various factions open, and treating debate as an integral and on going process, rather than an unwelcome confrontation to be settled as quickly and quietly as possible. The commitment of the Camp Trans protesters to "workshops to educate festival goers" (Wilchins 2000), and their modest success, indicates that maintaining ongoing debate is a workable and productive approach. On the other hand Vogel's unwillingness to talk to the Camp Trans group is perhaps as open to criticism as her definitions of gender identity. Surely if a definitive concept of self cannot be settled upon easily, the lines of communication between Camp Trans and the Festival can at least be expected to keep the search from stagnating. The role the Festival has served as "a locus of political and cultural debate" (Delany) combined with its relatively successful negotiations of class and race issues indicates that it can play this role successfully. Although the womyn born womyn policy might not have changed, it is difficult to imagine many other platforms on which trans related debates could occur on such a large scale. In light of this it does not seem unrealistic to think of the debate as beneficial in ensuring continued rethinking of the issues, and not just as part of some potential revision or creation of identities which will hopefully be completed some time in the future. References Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. 1994 London: Routledge. 2000. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. New York: Routledge, 1999. Delany, Anngel. "Michigan Womyn's Music Festival celebrates 25 years of controversy." Gay.Com (2002) May 10th, 2002. http://content.gay.com/people/women_spac... Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Trans. A Sheridan Smith. Ed. R.D Laing, London: Routledge, 2000. Gubar, Susan. "What Ails Feminist Criticism?" Critical Inquiry 24.4 (1998): 878-903. Jagose, Annamarie. "Queer Theory." Australian Humanities Review 4 (1996) http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AHR/archiv... (28-6-02). Lorde, Audre. "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference". Literary Theory: An Anthology. Ed. Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan. 4th Ed. Malden: Blackwell, 1998: 630-636. Newman, Felicity, Summerfield, Tracy and Plunkett, Reece. "Three Cultures from the 'Inside': or, A Jew, a Lawyer and a Dyke Go Into This Bar…" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.2 (2000). http://www.api-network.com/mc/0005/count.... (28-5-02) Nussbaum, Martha. "The Professor of Parody: The Hip Defeatism of Judith Butler." The New Republic 22 Feb. 1999: 38-45. Parry, Benita. "Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse." Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 27-58. Rubin, Aviva. "The Search for Grey: an agree-to-disagree." Canadian Dimensions 31.5 (1997) 17-21. Smith, Janel. "Identity Crisis: Fuches Rise up and Unite." Off Our Backs 30.9 (2000): 13-20. Spinosa, Charles and Hubert Dreyfus. "Two Kinds of Antiessentialism and Their Consequences." Critical Inquiry 22.4 (1996) 735-764. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravority. In Other Worlds. London: Routledge, 1988. ---, "More On Power/Knowledge." The Spivak Reader. Ed. Donna Landry and Gerald Maclean. New York: Routledge, 1996: 141-174. Vogel, Lisa. "Official Statement of Policy by MWMF." (2000).http://www.camptrans.com/press/2000_mwmf... (30-6-2002). Wilchins, Riki Ann. Interview with In Your Face. (2000) http://www.camptrans.com/stories/intervi... (30-6-02). Xyerra, Ciara. A Renegades Handbook to Love and Sabotage 4. Madford: Independently Published, 2001. Links http://www.camptrans.com/ http://www.api-network.com/mc/0005/country.html http://www.camptrans.com/stories/interview.html http://www.camptrans.com/press/2000_mwmf.html http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AHR/archive/Issue-Dec-1996/jagose.html http://content.gay.com/people/women_space/michigan_000807.html Citation reference for this article Substitute your date of access for Dn Month Year etc... MLA Style Ware, Ianto. "Conflicting Concepts of Self and The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5.5 (2002). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Ware.html &gt. Chicago Style Ware, Ianto, "Conflicting Concepts of Self and The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5, no. 5 (2002), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Ware.html &gt ([your date of access]). APA Style Ware, Ianto. (2002) Conflicting Concepts of Self and The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5(5). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Ware.html &gt ([your date of access]).