Journal articles on the topic '1890-1950 Criticism and interpretation'

For forty years a debate has raged in Petronian studies between the moralists and, for want of a better term, the anti-moralists. From Highet in the 1940's to Bacon and Arrowsmith in the 1950's and 60's, the moralists held a certain advantage. Whatever important divergences there were among these critics, all agreed on a Petronius who stood in some critical relation to his society. The dissenting voices have grown much louder of late. Ironically, the literary brilliance of Arrowsmith's New Critical reading of the Satyricon helped to turn the tide against the moralist viewpoint. The more apparent the literary sophistication of the Satyricon has become, the less willing late twentieth century readers have been to see a programmatic moral critique as its main purpose. Sullivan's view of Petronius as a ‘literary opportunist’ has come to dominate the field.With Graham Anderson's book, Eros Sophistes: Ancient Novelists at Play, the retreat from the position of Highet is now complete. We have finally reached the logical, New Critical conclusion that the Satyricon is an entirely self-contained literary game without any message whatsoever; in effect we are told that, like any serious piece of literature, the Satyricon ‘should not mean, but be’. Anderson is eager to disavow ‘the unproven conviction that every work must have a message, however diffusely or perversely expressed’.

During the Japanese government, the bureaucracy during the Dutch East Indies government was still carried out, but only the name changed. Rawas, which is an Ondeer Afdeelig area, has changed its status to Gun Rawas, but in the near future the Japanese government will form a district level area, namely Musi Ulu Rawas. This study uses a historical method which consists of several stages such as Heuristics, Criticism, Interpretation and Historiography. The results of this study can describe the changes in the local government system of Rawas and eventually it became Musi Ulu Rawas Regency in its development into Musi Rawas Regency.

This paper describes the background, role and impact of the involvement of Andi Selle in the throes of armed in South Sulawesi. This research is both a descriptive analysis using historical methods, through stages: heuristic, interpretation, criticism, and historiography. The involvement of Andi Selle in the throes of armed internal conflict caused by the TNI in the body. Armed upheaval since before independence until the period of independence Andi Selle was involved in a series of conflicts with some of the parties. The upheaval affect ethnic hatred caused his soldiers are considered acts of violence hurt the people's Rail, as well as the monopoly of trade in the region.

This paper looks at the views or constructions of Chinese peranakan authors towards women in that era. Issues discussed: (1) how Peranakan authors narrate women in their works; (2) the reasons for the Chinese Peranakan authors in the 1950s-1960s to narrate women. This study uses the point of view of feminist literary criticism. The object of this research is the 1950-1960s short stories and the author's perspective on women. The data of this research is the narrative of short stories that describe the image of women, the author's social construction, and the idea of ​​androcentrism. The data interpretation technique follows the way of feminist literary criticism. The results of the study: (1) women are presented and controlled by men and are controlled by social construction; (2) the idea of ​​morality and the economic context becomes a construction that the author interprets through androcentrism; (3) morality is misinterpreted by male authors and women as victims who are silenced in the name of morality. It has resulted in women being unable to speak up and follow androcentrism in the name of tradition and the sacred concept of morality. Morality is misinterpreted as sexuality and borne by women.

This research traces the origin of traditional fracture treatment, and identifies the values of local wisdom, especially in traditional healing process performed by the tabib family and to describe how the traditional healing system is developed from ancient times to the present. This study used a qualitative approach and historical methods through topic selection, heuristics or collecting sources, verification or source criticism, and sources and historiography interpretation. Based on the research that has been conducted, the following results were obtained: (1) Fracture treatment has been performed since 1950 in Aceh, especially among the tabib family coming from South Aceh through the inheritance of knowledge from generation to generation; (2) The regeneration process was performed in the healer family, in this case the father inherited from his children or grandparents to his grandchildren to study this knowledge, and practiced it in their entire life; (3) Entering the modern era, traditional medicine has developed in several aspects, so, people tend to believe in this treatment. This study is a part of the historical local wisdom (HLW) to determine how the development of traditional medicine in Aceh from time to time.

Abstrak: Sidney Hook mengklasifikasikan the hero in history menjadi dua kateogori yaitu eventful man dan event making man. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan tersebut, dapat mengklasifikasikan para tokoh pejuang (1945-1950) di Palembang yang ditelusuri berdasarkan toponimi nama jalan di Kota Palembang. Permasalahan dalam penelitian ini adalah bagaimana pengklasifikasian The hero in history-Sidney Hook terhadap para tokoh perjuang (1945-1950) di Palembang berdasarkan toponimi nama jalan di Palembang?. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguraikan peran dan nilai-nilai perjuangan para tokoh pejuang (1945-1950) yang ditelusuri berdasarkan toponimi nama jalan di Kota Palembang. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode historis dalam pemecahan permasalahan dengan tahapan heuristik, kritik sumber, interpretasi dan historiografi. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian diperoleh bahwa hampi sebagian besar nama jalan di Palembang menggunakan nama para tokoh pejuang (1945-1950) di Palembang. Berdasarkan klasifikasi The hero on history-Sidney Hook, A.K. Gani (Jl. A.K. Gani) merupakan eventful man dan event making man. Adapun Abdul Rozak (Jl. Residen Abdul Rozak) dan M. Isa (Jl. dr. M. Isa) merupakan event making man. Selain ketiga tokoh pejuang tersebut, terdapat banyak tokoh pejuang (1945-1950) lainnya di Palembang.Kata Kunci: Sidney, Hook, Pejuang, Toponimi, PalembangEventful Man or Event Making Man? The Local Hero (1945-1950) Based on The Toponymy of Street Names in Palembang CityAbstract: Sidney Hook classifies the hero in history into two categories, namely eventful man and event making man. Using this approach, it can classify the fighter figures (1945-1950) in Palembang which are traced based on the toponymy of street names in Palembang City. The problem in this study is how to classify ‘the hero in history-Sidney Hook’ against the fighting figures (1945-1950) in Palembang based on the toponymy of street names in Palembang?. This study aims to describe the role and values of the struggle of the fighter figures (1945-1950) which are traced based on the toponymy of street names in Palembang City. This research uses historical methods in solving problems with heuristic stages, source criticism, interpretation and historiography. Based on the results of the study, it was obtained that most street names in Palembang use the names of fighter figures (1945-1950) in Palembang. Based on the classification of ‘the hero on history-Sidney Hook’, A.K. Gani (A.K. Gani Street) is an eventful man and an event making man. Abdul Rozak (Residen Abdul Rozak Street) and M. Isa (M. Isa Street) are making man events. In addition to these three fighter figures, there are many other fighter figures (1945-1950) in Palembang.Keyword: Sidney, Hook, Fighter, Toponym, Palembang.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kondisi pendidikan di Enrekang sebelum tahun 1950, sistem pendidikan sekolah rakyat dan perkembangan sekolah rakyat di Enrekang tahun 1950-1959. Sistem dan perkembangan sekolah rakyat dalam penelitian ini berfokus pada kebijakan pemerintah, partisipasi masyarakat, guru sekolah rakyat, minat murid, kondisi dan peralatan sekolah. Jenis penelitian ini adalah penelitian Kualitatif, dengan menggunakan metode sejarah melalui tahapan: heuristik (pengumpulan sumber), kritik sumber, interpretasi, dan historiografi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sekolah rakyat sudah ada pada masa pemerintahan Belanda tahun 1905 sedangkan di Enrekang tahun 1926 namun nama Volkschool. Nama sekolah Rakyat dipakai setelah Indonesia merdeka. Kondisi Sekolah rakyat di Enrekang sebelum tahun 1950 masih dalam keadaan terbelakang namun setelah lima tahun merdeka keadaan sudah semakin membaik. Sistem pendidikan sekolah rakyat setelah kemerdekaan terutama dalam kurikulum yang awalnya hanya belajar membaca, menulis dan berhitung kini semakin bertambah.seperti contohnya belajar sejarah. Sekolah rakyat di Enrekang mengalami perkembangan di lihat dari semakin banyaknya sekolah yang berubah dari SR 3 atau 4 menjadi 6 tahun karena jumlah siswa bertambah. Perkembangan tersebut karena adanya peran aktif masyarakat dan pemerintah yang turut andil dalam kemajuan pendidikan.Kata Kunci: Sekolah rakyat dan Enrekang.AbstractThis study aims to determine the condition of education in Enrekang before 1950, the education system of public schools and the development of community schools in Enrekang in 1950-1959. The system and development of community schools in this study focused on government policy, community participation, community school teachers, student interests, school conditions and equipment. This type of research is a qualitative study, using the historical method through stages: heuristics (source collection), source criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The results showed that the people's school had existed during the Dutch administration in 1905 while in Enrekang in 1926 the name was Volkschool. The name People's school was used after Indonesian independence. The condition of people's schools in Enrekang before 1950 was still underdeveloped, but after five years of independence the situation had improved. The education system of the people's schools after independence, especially in the curriculum which initially only learned to read, write and count is now increasing. For example studying history. Public schools in Enrekang are experiencing growth in view of the increasing number of schools that change from SR 3 or 4 to 6 years as the number of students increases. This development was due to the active role of the community and the government that contributed to the progress of education.Keywords: Community school and Enrekang

Abstract The growth and development of Islamic education in Indonesia cannot be separated from the process of Islamization carried out by scholars and traders from the Middle East. Islamization in Indonesia through pesantren huts that continue to experience rapid development and is the forerunner of the establishment of formal educational institutions. Pondok pesantren is involved intensely in taking a socio-cultural role which is then used as a reference by the community, one of the boarding schools is the Assalamiyah boarding school which is led directly by KH. Mochamad Thowil, he was born on January 11, 1923 AD. In the village of Wadas district of Lightning Serang district, he had a great obsession in developing Islam, so he founded educational institutions such as madrasahs and boarding schools in 1950. The methods used in research are historical writing methods: Heuristic Stage, Criticism Stage, Interpretation Stage, and Historiographic stage. Based on this research, it can be concluded that KH. Mochamad Thowil acted as a break-in of the education system in the development of Islam and sought to educate the nation. By establishing educational institutions for the Indonesian nation. Along with having a great obsession so he founded educational institutions namely Pesantren and Madrasah.

This study aims to determine the Makassar Football Association, which is headquartered in Makassar, South Sulawesi province. The Makassar Football Association was founded on November 2, 1915 which at that time was still a football association called Makassar Voetbal Bond. Based on the historical background of his achievements, Makassar Voetbal Bond features male players in the elite ranks of Dutch East Indies football such as Sagi and Sangkala as reliable players who at that time were highly respected by Dutch players. The Makassar Football Association is known as the birthplace of young and talented football players. Talented young players include Ramang, Suardi Arlan, Nursalam and Maulwi Saelan. The player emerged and triumphed in the 1950-1970 era. Ramang is a football legend who came from PSM which at that time was still called Makassar Voetbal Bond. Ramang began strengthening the Makassar Football Association in 1947. This study uses a qualitative approach with historical methods through heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography.

Pekojan village is one of the urban villages that has a historical role in the development of the Arab community in the city of Jakarta. Part of the Arabs living in the Pekojan village have developed rapidly, especially in trading, preaching, education and marriage. This activity has an impact on social relations between Arabs and the Indigenous population. With very close social relations activities, the Arabs were well received by the Indigenous population. However, most of the Arabs living in the Pekojan village moved to around Jakarta. The purpose of this research is to identify Arab communities spread across Indonesia and to know the development of Arab society in the form of social relations and activities in the Pekojan village, Jakarta. The method used in research is a qualitative method, namely by collecting data through literature and documentation. Data analysis techniques with heuristic methods, criticism, interpretation and historiography. The results of the study that in the 18th century the migration of Arabs had a considerable impact on the development of the Arab community in Indonesia, especially on the island of Java. In the 19th century the wijeknstelsel policy had an impact on Arabs who came from Hadarmaut to occupy Pekojan village as a village inhabited by Arabs, such as in Pekojan village, Jakarta. In the 20th century, the Pekojan village began to be very different, some Arabs moved to around Jakarta some still settled and also built social relations and activities with the Indigenous population.

Ethical politics is a response from the Netherlands to Indonesia, which has filled its cash void. There are three moral politics programs: education, irrigation, and emigration. The field of education is very influential because it can give birth to a specific group. They are aware of the gap between their people and the colonial. A fighting organization was born and dominated by men, resulting in a women's organization. The research method used in this journal is the theme of Nyai Sutartinah; heuristics are carried out on books and journals, source criticism is carried out by reading these sources to find credible data; interpretation processes sources into writing data, and historiography, writing about Nyai Sutartinah's nationalism with a psychohistorical approach. Psychohistory is part of psychoanalysis that studies a person's behaviour in the past and its influence on an attitude. The attitude to be learned is nationalism. Nationalism is an identity of a unified group regardless of language, ethnicity and religion. The figure of Nyai Sutartinah is the subject of this research. He is a descendant of the Pakualaman palace and was born in 1890. Since childhood, he has received an education. Seeing the education inequality for women around him, he and Ki Hadjar Dewantara founded an educational institution called Wanita Taman Siswa. Apart from that, another struggle is being involved in the women's congress in Yogyakarta.

“KIPRAH POLITIK PAGUYUBAN PASUNDAN PERIODE 1927-1959”. The author takes the topic of Paguyuban Pasundan with the above title, because it is based on the results of the study of literature by the author, that there is still the lack of works that discuss Paguyuban Pasundan, especially about political activities. The main issues that will be raised in this thesis is that Paguyuban Pasundan is not limited active in social and cultural sectors but also actively engaged in politics. Based on the main issue can be developed into three formulation of research: What is the background to the Paguyuban Pasundan? How is the political role of the Paguyuban Pasundan period 1927-1959? How is the end of political struggle Paguyuban Pasundan in 1959? The method used is the historical method which consists of four stages, namely Heuristic, Criticism, Interpretation, Historiography, and to be helped by using an interdisciplinary approach from the social sciences (especially of Sociology and Politics). The technique that author uses is the study of literature related to the theme of the author analyzed. Based on the results of the study of literature by the author, Paguyuban Pasundan period 1927-1959 has an important role, especially in the political field. In the period 1927-1942 establishing PPPKI, GAPI and active in the Volksraad. The period of 1942- 1945 some of its members active in the formation of Japanese agencies suchas newspapers Tjahaja, PETA and Java Hokokai. Period 1945-1950 actively opposed the establishment of Negara Pasundan founded by the Dutch and the last period of 1950-1959 which Paguyuban Pasundan involvement in the 1955 general election.

Purpose of this paper is to present traits of penal law during Stalinist period in Poland based on a handbook by I. Andrejew, L. Lernell and J. Sawicki “Prawo karne Polski Ludowej”, which was first published in 1950. For this purpose, a number of issues appearing in the publication were described, such as: materialist definition of crime, ex post facto law, penality of preparation, attitude towards pre-war legislation instituted by interpretation, criticism of sociological school in penal law, position of death penalty in punishment system. Based on characteristics of them, traits of Stalinist penal law were identified, some of which are: excessive repressiveness, subordination of law to the power, or its instrumentalization. Identification of these traits was made possible by utilization of modern literature concerning the subject, presentation of regulations from laws having effect at the time, as well as comparison of handbook’s contents with current historical knowledge. Characteristics of traits of Stalinist penal law was preceded by a description of circumstances of origins of the handbook – its position among existing course books, reviews and consideration of impact of authors’ personal background on character of their work. What is more, teaching of penal law in the early days of Peoples’ Poland was briefly described, with an indication, why work of I. Andrejew, L. Lernell and J. Sawicki was particularly needed in law schools created by communist government.

The subject field of the study covers the historiography of the first half of the 1950s of the genesis of US foreign policy theme. The aim of the work is to determine the role and place of origin of the US foreign policy in the views of Gerald Stourzh. The relevance of the research is due to the need to study previously unexplored circumstances of the formation of the historian’s interpretation of this process. The novelty lies in the fact that the stereotype about the authority of the scientist’s assessment, formed in the scientific literature, has been debunked. The results of the analysis allowed to draw the following conclusions. The approach of G. Stourzh was not independent and scientific in nature. His concept was a consequence of the H. J. Morgenthau’s efforts to give historicity to the argumentation of the school of political realism. Being an amateur, he created an intellectual product using the selective principle of selecting sources designed to present the Founding Fathers as adherents of political realism. Over time, the initial criticism in the American scientific community of the scientist’s views was replaced by a utilitarian borrowing of the facts from his monograph, that led to the growth of G. Stourzh’ authority in scientific sphere. Despite the disadvantages of the historian’s achievements, his efforts became a catalyst for discussion in American historical science in the 1960s and 1970s and increased interest in the early period of the history of US foreign policy.

In a number of newspaper publications by I. Stalin (summer 1950), combined in the form of a separate work “Marxism and problems of linguistics”, the interpretation of the main issues of the theory of the verbal process (“language”) is generally consistent with traditional (including modern quantitatively predominant) linguistic views, among which the main thing is the subject-instrumental perception of "linguistic unity" and attributing to it a semantic function, or the function of meaning formation. This article outlines aspects of criticism of the Stalinist and, in general, linguistic understanding of "language" from the point of view of the communicative model. The Marxist-linguistic consensus emerges from a simplistic view of the word-containing semiotic process. Stalin’s views are presented in the article as an illustration of any vulgarizing approach to sign-containing influence. A simplified (linguistic) model of a word-containing semiotic process is the result of excessive attention to the verbal substrate (“words”), an attempt to present verbal units as self-organized semantic-formal modules responsible for everything that happens in the field of communicative meaning formation. The ineffectiveness of the theoretical verbal construct "language" (and "speech") lies in the imposition of its own action on verbal "bodies", while the generation of meaning in natural word-containing communication is entirely carried out by the complex (polymodal, multichannel) personal influence of the semiotic actor.

This research is motivated by the reform movement of Islamic education in Minangkabau at the beginning of the 20th century carried out by Zainuddin Labay el-Yunusy which has influenced modernization in Minangkabau which has had an impact to this day. This paper discusses the efforts made by Zainuddin Labay el-Yunusy in reforming Islamic education in Minangkabau in the early 20th century. This research is a library research using historical research methods consisting of heuristics, source criticism, interpretation and historiography by collecting primary and secondary sources from the literature. Zainuddin Labay el-Yunusy was born to Sheikh Muhammad Yunus al-Khalidiyah and Rafi'ah in 1890 in the Bukit Surungan district of Padang Panjang, coinciding with the 12th Rajab 1308 H and died on July 10, 1924 AD/8 Dzulhijjah 1342 H. Since childhood Zainuddin Labay was educated by his father who was also a scholar and then entered HIS, but did not graduate because he felt that he fit into the Dutch education curriculum. Furthermore, Zainuddin Labay studied with well-known educational figures in Minangkabau such as H. Rasul and Dr. Abdullah Ahmad in Padang. Zainuddin Labay has a very important role in reforming Islamic education in Minangkabau, among other things establishing the Diniyah School by incorporating general subjects into the Islamic education curriculum, fighting for the rights of Minangkabau women to obtain education, and forming a generation of Islam in Minangkabau. The reforms carried out by Zainuddin Labay towards Islamic education in Minangkabau inspired the establishment of modern Islamic education such as Diniyah Puteri Padang Panjang, changing the halaqah education system to become classical, and producing educational media. Keywords: Renewal, Islamic Education, Minangkabau.

The history of economic thought remembers António Horta Osório for Schumpeter's reference to him in the History of Economic Analysis, in the context of a general appraisal of available works using mathematical instruments and language. This, however, does not do him justice, as he should also be praised for his pioneering interpretation of Pareto's general equilibrium. According to Stigler (1965), the definitive substitution of the cardinal utility hypothesis for the ordinal utility perspective was achieved by Johnson (1913) and Slutsky (1915). Weber (2001) discusses how far Pareto used cardinality, elects Slutsky (1915) as a pioneer of demand theory and prefers to reserve to R. G. Allen (1932–34), L. R. Klein and H. Rubin (1947–48), Samuelson (1947–48), R. C. Geary (1950–51), and Richard Stone (1954) the role of establishing ordinal utility in studying the utility function. This paper shows that Osório (1911) considered the subject of ordinalism before Johnson and Slutsky addressed the issue, as he had rejected the possibility of measuring utility and clearly stated that general equilibrium is not affected if cardinality is replaced by the ordinal conception for utility, according to Pareto's last formulation. Upon reading his book it becomes clear that not only was he perfectly aware of Edgeworth's contribution on the utility indifference curves, but also of Pareto's attempts to preserve general equilibrium from Fisher's criticism against cardinalism. Historians of economic thought have forgotten one of the early twentieth-century neoclassical economists. In this way the History of Economics has neglected an interesting proof of the consolidation of the Paretian ideas on ordinality, an issue that was an exciting and uncharted territory at that moment.

AbstrakTulisan mengenai Sejarah Sosial Daerah Kabupaten Lebak menggambarkan kehidupan masyarakat yang mencakup aspek geografi, pemerintahan, penduduk, budaya sinkretisme dan masyarakat adat, budaya, dan pendidikan. Untuk merekontruksi kembali menggunakan metode sejarah yang meliputi empat tahap, yaitu: heuristik, kritik, interpretasi, dan historiogarfi. Lebak menjadi bagian dari wilayah Kesultanan Banten dan masyarakatnya menganut ajaran agama Islam. Pada abad ke-19 terjadilah perubahan politik di daerah tersebut. Perubahan itu seiring dengan semakin meluasnya kekuasaan Belanda di wilayah Banten yang ditandai oleh penghapusan Banten tahun 1808 oleh Daendels. Perkembangan selanjutnya pada masa pemerintahan Letnan Gubernur Jenderal Thomas Stamford Raffles (1811-1816), Banten dibagi menjadi empat daerah setingkat kabupaten, yaitu: Kabupaten Banten Lor, Banten Kulon, Banten Tengah, dan Banten Kidul. Setelah kekuasaan dipegang kembali oleh Belanda, maka wilayah Banten dibagi menjadi 3 kabupaten yaitu: Kabupaten Serang, Caringin, dan Lebak. Perubahan berikutnya terjadi pada tanggal 14 Agustus 1925, Lebak menjadi sebuah kabupaten otonom. Kemudian, pada tahun 1950 mengenai pembentukan daerah-daerah dalam lingkungan Provinsi Jawa Barat. Kabupaten Lebak dimasukkan ke dalam 25 Daerah Tingkat II di provinsi tersebut. Pada tahun 2003 Kabupaten Lebak menjadi bagian dari Provinsi Banten. Penduduk Kabupaten Lebak dari tahun ke tahun mengalami perkembangan yang signifikan, begitu pula di bidang sosial budaya dan pendidikan berkembang cukup dinamis.AbstractThis study illustrates aspects of community life in Kabupaten Lebak in the 19th century. Then, Lebak was part of the Sultanate of Banten and most of the people embraced Islam. In the 19th century Lebak faced a political change due to the expanding power of theDutch in Banten. Daendels eliminated the Sultanate of Banten in 1808. During the reign of Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles (1811-1816) Banten was divided into four districts: Banten Lor (Northern Banten), Banten Kulon (Western Banten), Banten Tengah (Central Banten), and Banten Kidul (Southern Banten). When the Dutch regained its power in Banten, the region was divided into three disctricts: Serang, Caringin, and Lebak. In August 14, 1925 Lebak became an autonomous district. In 1950 District of Lebak was part of 25 districts in the Province of West Java, and since 2005 the district became part of the Province of Banten. Today, the population of Lebak has been increasing significantly every year and the educational and socio-cultural life has been developed quite dynamically. To reconstruct this history the author conducted method in history: heuristic, criticism, interpretation, and historiography.

Bone Regency as part of South Sulawesi is a very interesting area to discuss. This area is not only part of the history of South Sulawesi, but also a historical flow of South Sulawesi. the existence of nobles who are so attached to the joints of the lives of the people of Bone is still interesting to be examined to this day. Based on this, the article aims to reveal the role of Bone nobility in the swapraja government system to the regency (1950 - 1960). The political development of the government during this period was seen as sufficiently influencing the political dynamics of the government in Bone Regency which continued even today. The method used is the method of historical research with four stages, namely, heuristics, criticism (history), interpretation, and presentation (historiography). The results of the study show that after the transition from swapraja to regency, the role of nobility is still very calculated. But it is no longer like in the period before the transition, where the government was ruled by the king / aristocracy. At this time the level of intelligence is also taken into account. Apart from the fact that the structure of the government is indeed different because the process of appointing head of government is also different. But in general the role of nobility after the transition was not much different, where there were still many nobles holding power. ABSTRAK Kabupaten Bone sebagai bahagian dari Sulawesi Selatan merupakan suatu daerah yang sangat menarik untuk dibicarakan. Daerah ini bukan saja merupakan bagian dari sejarah Sulawesi Selatan, tetapi juga merupakan arus sejarah Sulawesi Selatan. keberadaan bangsawan yang begitu melekat di dalam sendi kehidupan masyarakat Bone masih menarik untuk ditelisik sampai hari ini. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, maka artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengungkapkan tentang peranan bangsawan Bone dalam sistem pemerintahan swapraja ke kabupaten (1950 – 1960). Perkembangan politik dari pemerintahan selama periode ini dipandang cukup mempengaruhi dinamika politik dari pemerintahan di Kabupaten Bone yang berlangsung bahkan sampai sekarang. Metode yang digunakan adalah adalah metode penelitian sejarah dengan empat tahapan yaitu, heuristik, kritik (sejarah), intrepretasi, dan penyajian (historiografi). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa setelah peralihan dari swapraja ke kabupaten, peranan bangsawan masih sangat diperhitungkan. Namun tidak lagi seperti pada masa sebelum peralihan, di mana pemerintahan dikuasai oleh raja/aristokrasi. Pada masa ini tingkat kecerdasan juga diperhitungkan. Selain karena struktur pemerintahannya memang berbeda juga karena proses pengangkatan kepala pemerintahan juga berbeda. Namun secara umum peran bangsawan setelah masa peralihan tidak jauh berbeda, di mana masih banyak bangsawan yang memegang kekuasaan.

Progressive Ear and New Deal reformers claimed that industrialization impoverished the elderly by degrading older workers. This has become the standard interpretation in popular and scholarly accounts. Data from 1890 through 1950 show that real wages of older workers rose sharply during this peroid and that family economic strategies promised the elderly considerable security. Birth cohort analysis indicates positive age-earnings profiles across the life cycle. Although the elderly benefited from economic growth, security in old age often demanded intrafamilial exchanges. Tensions arising from these transfers may explain the broad popular support Social Security received.

AbstrakKegiatan penelitian dan penulisan sejarah sosial baru dilakukan sekitar tahun 1950-an, baik di negara-negara maju maupun di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang. Di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang seperti Indonesia, kegiatan penelitian dan penulisan Sejarah Sosial masih sedikit dilakukan terutama yang bercorak sejarah sosial daerah. Penelitian dan penulisan sejarah yang sering dilakukan bercorak Sejarah Politik dan Sejarah Militer. Sejarah politik isinya menguraikan tentang pemerintahan kerajaan-kerajaan di Indonesia, pada masa pemerintahan Belanda, dan pendudukan Jepang. Sejarah Militer isinya tentang pertempuran-pertempuran baik melawan agresi Belanda maupun facisme Jepang. Dengan tersusunnya Sejarah Sosial Kota Bekasi diharapkan dapat diperoleh gambaran atau potret seluruh aspek kehidupan sosial daerah Kota Bekasi pada masa kini, dengan latar belakang masa lampau untuk memberikan proyeksi pada masa yang akan datang. Untuk merekontruksi digunakan metode sejarah yang meliputi empat tahap, yaitu: heuristik, kritik, interpretasi, dan historiografi. Kota Bekasi sebelumnya sebuah kecamatan dari Kabupaten Bekasi. Pada tahun 1982 Kecamatan Bekasi ditingkatkan statusnya menjadi kota administrasi. Pada tahun 1996 kembali ditingkatkan statusnya menjadi kotamadya. Dalam perkembangannya Kota Bekasi menjadi kawasan industri dan kawasan tempat tinggal kaum urban. Kota yang berada dalam lingkungan megapolitan ini merupakan salah satu kota besar urutan keempat di Indonesia yang terdapat di Provinsi Jawa Barat. AbstractThe Research and writing of the new social history made around the 1950s, both in developed countries and in emerging countries. In countries like Indonesia as one of the emerging countries, research and writing of Social History is few, especially about the history of social region. Research and writing of history is often done patterned with Political History or Military History. The contents of Political history usually outlining with the era of kingdoms, and the governments in Indonesia at the time of Dutch and Japanese occupation. The contents of Military History usually discussed the battles either against the aggression of the Dutch and Japanese fascism. With the completion of the Social History of Bekasi City, hopefully it can get a photograph all aspects of the social life of the city of at present, with a background in the past to provide projections of future. This research used historical method which includes four phases: heuristic, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. In the past Bekasi well known as sub-district of Bekasi District. In 1982 the sub-district of Bekasi upgraded to municipality or administration city. Bekasi become a city in 1996. In their development, Bekasi become a central of industrial area and as residence of urban society. The town is located in a megapolitan city of Jakarta, and one of the biggest cities in in the province of West Java.

The research examine about Mobile Brigade Corps’ contribution in overcoming the West Java’s DI/TII affairs. The background of this research is because as a police troops, Mobile Brigade Corps contribute in overcoming one of the domestic security intruption problems that happened in Indonesia in the 1950’s decade, namely West Java’s DI/TII. However, that contribution from Mobile Brigade Corps is unpopular. Then, the main question in this research is how is the contribution of the Mobile Brigade Corps in overcoming the West Java’s DI/TII affairs. The method used in this research was a historical research method, with four research steps, namely heuristics, criticsm, interpretation, and historiography. The research technique used for collected the data was literature and documentation study. Based on this research’s result, West Java was in emergency state (SOB)/danger situation in the 1950’s deacade, it was because at that time, the security condition in West Java was worsed due to the domestic security intruption problem, caused by West Java’s DI/TII. Mobile Brigade Corps involved in overcoming the West Java’s DI/TII affairs because at that time, Djawatan Kepolisian Negara was involved in the task of overcoming that West Java’s DI/TII for seconded to Tentara Teritorium III/Siliwangi, Mobile Brigade Corps used because it’s the paramilitary troops from Djawatan Kepolisian Negara. The efforts from Mobile Brigade Corps were formed the Ranger Troops and mobilized Mobile Brigade Coprs’ troops, including the Ranger Troops in domestic security operation to overcoming the West Java’s DI/TII affairs.

Yermak Timofeevich, the conqueror of Siberia, is a key figure of the Siberian frontier and a special “myth” about Siberia in Russian culture. The aim of the article is to find out the idea of Yermak that Siberian intellectual readers formed at the turn of the 20th century. The library of the eminent Tomsk teacher Gavriil Tyumentsev is a representative material for this study. During his life, Tyumentsev collected books and various materials about Siberia. The corpus of publications on Yermak belongs to the period from 1832 to 1897. The books are mainly issued by the capital’s publishing houses and include works of various genres, both fiction (historical story, novel, tragedy) and non-fiction (historical essay, research paper, materials of anniversary readings). Two fictionalized biographies of Yermak stand apart. Folklore is an important component of many works. Readers of the publications are heterogeneous, although most of the books are intended for the mass educated reader. The degree of preservation of the books, few notes, and a number of external signs—all this made it possible to assess what turned out to be the most interesting for the reader. Fictional works about Yermak are in the lead, especially the voluminous historical novel Yermak, or the Conquest of Siberia (1834) by P. Svinyin and the love story From Chopping Block to Honor (1890) by E. Nikolaeva. However, popular science publications, primarily fictionalized biographies of the hero, aroused no less interest. In both cases, the fascination of the narrative turns out to be no less important than the quality of the text: for example, the publication of the short story of the populist N. Polushin, which is much more inferior to the work of the famous journalist and publisher A.S. Suvorin, has been preserved worse, and the book with E. Nikolaeva’s woman’s novel falls to pieces as a result of repeated reading. However, a remarkable historical essay by the Petersburg teacher A.N. Ovsyannikov, in which the author gave the most balanced assessment of the conqueror of Siberia, also attracted the reader’s attention. The collection of reports of the “literary morning” in Tobolsk (1883) is a vivid example of how the Siberian intelligentsia understands the events of the 16th century. Against the background of the same type of interpretation of Yermak’s personality by the metropolitan authors, Tobolsk teachers freely express their assessment of the activities of the ataman and his army, and also criticize their presentation in literature, which is far from the historical truth. The significant number of books about Yermak in the Tyumentsev library testifies to the fact that the heroic plot, associated not only with the capture, but also with the domestication of Siberia, was in demand among Siberian readers. And the “diversity” of Yermak in the collection of the Tomsk teacher is the best proof of the breadth of views of the Siberian intelligentsia at the turn of the 20th century, the desire of the local reader to follow all the trends of both the literary process and the historical thought of Russia and form their own idea of the origins of the Siberian “transboundedness”.

Isolation, characterization of natural products dimeric amide alkaloids from roots of the Piper chaba Hunter. The synthesis of these products using intermolecular [4+2] cycloaddition reaction has been described. Obtained products were characterized using IR, 1HNMR, 13CNMR and Mass Spectroscopy. Introduction The awesome structural diversity and complexity of natural products inspire many chemists to consider how nature creates these molecules. Nature’s biosynthetic enzymes offer a powerful and practical route to many organic compounds, and synthetic chemists sometimes seek to imitate the efficiency and elegance of the biosynthetic machinery by designing biomimetic reactions that approximate natural reaction pathways. Probably the most astonishing biomimetic reactions1 are tandem processes that combine several transformations in sequence and produce complicated structures from comparably simple starting materials in a single laboratory operation. Biosynthesis is described as “the reaction or reaction sequence occurred in organism or its immediate environment will be viewed as biosynthesis” where as biomimetic synthesis describes as “A specific reaction or a sequence of reactions that mimic a proposed biological pathway is defined as bimimetic synthesis. An early example is Sir Robert Robinson’s landmark synthesis of tropinone in 1917.2 Forty-two years later, Gilbert Stork and Albert Eschenmoser independently proposed that the steroid ring system could be formed by tandem cation-π cyclizations of a polyene in an ordered transition state.3 A non-enzymatic version of this reaction type was demonstrated in W. S. Johnson’s classic synthesis of progesterone in 1971.4 Chapman’s synthesis of carpanone is a striking example of the power of biomimetic strategies.5 In 1980, Black proposed that the endiandric acids could arise biosynthetically from linear polyenes.6 In 1982, K. C. Nicolaou gave chemical support to Black’s hypothesis by chemically synthesizing endiandric acids A-G.7 Biomimetic Synthesis of Natural Products which involves, The biomimetic polyene carbocyclizations reaction, The biomimetic cycloaddition reaction, The biomimetic electrocyclization reaction, The polyether biomimetic synthesis, The biomimetic oxidative coupling of phenol, Some other interesting biomimetic synthesis, The present biomimetic synthesis of chabamides or dimeric amide alkaloids involves cycloaddition reactions. The Diels Alder reaction In the Diels-Alder reaction a six membered ring is formed through fusion of a 4 π component, usually a diene and a 2 π component which is commonly referred to as the Figure 1. dienophile. The Diels Alder reaction has proven to be great synthetic value, forming a key-step in the construction of compounds containing six-membered rings. Cyclohexene ring generated all the way through the formation of two new σ-bonds and one π bond with four adjacent stereocenters. The reaction is named after Otto Diels and Kurt Alder, two German chemists who studied the synthetic and theoretical aspects of this reaction in great detail.8 Their efforts have been rewarded with the 1950 Noble prize. Figure 2 Schematic representation of the Diels-Alder reaction. Cis principle In Diels-Alder reactions, the stereoselectivity is generally high due to the “cis principle”, which states that Diels-Alder reactions require a cisoid conformation for the diene and suprafacial-suprafacial mode of reaction, meaning that both ends of the diene attack from the same face of the dienophile in a syn fashion. Frontier Molecular Orbital (FMO) Approach Diels-Alder rections can be devided into, normal electron demand and inverse electron demand additions. This difference is based on the way the rate of the reaction responds to the introduction of electron withdrawing and electron donating substituents. Normal electron demand Diels-Alder reactions are promoted by electron donating substituents on the diene and electron withdrawing substituents on the dienophile. In contrast, inverse electron demand reactions are accelerated by electron withdrawing substituents on the diene and electron donating ones on the dienophile. There also exists an intermediate class, the neutral Diels-alder reaction, which is accelerated by both electron withdrawing and donating substitutents. The way the substituents affect the rate of the reaction can be rationalized with aid of Frontier Molecular Orbital (FMO) theory. This theory was developed during a study of the role of orbital asymmetry in pericyclic reactions by Woodward and Hoffmann9 and, independently, by fukui10 Later, Houk contributed significantly to the understanding of the reactivity and selectivity of these processes.11 The FMO theory states that a reaction between two compounds is controlled by the efficiency with which the molecular orbitals of the individual reaction partners interact. The interaction is most efficient for the reactivity is completely determined by interactions of the electrons that are highest in energy of the of the reaction partners (those in the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital, the HOMO) with the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) of the other partner, applied to the Diels-alder reactions, two modes of interaction are possible. The reaction can be controlled by the interaction of the HOMO of the diene and the LUMO of the Dienophile (normal electron demand), or by the interaction between the LUMO of the diene and the HOMO of the dienophile (inverse electron demand), as illustrated in Fig-B. In the former case, a reduction of the diene-HOMO and dienophile-LUMO energy gap can be realized by either raising the energy of the HOMO of the diene by introducing electron donating substituents or lowering the energy of the dienophile LUMO by the introduction of electron donating substituents or lowering the energy of the dienophile LUMO by the introduction of electron withdrawing substituents. A glance at Fig-A confirms that in the formation of two new bonds, orbital symmetry is conserved so that, according to Woodward and Hoffmann, the reaction is concerted. In other words, no intermediate is involved in the pericyclic process such as the Diels-Alder reaction.12 This conclusion is consistent with a number of experimental observations. The cis or trans conformation of the dienophile is fully conserved in the configuration of the cycloadduct, which proves that there is no intermediate involved with a lifetime long enough to allow rotation around C-C bond. Selectivity can arise when substituted dienes and dienophiles are employed in the Diels-Alder reaction. Two different cycloadducts denoted as endo and exo are possible. Under the usual conditions their ratio is kinetically controlled. Alder and Stein already discerned that there usually exists a preference for formation of the endo isomer i.e formulated as tendency of maximum accumulation of unsaturation, (the Alder-Stein rule)13 Indeed, there are only very few examples of Diels-Alder reactions where the exo isomer is major product.14 The interactions underlying this behavior have been subject of intensive research. Since the reactions leading to endo and exo product share the same initial state, the difference between the respective transition-state energies fully account for the observed selectivity. These differences are typically in the range of 10-15 kJ per mole.15 Woodward and Katz16 suggested that secondary orbital interactions are of primary importance. These interactions are illustrated in fig-B for the normal electron demand (HOMO-diene, LUMO-dienophile controlled). The symmetry allowed overlap between π-orbital of the carbonyl group of the dienophile and the diene-HOMO is only possible in the endo activiated complex. Hence, only the endo transition state is stabilized so that the reaction forming the endo adduct is faster than that yielding exo product. This interpretation has been criticized by Mellor, who attributed the endo selectivity to steric interactions. Steric effects are frequently suggested as important in determining the selectivity of Diels-Alder reactions, particularly of α-subsituted dienophiles, and may ultimately lead to exo-selectivity. 17 For other systems, steric effects in the exo activated complex can enhance endo selectivity. 18 In summary, it seems for most Diels-Alder reactions secondary orbital interactions afford a satisfactory rationalization of the endo-exo selectivity. However, since the endo-exo ratio is determined by small differences in transition state energies, the influence of other interactions, most often steric in origin and different for each particular reaction is likely to be felt. The compact character of the Diels-Alder activated complex (the activation volume of the retro Diels-Alder reaction is negative) will attenuate these effects.19 Results and Discussions Chabamides F & G as dimeric amide alkaloids were isolated from this plant Piper chaba Hunter. These two dimers were formed by Diels-Alder reaction employing monomer trichostachine. This hypothesis was further confirmed by the mass spectrum, which showed a significant peak at m/z 294.113 [M++Na], assigned to the trichostachine ion arising by the Retro-Diels–Alder cleavage of molecular ion into two halves. Finally, to confirm the existence of the compounds F and G, we extracted the roots of P.chaba with MeOH at room temperature followed HPLC/electron spray ionization (ESI) MS experiments. In HPLC/ESIMS of the MeOH extract showed the presence of peaks at m/z 563 [M++Na] and 543 [M++1] at about 8.8 min and 10.6 min of LC retention time, respectively. To prove this biosynthetic hypothesis we have carried out the intermolecular [4+2] cycloaddition reaction with the trichostachine under solvent free conditions (Scheme 1). Reaction mixture was analysed by the LC-MS, which clearly indicted the presence of the compounds 1 and 2 (retention time and mass). In HPLC analysis, retention times of the synthetic 1 and 2 were identical to those of chabamide F and G, confirming the structure and stereochemistry are same as that of isolated alkaloids. Based on above result during Diels-Alder reaction of trichostachine, we developed two kinds of methodologies for this biomimetic synthesis of dimeric amide alkaloids based on catalytic. On the basis of a biosynthetic hypothesis (described in Chapter I) by the intermolecular Diels-Alder reaction, we chosen piperine (1a), pellitorine (1c) and trans-fagaramide (1c) as substrates to perform the biomimetic synthesis of the dimeric chabamides (Compound H-K) and this study also identified plausible products between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1c). This study not only explains formation of cyclo adducts but also explains the different mechanistic aspects in Diels-Alder reaction (endo and exo products) of copper salts in aqueous medium. Under normal conditions only combinations of dienes and dienophiles that have FMO’s of similar energy can be transformed into a Diels-Alder adduct. When the gap between the FMO’s large, forcing conditions are required, and undesired side reactions and retro Diels-Alder reactions can easily take over. These cases challenge the creativity of the organic chemist and have led to the invention of a number of methods for promoting reluctant Diels-Alder reactions under mild conditions.20 Plausible mechanism for Diels-Alder reaction: Sijbren Otto. et. al studied extensively on copper (II) catalyzed Diels-Alder reactions on various moieties. 25, 26 Based on these reports we proposed plausible mechanism for this copper catalyzed Diels-Alder reaction. The first step in the cycle comprises rapid coordination of the lewis acid to the dienophile leading to a complex in which the dienophile is activated for reaction with the diene. The cycloadduct has dissociated from the lewis acid in order to make the catalyst available for another cycle. However we didn’t carry any kinetic studies to prove this mechanism. Plausible mechanism of Diels-Alder reaction catalyzed by copper (II) salts Use of lewis acids in Diels-Alder reaction is to lower LUMO dienophile energy to result in the decrease of the LUMO dienophile-HOMO diene gap (normal electron demand) or reduce LUMO diene energy to result in the decrease of the LUMO diene-HOMO dienophile gap (inverse electron demand). The presence of Lewis acids, the Diels-Alder dimerization of piperine, pellitorine, piperine with fagaramide, peperine with pellitorine, gave much lower combined yields in neat conditions. Wie et al. previously reported 21, 22 Diels-Alder reaction of piperine and in both thermal and by lewis acid of Co(II) Cl2.6H2O/P(Ph)3/Zn (1:10:10 mol %) in 3-octanol at 170oC with isomerised product (24 %) and 77 % over all yield. To find the optimum conditions towards the catalyst, piperine (1a) was taken to perform the Diels-Alder reaction in presence of variety of lewis acids and metal salts (Table 1). The highest catalytic activity was attained for the reaction using 10 mol % of Cu (II) salts. The role of copper salts in this reaction can be attributed to its Lewis acid ability, which enhances both the electron donating capacity of diene and electron withdrawing capacity of the dienophile (required for normal electron demand for Diels-Alder reaction). The The catalytic activitiy of Lewis acids like Cu+2 mainly relies on their coordinating character to assemble both dienophile and diene to such a way that promote the reaction to wards the reaction barrier. To find the optimum conditions towards the solvent several reactions were carried out under the solvents like benzene, toluene, xylene, water and results were tabulated (Table 2). Among organic solvents xylene is better to get considerable yield with copper salts. Later water was found to be the best for both yield and selectivity of this cycloaddition. Cycloaddition reactions of piperine (1a): Lewis acids catalyzed cycloaddition reactions (Scheme 2) of piperine (1a) under organic and aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a and 6a, among them 2a is major ortho-exo cyclohexene type dimeric amide alkaloid and also known as chabamide, which is previously isolated23 from this plant, isomer 3a is previously isolated from Piper nigrum21 Remaining isomers (4a-6a) were synthesized from piperine by Diels-Alder reaction by Kun Wei. et al. its physical and spectroscopic data were identical with reported data22 (1H-NMR, 13C-NMR & Mass spectra). In the cycloaddition of piperine (1a), solvents toluene, xylene and water were used in presence of cuper (II) salts. Reaction showed good overall yield and more exo selectivity in organic solvent like xylene. Water catalyzed reactions were ended with good overall yield and minute decrease in exo selectivity, infinitesimal increase in endo selectivity (Table 2). This reaction showed completely regioselectivity (yield of 2a+3a>4a+5a+6a) due to maximum involvement of α-double bond rather than γ-double bond of 1a during Diels-Alder reaction. Cycloaddition reactions of pellitorine (1b): Same catalytic and solvent conditions were employed for pellitorine (1b) as used in piperine (1a) for the biomimetic synthesis (Scheme 3) of chabamide J & K (Chapter-II). These dimers were plausibly generated by monomer pellitorine by cycloaddtion reactions in biosynthesis. During cycloaddition of pellitorine (1b), solvents like toluene xylene and water were used in presence of cupper (II) salts. In former catalyzed reaction showed good overall yield and more endo selectivity in both organic (xylene) and water. Increase in endo selectivity is more in aqueous medium rather than organic solvent like xylene (Table 2). Cycloaddition of pellitorine under above said catalytic conditions gave corresponding cycloadducts 2b, 3b, 4b and 5b. Physical and spectral data of adducts 2b & 3b are identical with compound J & K (chabamide J & K mentioned in Chapter-II) and all physical and spectral data of adduct 4b is identical with nigramide O which is isolated previously from piper nigrum.21 The structure of 5b a new cycloadduct formed during this biomoimetic synthesis employ pellitorine as monomer, its structure was elucidated by 1D and 2D spectral data. This reaction showed completely regioselectivity (yield of 2b+5b≈3b+4b) due to maximum involvement of α-double bond rather than γ-double bond of 1b during Diels-Alder reaction. Structure elucidation of compound 5b: Compound 5b was obtained as a pale yellow oil, had the molecular formula of C28H50N2O2, as deduced from the HRESIMS (Fig-9) m/z, 447.3958 [M++H]. IR spectrum (Fig-1) implied the presence of carbonyl (1648 cm-1) and NH (3304 cm-1). The 1H NMR spectrum of 5b revealed the presence of a trans double bond at δ 5.28 (dd, J = 15.0, 10.0 Hz, H-4"), 5.63 (m, H-5"), two isobutylamide groups at δ 3.15 (m), 3.17 (m), 3.17 (m, H2-1'), 1.74 (m, H-2'), 0.91 (d, J = 6.7 Hz, H-3'), 0.90 (d, J = 6.7, H- 3'), 5.53 (br t, J = 5.7 Hz, NH) and δ 2.96 (m, H1-1'''), 2.97 (m, H2-1'''), 1.73 (m, H-2'''), 0.87 (d, J = 6.7 Hz, H-3'''), 0.86 (d, J = 6.7 Hz, H-3'''), 3.15 (br t, J = 6.0 Hz, NH), n-amyl group and 1-heptene unit at δ 1.96 (m, H-6), 1.40 (m, H-7), 1.20 (m, H-8), 1.27 (m, H-9), 0.86 ( t, J = 6.5 Hz, H-10) and δ 5.28 (dd, J = 15.0, 10.0 Hz, H-4"), 5.63 (m, H-5"), 1.89 (m, H-6"), 1.30 (m, H-7"), 1.28 (m, H-8"), 1.27 (m, H-9"), 0.88 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, H-10"), respectively (Table 3). The 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-3) displayed the presence of 28 carbon atoms and were further classified by DEPT experiments (Fig-4) into categories of 6 methyls, 10 methylenes, 10 methines and 2 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.80 and 173.04). ' The analyses of the 1H and 13C NMR spectral data of 5b showed a high degree of similarity to dimeric alkaloid, compound J naturally isolated from this plant (Chapter-II) compound is meta-endo while 5b is meta-exo product. Furthermore, the detailed elucidation of the 2D NMR data (COSY, HSQC and HMBC) had determined the planar structure of 5b. The 1H homodecoupling NMR (Fig-7) experiments of 5b revealed the connectivities H-2 (δ 2.45, m) to H-3 (δ 5.56, ddd, J = 10.0, 4.3, 2.6 Hz) to H-4 (δ 5.98, dt, J = 10.0, 1.8 Hz) to H-5 (δ 2.41, m) to H-2"( δ 2.68, dd, J = 11.3, 10.0 Hz) to H-3" (δ 2.82, ddd, J = 10.1, 10.0, 5.0 Hz ) via cyclohexene ring protons. The meta-orientation of the carbonyl and isobutylamide groups were established by HMBC (Fig-6) correlations for δ 2.45 (m, H-2), 5.56 (ddd, J = 10.0, 4.3, 2.6 Hz, H-3), 2.82 (ddd, J = 10.3, 10.0, 5.0 Hz, H-3")/δ 173.80 (C-1) and δ 2.68 (dd, J = 10.3, 10.0 Hz, H-2"), 2.41 (m, H-5), 2.82 (ddd, J = 10.3, 10.0, 5.0 Hz, H-3")/δ 173.04 (C-1"). Furthermore, the 1H-1H COSY (Fig-7) cross-peaks between δ 2.82 (ddd, J = 10.3, 10.0, 5.0 Hz, H-3") and δ 5.28 (dd, J = 15.0, 10.0 Hz, H-4"), and δ 5.63 (m, H-5") and δ 2.41 (m, H-5), 1.96 (m, H-6), 1.40 (m, H-7), coupled with the HMBC correlation for δ 5.63 (m, H-5'') to δ 28.35 (C-7"), δ 1.40 (m, H-7) to δ 37.04 (C-5) established the attachment of the 1-heptene and n-amyl groups at C-3" and C-5, respectively. The analysis of the 1H-1H coupling constants and NOESY (Fig- 8) data allowed us to determine the relative stereochemistry of compound 5b. The coupling constants of H-2"/H-5 and H-2"/H-3" (10.3 Hz) indicated anti relations of H-2"/H-5 and H-2"/H-3". In the NOESY spectrum correlations were observed at δ 2.45 (H-2) δ 2.82 (H-3") and δ 2.41 (H-5) and correlations were not observed at δ 2.68 (H-2") with δ 2.82 (H-3") and δ 2.68 (H-2") with δ 2.41 (H-5). These data were in agreement with the β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-3" and H-5. Thus, based on these spectral data the stereostructure of 5b was confirmed and trivially named as chabamide L. Cycloaddition reaction between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b): Our aim of this cycloaddition reaction is to explain to study different cycloadducts and selectivity of diene among piperine and pellitorine (Scheme 4). This biomimetic synthesis will explain the probability of diene, which participated in Diels-Alder reaction between piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b) both were isolated from same plant (P. chaba). Nigramide N, which is formed biosynthetically via cycloaddition reaction between piperine and pellitorine, this adduct previously isolated from roots of P. nigrum 21 by Wei. et. al. Lewis acid catalyzed cycloaddition reactions of piperine (1a) and pellitorine (1b) under organic and aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2c, 3c, 4c, 2a and 3b. Cycloadduct 2c and 3c is new cycloadducts and their structures were illustrated by 1D and 2D spectral data. Structure elucidation of compound 2c: Compound 2c was obtained as pale yellow liquid. The molecular formula of 2c was established as C31H44N2O4 by HRESIMS (Fig-18), which provided a molecular ion peak at m/z 509.3381 [M++H], in conjunction with its 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-12). The IR spectrum displayed absorption bands diagnostic of carbonyl (1640 cm-1) (Fig-10). The 300 MHz 1H NMR spectrum (in CDCl3) indicated the presence of two signals at δ 5.86 (dd, J = 15.6, 10.1 Hz) and 6.27 (d, J = 15.6 Hz), which were assigned to trans-olefinic protons by the coupling constant of 15.6 Hz. It also displayed aromatic protons due to two 1, 3, 4-trisubstituted aromatic rings at δ 6.82 (1H, br s), 6.76 (1H, dd, J = 7.8, 1.4 Hz), 6.75 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz) (Fig-11), (Table 4). In addition to the above-mentioned moieties, combined inspection of 1H NMR and 1H–1H COSY revealed the presence of cyclohexene ring, one isobutylamide and one pyrrolidine ring. The 13C NMR spectrum displayed the presence of 31 carbon atoms and were further confirmed by DEPT experiments into categories of 11 methylenes, 12 methines and 5 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.01 and 172.50). On the basis of these characteristic features, database and literature search led the skeleton of compound 2c as a dimeric alkaloidal framework. A comprehensive analysis of the 2D NMR data of compound 2c facilitated the proton and carbon assignments. 1H–1H COSY spectrum suggested the sequential correlations of δ 3.51 (dq, J = 5.0, 2.6 Hz)/5.62 (dt, J = 9.8, 2.6 Hz)/6.10 (ddd, J = 9.8, 1.5 Hz)/2.20 (m)/2.72 (ddd, J = 11.1, 10.1, 5.2 Hz)/3.35 (dd, J = 11.1, 9.8 Hz) assignable to H-2-H-3-H-4-H-5-H-3"-H-2" of the cyclohexene ring. Concerning the connections of the n-amyl and 3, 4-methylenedioxy styryl groups, HMBC spectrum (Fig-15) showed correlations of H-4, H-6, H-7/C-5; H-5", H-4"/C-3", which implies that these units were bonded to the cyclohexene ring at C-5 and C-3". Further, HMBC correlations of two methylene protons at δ 5.95 with 147.91 (C-8"), 146.87 (C-9"), confirmed the location of methylenedioxy group at C-8", and C-9". Remaining units, isobutylamine and pyrrolidine (rings) were connected through carbonyl groups at C-2 and C-2", which was confirmed by HMBC correlations of H-2 and H-1' to C-1 (δ 173.01) and H-2" and H-1''' to C-1" (δ 172.50). The assignment of the relative configuration of compound 2c, and confirmation of overall structure were achieved by the interpretation of the NOESY spectral data and by analysis of 1H NMR coupling constants. The large vicinal coupling constants of H-2"/H-2 (11.1 Hz) and H-2"/H-3" (11.1 Hz) indicated anti-relations of H-2"/H-2 and H-2"/H-3" and the axial orientations for these protons. In the NOESY spectrum (Fig-17), the occurrence of the correlations between H-2/H-3" and the absence of NOE effects between H-2/H-2" and H-2"/H-3" supported the above result. This data indicated β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-2 and H-3". The α-orientation of H-5 was suggested by the coupling constant of H-5/H-3" (5.2 Hz) and the absence of the NOESY correlations between H-3" and H-2". On the basis of these spectral data, the structure of compound 2c was unambiguously established and trivially named as chabamide M. Structure elucidation of compound 3c: Compound 3c was obtained as pale yellow liquid. The molecular formula of 3c was established as C31H44N2O4 by HRESIMS (Fig-27), which provided a molecular ion peak at m/z 509.3391 [M++H], in conjunction with its 13C NMR spectrum (Fig-21). The IR spectrum displayed absorption bands diagnostic of carbonyl (1624 cm-1) moiety (Fig-19). The 300 MHz 1H NMR spectrum (in CDCl3) indicated the presence of two signals at δ 4.63 (dd, J = 15.6, 10.0 Hz) and 5.46 (dt, J = 15.6, 6.8 Hz), which were assigned to trans-olefinic protons by the coupling constant of 15.6 Hz. It also displayed aromatic protons due to two 1, 3, 4-trisubstituted aromatic ring at δ 6.75 (1H, br s), 6.73 (1H, d, J = 7.8, 1.4 Hz), 6.71 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz) (Fig-20). In addition to the above-mentioned moieties, combined inspection of 1H NMR and 1H–1H COSY revealed the presence of cyclohexene ring, one isobutylamide and one pyrrolidine ring. The 13C NMR spectrum displayed the presence of 31 carbon atoms (Table 5), and were further classified by DEPT experiments (Fig-22) into categories of 11 methylenes, 12 methines and 5 quaternary carbons including two carbonyls (δ 173.34 and 173.88). On the basis of these characteristic features, database and literature searches led the skeleton of compound 3c as a dimeric alkaloidal framework. A comprehensive analysis of the 2D NMR data of compound 3c facilitated the proton and carbon assignments. 1H–1H COSY spectrum (Fig-25) suggested the sequential correlations of δ 2.82 (m)/5.63 (dt, J = 9.7, 1.9 Hz)/5.82 (ddd, J = 9.7, 4.8, 1.9 Hz)/3.94 (dq, J =.10.0, 1.9 Hz)/2.76 (ddd, J = 11.7, 10.0 Hz)/3.36 (dt, J = 11.7, 4.8 Hz) assignable to H-2-H-3-H-4-H-5-H-3"-H-2" of the cyclohexene ring. Concerning the connections of the 3, 4-methylenedioxyphenyl and 1-heptene groups, HMBC spectrum (Fig-24) showed correlations of H-7, H-11, H-3"/C-5; H-5", H-4", H-5/C-3", which implies that these units were bonded to the cyclohexene ring at C-5 and C-3". Further, HMBC correlations of two methylene protons at δ 5.92 with 147.42 (C-8"), 146.49 (C-9"), confirmed the location of methylenedioxy group at C-8", and C-9". Remaining units, pyrrolidine and isobutylamine were connected through carbonyl groups at C-2 and C-2", which was confirmed by HMBC correlations of H-2 and H-1' to C-1 (δ 171.34) and H-2" and H-1''' to C-1" (δ 173.88). The assignment of the relative configuration of compound 3c, and confirmation of overall structure were achieved by the interpretation of the NOESY spectral data and by analysis of 1H NMR coupling constants. The large vicinal coupling constants of H-3"/H-2" (11.7 Hz) and H-5/H-3" (10.0 Hz), indicated anti-relations of H-3"/H-5 and H-3"/H-2" and the axial orientations for these protons. In the NOESY spectrum (Fig-26), the occurrence of the correlations between H-2"/H-5 and the absence of NOE effects between H-3"/H-2" and H-3"/H-5 supported the above result. These data indicated β-orientation for H-2" and α-orientation for H-2 and H-3". The α-orientation of H-2 was suggested by the coupling constant of H-2/H-2" (4.8 Hz) and the occurrence of the NOESY correlations between H-2" and H-2. On the basis of this spectral data, the structure of compound 3c was unambiguously established and trivially named as Chabamide N. Cycloaddition reaction between piperine (1a) and E-fagaramide (1c) Lewis acid catalyzed cycloaddition reactions (Scheme 5) of piperine (1a) and trans-fagaramide (1c) under aqueous solvent conditions to give resultant cycloadducts 2d, 3d and 2a. To carry this biomimetic synthesis to explain compound H and I (mentioned in chapter-II), we taken piperine (1a) which is isolated from same plant and trans fagaramide was synthesized by reported method.24 Cycloaddition reaction between 1a and 1c end up with overall yield 70% in xylene and 75% in water. In both solvents ortho products were formed dominantly compared with meta products. Spectral data 1D and 2D of cycloadducts 2d & 3d were identical with compound H & I (see chapter I, compound H & K). Cycloadduct 2a is identical with chabamide. This cycloaddition reaction practically proved as biomimetic synthesis for compound H and I. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to Director IICT for his constant encouragement and CSIR New Delhi for providing the fellowship References and Notes Braun, M. Synth. Highlights 1991, 232 Robinson, R. Chem. Soc. 1917, 762. Stork, G.; Burgstahler, A. W. Am. Chem. Soc. 1955, 38, 1890. Johnson, W. S.; Gravestock, M. B.; McCarry, B. E. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 4332. Chapman, O. L.; Engel, M. R.; Springer, J. P.; Clardy, J. C. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 6696. Bandaranayake, W. M.; Banfield, J. E.; Black, D. St. C. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1980, 902. Nicolaou, K. C.; Zipkin, R. E.; Petasis, N. A. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982, 104, 5558. O.; Alder, K. Ann. 1928, 460, 98. Woodward, R. B.; Hoffmann, R. Chem. 1969, 81, 797. Fakui, K. Chem. Res. 1971, 4, 57. Houk, K. N. Chem.. Res. 1975, 8, 361. Houk, K. N.; Li, Y.; Evanseck, D. Angew Chem., Ed. Engl. 1992, 31, 682. Alder, K.; Stein, G. Chem. 1937, 50, 510. Fotiadu, F.; Michel, F.; Buono, G. Tetraheron Lett. 1990, 34, 4863. Gleiter, R.; Bohm, M. C. Pure Appl. Chem. 1983, 55, 237. Woodward, R. B.; Katz, T. J. Terahedron 1958, 5, 70. Kakushima, M. J. Chem. 1979, 57, 2564. Houk, K. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1970, 30, 2621. Houk, K. N.; Luskus, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 4606. Otto, S.; Bertoncin, F.; Engberts, J. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc., 1996, 118, 7702–7707. Wei, K.; Li, W.; Koike, K.; Chen, Y-J.; Nikaido, T. Org. Chem. 2005, 70, 1164. Wei, K.; Li, W.; Koike, K.; Chen, Y-J.; Nikaido, T. Lett. 2005, 7, 2833–2835. Rukachaisirikul, T.; Prabpai, S.; Champung, P.; Suksamrarn, A. Planta Med. 2002, 68, 850-853. Nagao, Y.; Seno, K.; Kawabata, K.; Miyasaka, T.; Takao, S.; Fujita, Tetrahedron Lett. 1980, 21, 841. Otto, S.; Boccaletti, G.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 120, 4238–4239. Otto, S.; Bertoncin, F.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 7702–7707. O.; Alder, K. Ann. 1931, 490, 243. Woodward, R. B.; Baer, H. Am. Chem. Soc. 1948, 70, 1161. Breslow, R.; Rideout, D. C. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7816. Breslow, R.; Guo, T. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988, 110, 5613. Grieco, P.A.; Nunes, J. J.; Gaul, M. D. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 4595.

This article is entitled “The Movement of the 7 December Division Troops in the West Java Region (1947-1950)”. The main problem discussed in this article is how the movement of the 7 December Division Troops while in West Java. The purpose of this study is to examine more deeply the movement of the 7 December Division Troops in West Java during the battle with the TNI and the policies carried out by the 7 December Division while in West Java. This research used historical method which has several steps, namely Heuristic, source criticism in which there are external and internal criticisms, interpretation and historiography. To deepen the analysis of this research, this research used the approach of sociology and conflict theory. The research used literature study technique. Based on research results, the December 7th Division was a special troop formed directly by Queen Wilhelmina. These troops were asked to come to Indonesia and be stationed in the West Java region for the task of carrying out security and order. But the security and order carried out by the 7 December Division Troops in West Java constituted colonial order and security. West Java region is a strategic place because by conquering West Java, to control the capital can easily be achieved. The December 7th Division troops had their headquarters in the Batavia area. The 7 December Division troops have guardhouses in West Java, including: Buitenzorg, Batavia, Cibadak, Cianjur, Sukabumi, Tanggerang, Cibinong, Kebalen, and Tanjung Priok. In 1950, the 7 December Division was withdrawn and relieved of duties by Dutch East Indies. Keywords: 7 December Division Troops, West Java Region, Security and Order, Battle of West Java

This article is entitled “The Movement of the 7 December Division Troops in the West Java Region (1947-1950)”. The main problem discussed in this article is how the movement of the 7 December Division Troops while in West Java. The purpose of this study is to examine more deeply the movement of the 7 December Division Troops in West Java during the battle with the TNI and the policies carried out by the 7 December Division while in West Java. This research used historical method which has several steps, namely Heuristic, source criticism in which there are external and internal criticisms, interpretation and historiography. To deepen the analysis of this research, this research used the approach of sociology and conflict theory. The research used literature study technique. Based on research results, the December 7th Division was a special troop formed directly by Queen Wilhelmina. These troops were asked to come to Indonesia and be stationed in the West Java region for the task of carrying out security and order. But the security and order carried out by the 7 December Division Troops in West Java constituted colonial order and security. West Java region is a strategic place because by conquering West Java, to control the capital can easily be achieved. The December 7th Division troops had their headquarters in the Batavia area. The 7 December Division troops have guardhouses in West Java, including: Buitenzorg, Batavia, Cibadak, Cianjur, Sukabumi, Tanggerang, Cibinong, Kebalen, and Tanjung Priok. In 1950, the 7 December Division was withdrawn and relieved of duties by Dutch East Indies. Keywords: 7 December Division Troops, West Java Region, Security and Order, Battle of West Java

Fantastic Realism, rising from the surrealism movement, began with the Vienna Fantastic Realism school, founded in 1945 by Rudolf Hausner, Ernst Fuchs, Wolfgang Hutter, Anton Lehmden and Arik Brauer after World War II. Famous critic Prof. Johann Muschik named this core group "Fantastic Realists" due to the religious, mysterious subjects and symbolist approaches, that they dealt with in their works. In this research, the works of Ernst Fuchs (1930-2015), one of the world's leading representative of the fantastic realist art movement, "The Cross (1950)" and the "Human, Horse, Eagle Trio (1991)" by Erol Deneç (1941-…) are analyzed by using E. B. Feldmann’s "investigative art criticism" method, which is included in the discipline-based art education. E. B. Feldmann's method of "investigative art criticism"; consists of description, analysis, interpretation and judgment sub-titles. After examining the works independently, they were compared in terms of their similarities and differences. Despite the subject and technical richness of fantastic realism, a comparative study of the works of two artists from different lives and cultures produced with similar characteristics emphasizes the importance of the study, in this aspect it is thought that it will contribute to art education and shed light on researchers interested in the field. Keywords: Fantastic Realism, Ernst Fuchs, Erol Deneç, investigative art criticism

This research was distributed by attractions of authors to Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh the leader with big influence when the revolution happened in Aceh. The main issues studied in this research is “How was Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh’s role in defending the independence of Indonesian Republic in Aceh 1945-1950?”. This study uses historical method which includes four steps: 1) Heuristics, 2) Criticism, 3) Interpretation, 4) Historiography. Based on the result, the political and socio-economic conditions in Aceh after the independence of Indonesian Republic was unstable. The role of Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh in Peristiwa Cumbok gave the awareness to local government to give more attention in this horizontal conflict and he instructing to mobilize the troops to attack the uleebalang clan in Pidie. He also stopped the Tentara Perjuangan Rakyat (TPR) movement who headed by Husin Al Mujahid. As the Military Governor of Aceh, Langkat, and Tanah Karo, Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh can merged the paramilitary organizations into TNI organization, he also the inisiator who collected the cost to buy an airplane for Indonesian government, and he can stopped the Sayid Ali movement. Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh rejected the merging of Aceh into the Sumatera Utara Province and this case made his disappointed to the center government and also Soekarno.

This study aims to reconstruct the political participation of Iskandar Djabir Syah (the 47thSultan of Ternate) in the establishment of the State of Eastern Indonesia. The study focuses on outlining some political events involving Iskandar Djabir Syah such as the Malino and Denpasar conferences and becaming the Minister of Home Affairs of the Eastern Indonesia State for 1949 to 1950 periods. The method used in this paper is a heuristic method that is history, criticism, interpretation and historiography. The results showed that: (1) the participation of Sultan of Ternate Iskandar Djabir Syah in the unitary state started in the early independence of the Republic of Indonesia; it was characterized by conducting Malino and Denpasar conferences in 1946. The establishment of the Eastern Indonesia State became the political inspiration for Iskandar Djabir Syah to involve as the senate member of the Eastern Indonesia State/NIT representing North Maluku, as well as one of its designers. (2) As one of the leaders who agreed to the idea of van Mook to form a federalist country in the Malino and Denpasar conference, so that when the Eastern Indonesia State was formed, he was appointed as the Minister of Home Affairs in the cabinet of J.E. Tatengkeng for 1949 to 1950 periods. (3) Malino to Denpasar Conference in 1946 initiated by H.J. van Mook was the Dutch effort to establish the states in order to realize the United States of Indonesia (Republik Indonesia Serikat/RIS) based on Linggarjati Agreement. At the conference, it was formed the Eastern Indonesia State (Negara Indonesia Timur/NIT) covering the areas of Sulawesi, Small Sunda (Bali and Nusa Tenggara) and the Maluku Islands.Keywords: Sultan of Ternate Iskandar Djabir Syah, Political History, Malino and Denpasar Conferences, the Minister of Home Affairs of Eastern Indonesia State (NIT)

The difficulty of reading Allen Ginsberg's poetry is a recurring theme in criticism of his work and that of other post-WWII "Beat Generation" writers. "Even when a concerted effort is made to illuminate [Beat] literature," laments Nancy M. Grace, "doing so is difficult: the romance of the Beat life threatens to subsume the project" (812). Of course, the Beat life is romantic to the extent that it is romantically regaled. Continual romantic portrayals, such as that of Ginsberg in the recent movie Howl (2010), rekindle the Beat romance for new audiences with chicken-and-egg circularity. I explore this difficulty of reading Ginsberg that Grace and other critics identify by articulating it with respect to "Kaddish"—"Ginsberg's most highly praised and his least typical poem" (Perloff 213)—as a difficulty of interpreting Ginsberg suspiciously. Philosopher Paul Ricoeur's theories of interpretation—or "hermeneutics"—provide the theoretical foundation here. Ricoeur distinguishes between a romantic or "restorative" mode of interpretation, where meaning is reverently reconciled to a text assumed to be trustworthy, and a "suspicious" approach, where meaning is aggressively extrapolated from a text held as unreliable. In order to bring these theories to bear on "Kaddish" and its criticism, I draw on Rita Felski's pioneering work in relating Ricoeur's concept of "suspicious reading" to the field of literature. Is it possible to read "Kaddish" suspiciously? Or is there nothing left for suspicious readers to expose in texts such as "Kaddish" that are already self-exposing? In "Kaddish," Ginsberg tells the story of his mother Naomi Ginsberg, a Russian Jewish immigrant, who died in a mental hospital in 1956. It is a lengthy prose poem and spans a remarkable 19 pages in Ginsberg's Collected Poems (1984). In the words of Maeera Y. Shreiber, "Kaddish" "is a massive achievement, comprised of five numbered parts, and an interpellated 'Hymmnn' between parts two and three" (84). I focus on the second narrative part, which forms the bulk of the poem, where the speaker—I shall refer to him henceforth as "Allen" in order to differentiate between Ginsberg's poetic self-representation and Ginsberg-the-author—recounts the nervous breakdowns and hospital movements of his mother, whom he calls by her first name, Naomi. I begin by illustrating the ways in which Allen focalises Naomi in the text, and suggest that his attempts to "read" her suspicious mind alternate between restorative and suspicious impulses. I then take up the issue of reading "Kaddish" suspiciously. Acknowledging Ricoeur's assertion that psychoanalysis is an unequivocal "school of suspicion" (32), I consider James Breslin's psychoanalytic criticism on "Kaddish," in particular, his reading of what is easily the most contentious passage in the poem: the scene where Naomi solicits Allen for sex. I regard this passage as a microcosm of the issues that beset a suspicious reading of "Kaddish"—such as the problem posed by the self-exposing poem and poet—and I find that Breslin's response to it raises interesting questions on the politics of psychoanalysis and the nature of suspicious interpretation. Finally, I identify an unpublished thesis on Ginsberg's poetry by Sarah Macfarlane and classify her interpretation of "Kaddish" as unambiguously suspicious. My purpose is not to advance my own suspicious reading of "Kaddish" but to highlight the difficulties of reading "Kaddish" suspiciously. I argue that while it is difficult to read "Kaddish" suspiciously, to do so offers a fruitful counterbalance to the dominant restorative criticism on the poem. There are as yet unexplored hermeneutical territories in and around this poem, indeed in and around Ginsberg's work in general, which have radical implications for the future direction of Beat studies. Picking her tooth with her nail, lips formed an O, suspicion—thought's old worn vagina— (Ginsberg, "Kaddish" 218)Ginsberg constructs Naomi's suspicion in "Kaddish" via Allen's communication of her visions and descriptions of her behaviour. Allen relates, for example, that Naomi once suspected that Hitler was "in her room" and that "she saw his mustache in the sink" ("Kaddish" 220). Subsequently, Allen depicts Naomi "listening to the radio for spies—or searching the windowsill," and, in an attempt to "read" her suspicious mind, suggests that she envisages "an old man creep[ing] with his bag stuffing packages of garbage in his hanging black overcoat" ("Kaddish" 220). Allen's gaze thus filters Naomi's; he watches her as she watches for spies, and he animates her visions. He recalls as a child "watching over" Naomi in order to anticipate her "next move" ("Kaddish" 212). On one fateful day, Naomi "stared out the window on the Broadway Church corner"; Allen interprets that she "spied a mystical assassin from Newark" ("Kaddish" 212). He likewise observes and interprets Naomi's body language and facial expressions. When she "covered [her] nose with [a] motheaten fur collar" and "shuddered at [the] face" of a bus driver, he deduces that, for Naomi, the collar must have been a "gas mask against poison" and the driver "a member of the gang" ("Kaddish" 212). On the one hand, Allen's impetus to recover "the lost Naomi" ("Kaddish" 216)—first lost to mental illness and then to death—may be likened to Ricoeur's concept of a restorative hermeneutic, "which is driven by a sense of reverence and goes deeper into the text in search of revelation" (Felski 216). As if Naomi's mind constitutes a text, Allen strives to reveal it in order to make it intelligible. What drives him is the cathartic impulse to revivify his mother's memory, to rebuild her story, and to exalt her as "magnificent" and "mourned no more" ("Kaddish" 212), so that he may mourn no more. Like a restorative reader "driven by a sense of reverence" (Felski 216), he lauds Naomi as the "glorious muse that bore [him] from the womb [...] from whose pained head [he] first took Vision" ("Kaddish" 223). Critics of "Kaddish" also observe the poem's restorative impulse. In "Strange Prophecies Anew," Tony Trigilio reads the recovery of Naomi as "the recovery of a female principle of divinity" (773). Diverging from Ginsberg's earlier poem "Howl" (1956), which "represses signs of women in order to forge male prophetic comradeship," "Kaddish" "constructs maternity as a source of vision, an influence that precedes and sustains prophetic language. In 'Kaddish', Ginsberg attempts to recover the voice of his mother Naomi, which is muted in 'Howl'" (776). Shreiber also acknowledges Ginsberg's redemption of "the feminine, figured specifically as the lost mother," but for her it "is central to both of the long poems that make his reputation," namely "Kaddish" and "Howl" (81). She cites Ginsberg's retrospective confession that "Howl" was actually about Naomi to argue that, "it is in the course of writing 'Howl' that Ginsberg discovers his obligation to the elided (Jewish) mother—whose restoration is the central project of 'Kaddish'" (81). On the other hand, Allen's compulsion to "cut through" to Naomi, to talk to her as he "didn't when [she] had a mouth" ("Kaddish" 211), suggests the brutality of a suspicious hermeneutic where meanings "must be wrestled rather than gleaned from the page, derived not from what the text says, but in spite of what it says" (Felski 223). When Naomi was alive and "had a mouth," Allen aggressively "pushed her against the door and shouted 'DON'T KICK ELANOR!'" in spite of her message: "Elanor is the worst spy! She's taking orders!" ("Kaddish" 221). As a suspicious reader wrestles with a resistant text, Allen wrestles with Naomi, "yelling at her" in exasperation, and even "banging against her head which saw Radios, Sticks, Hitlers—the whole gamut of Hallucinations—for real—her own universe" ("Kaddish" 221).Allen may be also seen as approaching Naomi with a suspicious reader's "adversarial sensibility to probe for concealed, repressed, or disavowed meanings" (Felski 216). This is most visible in his facetiously professed "good idea to try [to] know the Monster of the Beginning Womb"—to penetrate Naomi's body in order to access her mind "that way" ("Kaddish" 219). Accordingly, in his psychoanalytic reading of "Kaddish," James Breslin understands Allen's "incestuous desires as expressing [his] wish to get inside his mother and see things as she does" (424). Breslin's interpretation invokes the Freudian concept of "epistemophilia," which Bran Nicol defines as the "desire to know" (48).Freud is one of "three masters" of suspicion according to Ricoeur (32). Freud, Nietzsche, and Marx "present the most radically contrary stance to the phenomenology of the sacred and to any hermeneutics understood as the recollection of meaning" (Ricoeur 35). They "begin with suspicion concerning the illusions of consciousness, and then proceed to employ the stratagem of deciphering" (Ricoeur 34). Freud deciphers the language of the conscious mind in order to access the "unconscious"—that "part of the mind beyond consciousness which nevertheless has a strong influence upon our actions" (Barry 96). Like their therapeutic counterparts, psychoanalytic critics distinguish "between the conscious and the unconscious mind," associating a text's "'overt' content with the former" and "'covert' content with the latter, privileging the latter as being what the work is 'really' about" (Barry 105). In seeking to expose a text's unconscious, they subscribe to a hermeneutic of suspicion's "conviction that appearances are deceptive, that texts do not gracefully relinquish their meanings" (Felski 216). To force texts to relinquish their meanings suspicious readers bear "distance rather than closeness; guardedness rather than openness; aggression rather than submission; superiority rather than reverence; attentiveness rather than distraction; exposure rather than tact" (Felski 222).For the most part, these qualities fail to characterise Breslin's psychoanalytic criticism on "Kaddish" and "Howl." Far from aggressive or superior, Breslin is a highly sympathetic reader of Ginsberg. "Many readers," he complains, are "still not sympathetic to the kind [sic] of form found in these poems" (403). His words echo Trigilio's endorsement of Marjorie Perloff's opinion that critics are too often "unwilling to engage the experimental scope of Ginsberg's poems" (Trigilio 774). Sympathetic reading, however, clashes with suspicious reading, which "involves a sense of vigilant preparedness for attack" (Shand in Felski 220). Breslin is sympathetic not only to the experimental forms of "Kaddish" and "Howl," but also to their attestation to "deep, long-standing private conflicts in Ginsberg—conflicts that ultimately stem from his ambivalent attachment to his mother" (403). In "Kaddish," Allen's ambivalent feelings toward his mother are conspicuous in his revolted and revolting reaction to her exposed body, combined with his blasé deliberation on whether to respond to her apparent sexual provocation: One time I thought she was trying to make me come lay her—flirting to herself at sink—lay back on huge bed that filled most of the room, dress up round her hips, big slash of hair, scars of operations, pancreas, belly wounds, abortions, appendix, stitching of incisions pulling down in the fat like hideous thick zippers—ragged long lips between her legs—What, even, smell of asshole? I was cold—later revolted a little, not much—seemed perhaps a good idea to try—know the Monster of the Beginning Womb—Perhaps—that way. Would she care? She needs a lover. ("Kaddish" 219)In "Confessing the Body," Elizabeth Gregory observes that "Naomi's ordinary body becomes monstrous in this description—not only in its details but in the undiscriminating desire her son attributes to it ('Would she care?')" (47). In exposing Naomi thus, Allen also exposes himself and his own indiscriminate sexual responsiveness. Such textual exposés pose challenges for those who would practice a hermeneutic of suspicion by "reading texts against the grain to expose their repressed or hidden meanings" (Felski 215). It appears that there is little that is hidden or repressed in "Kaddish" for a suspicious reader to expose. As Perloff notes, "the Ginsberg of 'Kaddish' is writing somewhat against the grain" (213). In writing against the grain, Ginsberg inhibits reading against the grain. A hermeneutic of suspicion holds "that manifest content shrouds darker, more unpalatable truths" (Felski 216). "Kaddish," however, parades its unpalatable truths. Although Ginsberg as a Beat poet is not technically included among the group of poets known as the "confessionals," "Kaddish" is typical of a "confessional poem" in that it "dwells on experiences generally prohibited expression by social convention: mental illness, intra-familial conflicts and resentments, childhood traumas, sexual transgressions and intimate feelings about one's body" (Gregory 34). There is a sense in which "we do not need to be suspicious" of such subversive texts because they are "already doing the work of suspicion for us" (Felski 217). It is also difficult to read "Kaddish" suspiciously because it presents itself as an autobiographical history of Ginsberg's relationship with his mother. "Kaddish" once again accords with Gregory's definition of "confessional poetry" as that which "draws on the poet's autobiography and is usually set in the first person. It makes a claim to forego personae and to represent an account of the poet's own feelings and circumstances" (34). These defining features of "Kaddish" make it not particularly conducive to a "suspicious hermeneutic [that] often professes a lack of interest in the category of authorship as a means of explaining the ideological workings of texts" (Felski 222). It requires considerable effort to distinguish Allen, speaker and character in "Kaddish," from Ginsberg, celebrity Beat poet and author of "Kaddish," and to suspend knowledge of Ginsberg's public-private life in order to pry ideologies from the text. This difficulty of resisting biographical interpretation of "Kaddish" translates to a difficulty of reading the poem suspiciously. In his psychoanalytic reading, Breslin's lack of suspicion for the poem's confession of autobiography dilutes his practice of an inherently suspicious mode of interpretation—that of psychoanalysis. His psychoanalysis of Ginsberg shows that he trusts "Kaddish" to confess its author's intimate feelings—"'It's my fault,' he must have felt, 'if I had loved my mother more, this wouldn't have happened to her—and to me'" (Breslin 422)—whereas a hermeneutic of suspicion "adopts a distrustful attitude toward texts" (Felski 216). That said, Breslin's differentiation between the conscious and unconscious, or surface and underlying levels of meaning in "Kaddish" is more clearly characteristic of a hermeneutic of suspicion's theory that texts withhold "meanings or implications that are not intended and that remain inaccessible to their authors as well as to ordinary readers" (Felski 216). Hence, Breslin speculates that, "on an unconscious level the writing of the poem may have been an act of private communication between the poet" and his mother (430). His response to the previously quoted passage of the poem suggests that while a cursory glance will restore its conscious meaning, a more attentive or suspicious gaze will uncover its unconscious: At first glance this passage seems a daring revelation of an incest wish and a shockingly realistic description of the mother's body. But what we really see here is how one post-Freudian writer, pretending to be open and at ease about incestuous desire, affects sophisticated awareness as a defense [sic] against intense longings and anxieties. The lines are charged with feelings that the poet, far from "confessing out," appears eager to deny. (Breslin 422; my emphasis)Breslin's temporary suspicious gaze in an otherwise trusting and sympathetic reading accuses the poet of revealing incestuous desire paradoxically in order to conceal incestuous desire. It exposes the exposé as an ironic guise, an attempt at subterfuge that the poet fails to conceal from the suspicious reader, evoking a hermeneutic of suspicion's conviction that in spite of itself "the text is not fully in control of its own discourse" (Felski 223). Breslin's view of Ginsberg's denial through the veil of his confession illuminates two possible ways of sustaining a suspicious reading of "Kaddish." One is to distrust its claim to confess Ginsberg, to recognise that "confession's reality claim is an extremely artful manipulation of the materials of poetry, not a departure from them" (Gregory 34). It is worth mentioning that in response to his interviewer's perception of the "absolute honesty" in his poem "Ego Confession," Ginsberg commented: "they're all poems, ultimately" (Spontaneous 404–05). Another way is to resist the double seduction operative in the text: Naomi's attempted seduction of Allen, and, in narrating it, Allen's attempted seduction of the psychoanalytic critic.Sarah Macfarlane's effort to unmask the gender politics that psychoanalytic critics arguably protect characterises her "socio-cultural analysis" (5) of "Kaddish" as unmistakably suspicious. While psychoanalytic critics "identify a 'psychic' context for the literary work, at the expense of social or historical context" (Barry 105), Macfarlane in her thesis "Masculinity and the Politics of Gender Construction in Allen Ginsberg" locates Allen's "perception of Naomi as the 'Monster of the Beginning Womb'" in the social and historical context of the 1950s "concept of the overbearing, dominating wife and mother who, although confined to the domestic space, looms large and threatening within that space" (48). In so doing, she draws attention to the Cold War discourse of "momism," which "envisioned American society as a matriarchy in which dominant mothers disrupted the Oedipal structure of the middle-class nuclear family" (Macfarlane 33). In other words, momism engaged Freudian explanations of male homosexuality as arising from a son's failure to resolve unconscious sexual desire for his mother, and blamed mothers for this failure and its socio-political ramifications, which, via the Cold War cultural association of homosexuality with communism, included "the weakening of masculine resolve against Communism" (Edelman 567). Since psychoanalysis effectively colludes with momism, psychoanalytic criticism on "Kaddish" is unable to expose its perpetuation in the poem. Macfarlane's suspicious reading of "Kaddish" as perpetuating momism radically departs from the dominant restorative criticism on the poem. Trigilio, for example, argues that "Kaddish" revises the Cold War "discourse of containment—'momism'—in which the exposure of communists was equated to the exposure of homosexuals" (781). "Kaddish," he claims, (which exposes both Allen's homosexuality and Naomi's communism), "does not portray internal collapse—as nationalist equations of homosexual and communist 'threats' would predict—but instead produces […] a 'Blessed' poet who 'builds Heaven in Darkness'" (782). Nonetheless, this blessed poet wails, "I am unmarried, I'm hymnless, I'm Heavenless" ("Kaddish" 212), and confesses his homosexuality as an overwhelming burden: "a mortal avalanche, whole mountains of homosexuality, Matterhorns of cock, Grand Canyons of asshole—weight on my melancholy head"("Kaddish" 214). In "Confessing the Body," Gregory asks whether confessional poetry "disclose[s] secrets in order to repent of them, thus reinforcing the initial negative judgement that kept them secret," or "to decathect that judgement" (35). While Allen's confession of homosexuality exudes exhilaration and depression, not guilt—Ginsberg critic Anne Hartman is surely right that "in the context of [the 1950s] public rituals of confession and repentance engendered by McCarthyism, […] poetic confession would carry a very different set of implications for a gay poet" (47)—it is pertinent to question his confession of Naomi. Does he expose Naomi in order to applaud or condemn her maternal transgressions? According to the logic of the Cold War "urge to unveil, [which] produces greater containment" (Trigilio 794), Allen's unveiling of Naomi veils his desire to contain her, unable as she is "to be contained within the 1950's [sic] domestic ideal of womanhood" (Macfarlane 44). "Ginsberg has become such a public issue that it's difficult now to read him naturally; you ask yourself after every line, am I for him or against him. And by and large that's the criticism he has gotten—votes on a public issue. (I see this has been one of those reviews.)" (Shapiro 90). Harvey Shapiro's review of Kaddish and Other Poems (1961) in which "Kaddish" first appeared illuminates the polarising effect of Ginsberg's celebrity on interpretations of his poetry. While sympathetic readings and romantic portrayals are themselves reactions to the "hostility to Ginsberg" that prevails (Perloff 223), often they do not sprout the intellectual vigour and fresh perspectives that a hermeneutic of suspicion has the capacity to sow. Yet it is difficult to read confessional texts such as "Kaddish" suspiciously; they appear to expose themselves without need of a suspicious reader. Readers of "Kaddish" such as Breslin are seduced into sympathetic biographical-psychoanalytical interpretations due to the poem's purported confession of Ginsberg's autobiography. As John Osborne argues, "the canon of Beat literature has been falsely founded on biographical rather than literary criteria" (4). The result is that "we are for the immediate future obliged to adopt adversarial reading strategies if we are to avoid entrenching an already stale orthodoxy" (Osborne 4). Macfarlane obliges in her thesis; she succeeds in reading "Kaddish" suspiciously by resisting its self-inscribed psychoanalysis to expose the gender politics of Allen's exposés. While Allen's confession of his homosexuality suggests that "Kaddish" subverts a heterosexist model of masculinity, a suspicious reading of his exposure of Naomi's maternal transgressions suggests that the poem contributes to momism and perpetuates a sexist model of femininity. Even so, a suspicious reading of a text such as "Kaddish" "contains a tacit tribute to its object, an admission that it contains more than meets the eye" (Felski 230). Ginsberg's own prophetic words bespeak as much:The worst I fear, considering the shallowness of opinion, is that some of the poetry and prose may be taken too familiarly, […] and be given the same shallow treatment, this time sympathetic, as, until recently, they were given shallow unsympathy. That would be the very we of fame. (Ginsberg, Deliberate 252)ReferencesBarry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. 2nd ed. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2002. Breslin, James. "The Origins of 'Howl' and 'Kaddish.'" On the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg. Ed. Lewis Hyde. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1984. 401–33.Edelman, Lee. "Tearooms and Sympathy, or, The Epistemology of the Water Closet." The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader. Ed. Henry Abelove, Michèle Aina Barale, and David M. Halperin. New York: Routledge, 1993. 553–74.Felski, Rita. "Suspicious Minds." Poetics Today 32.2 (2011): 215–34. Ginsberg, Allen. Deliberate Prose: Selected Essays 1952-1995. Ed. Bill Morgan. London: Penguin, 2000.---. "Kaddish." Collected Poems 1947–1980. New York: Harper and Row, 1984. 209–27. ---. Spontaneous Mind: Selected Interviews 1958–1996. Ed. David Carter. New York: Harper Collins, 2001. Grace, Nancy M. "Seeking the Spirit of Beat: The Call for Interdisciplinary Scholarship." Rev. of Kerouac, the Word and the Way: Prose Artist as Spiritual Quester, by Ben Giamo, and The Bop Apocalypse: The Religious Visions of Kerouac, Ginsberg, and Burroughs, by John Lardas. Contemporary Literature 43.4 (2002): 811–21.Gregory, Elizabeth. "Confessing the Body: Plath, Sexton, Berryman, Lowell, Ginsberg and the Gendered Poetics of the 'Real.'" Modern Confessional Writing: New Critical Essays. Ed. Jo Gill. London: Routledge, 2006. 22–49. Hartman, Anne. "Confessional Counterpublics in Frank O'Hara and Allen Ginsberg." Journal of Modern Literature 28.4 (2005): 40–56. Howl. Dir. Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman. Perf. James Franco. Oscilloscope Pictures, 2010.Macfarlane, Sarah. "Masculinity and the Politics of Gender Construction in Allen Ginsberg." MA thesis. Brown U, 1999.Nicol, Bran. "Reading Paranoia: Paranoia, Epistemophilia and the Postmodern Crisis of Interpretation." Literature and Psychology 45.1/2 (1999): 44–62.Osborne, John. "The Beats." A Companion to Twentieth Century Poetry. Blackwell Reference Online. Ed. Neil Roberts. 2003. 16 Oct. 2011 ‹http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=1205/tocnode?id=g9781405113618_chunk_g978140511361815&authstatuscode=202›.Perloff, Marjorie. "A Lion in Our Living Room: Reading Allen Ginsberg in the Eighties." Poetic License: Essays on Modernist and Postmodernist Lyric. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1990. 199–230.Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. Trans. Denis Savage. New Haven: Yale UP, 1970. Shapiro, Harvey. "Exalted Lament." Rev. of Kaddish and Other Poems 1958-1960, by Allen Ginsberg. On the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg. Ed. Lewis Hyde. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1984. 86–91. Shreiber, Maeera Y. "'You Still Haven't Finished with Your Mother': The Gendered Poetics of Charles Reznikoff and Allen Ginsberg." Singing in a Strange Land: A Jewish American Poetics. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2007. 46–97.Trigilio, Tony. "'Strange Prophecies Anew': Rethinking the Politics of Matter and Spirit in Ginsberg's Kaddish." American Literature 71.4 (1999): 773–95.

ABSTRACT In this article, I propose to take up the concept and physical space of a photographic 'darkroom' located in Stone Town, Zanzibar, to explore a set of images from the Capital Art Studio (1930-present) collection produced by Ranchhod Oza (1907-93), and inherited by his son Rohit Oza (1950-). I employ a concept of darkness to read this visual archive differently and propose multiple 'other lives' for a set of images. First, by bringing this African photography collection to light, I am taking it out of the 'dark rooms' of history in one sense and exposing it for interpretation. Second, I focus my lens on the Oza physical darkroom located in the back of the studio on Kenyatta Road in Stone Town, where photographs of a range of Zanzibari persons were both developed and printed and that open up the darkroom as a place of photographic complexity and sensorium, and not just mechanical reproduction. Third, I develop darkness as a form of beauty in certain images of sky, water and skin from this archive that showcase Zanzibar's position as an Indian Ocean island and port city whilst under rule by the Omani Sultanate (1698-1964) and British Protectorate (1890-1963). Fourth, I conceptualise the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964 as a time of visual darkness, which temporarily restricted photographic practices operating in Stone Town under the new Afro-Shirazi political party. Throughout my analysis, I use a framing of 'darkness' to interrogate photography as an aesthetic practice deeply immersed in materialities and metaphors of dark and light, black and white, and as integral to Zanzibar's oceanic islandness.

IntroductionSince its launch in 2005, YouTube has fast become one of the most popular video sharing sites, one of the largest sources of user generated content, and one of the most frequently visited sites globally (Burgess and Green). As YouTube’s popularity has increased, more and more people have taken up the site’s invitation to “Broadcast Yourself.” Vlogging (video blogging) on YouTube has increased in popularity, creating new genres and communities. Vlogging not only allows individuals to create their own mediated content for mass consumption—making it a site for participatory culture (Burgess and Green; Jenkins) and resembling contemporary forms of entertainment such as reality television—but it also allows individuals to engage in narrative and identity forming practices. Through filming their everyday lives, and presenting themselves on camera, YouTubers are engaging in a process of constructing and presenting their identity online. They often form communities around these identities and continue the practice in dialogue and collaboration with their communities of viewers on YouTube. Because of YouTube’s mass global reach, the ability to create one’s own mediated content and the ability to publicly play with and project different self representations becomes a powerful tool allowing YouTubers to publicly challenge social norms and encourage others to do the same. This paper will explore these features of YouTube using the recent “The Power of MAKEUP!” movement, started by NikkieTutorials, as an example. Through a virtual ethnography of the movement as developed by Christine Hine—following the people, dialogue, connections, and narratives that emerged from Nikkie’s original video—this paper will demonstrate that YouTube is not only a tool for self transformation, but has wider potential to transform norms in society. This is achieved mainly through mobilising communities that form around transformative practices, such as makeup transformations, on YouTube. Vlogging as an Identity Forming Practice Vlogging on YouTube is a contemporary form of autobiography in which individuals engage in a process of documenting their life on a daily or weekly basis and, in doing so, constructing their identity online. Although the aim of beauty vlogs is to teach new makeup techniques, demonstrate and review new products, or circulate beauty-related information, the videos include a large amount of self-disclosure. Beauty vloggers reveal intimate things about themselves and actively engage in the practice of self-representation while filming. Beauty vlogging is unique to other vlogging genres as it almost always involves an immediate transformation of the physical self in each video. The vloggers typically begin with their faces bare and “natural” and throughout the course of the video transform their faces into how they want to be seen, and ultimately, who they want to be that day, using makeup. Thus the process of self-representation is multi-dimensional as not only are they presenting the self, but they are also visually constructing the self on camera. The construction of identity that beauty vloggers engage in on YouTube can be likened to what Robert Ezra Park and later Erving Goffman refer to as the construction and performance of a mask. In his work Race and Culture, Park states that the original meaning of the word person is a mask (249). Goffman responds to this statement in his work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, saying the mask is “our truer self, the self we would like to be” (30). Beauty vloggers are engaging in the process of constructing their mask—their truer self and the self they would like to be—both through their performance on YouTube, and through the visual transformation that takes place on camera. Their performance on YouTube not only communicates a desired identity, but through their performance they realise this identity. The process of filming and the visual process of constructing or transforming the self on camera through makeup brings the subject into being. Scholarship in the fields of Life Writing and Digital Media including Autobiography, Automedia and Persona Studies has acknowledged and explored the ways narratives and identities—both online and offline—are constructed, created, shaped, chosen, and invented by the individual/author (Garner; Bridger; Eakin; Maguire; Poletti and Rak; Marshall; Smith and Watson). It is widely accepted that all representations of the self are constructed. Crucially, it is the process of documenting or communicating the self that is identity forming (Richardson; Bridger), as the process, including writing, filming, and posting, brings the subject or self into being (Neuman). The individual embodies their performance and realises the self through it. Park and Goffman argue that we all engage in this process of performing and realising the self through the roles we play in society. The significance of the beauty vlogger performance and transformation is the space in which it occurs and the community that it fosters. YouTube as a Transformative Tool and MirrorThe space in which beauty vloggers play with and transform the self on camera is significant as digital technologies such as YouTube invite exploration of the self. Networked digital media (Meikle and Young) invite multiplicity, heterogeneity, and fragmentation in/of identity performances (Bolter; Gergen; Turkle, "Parallel Lives"). These technologies create opportunities for defining and re-defining the self (Bolter 130), as they allow people to present a more multi-mediated self, using both audio-visual components and text (Papacharissi 643).YouTube, in particular, allows the individual to experiment with the self, and document an ongoing transformation, through film (Kavoori). Many scholars have described this ongoing process of identity construction online using the metaphor of “the mirror” (see Kavoori; Raun; and Procter as recent examples). In his research on trans gender vlogging on YouTube, Tobias Raun explores the theme of the mirror. He describes vlogging as a “transformative medium for working on, producing and exploring the self” (366). He argues the vlog acts as a mirror allowing the individual to try out and assume various identities (366). He writes, the mirroring function of the vlog “invites the YouTuber to assume the shape of a desired identity/representation, constantly assuming and evaluating oneself as an attractive image, trying out different ‘styles of the flesh’ (Butler 177), poses and appearances” (367). In reference to trans gender vlogging, Raun writes, “The vlog seems to serve an important function in the transitioning process, and is an important part of a process of self-invention, serving as a testing ground for experimentations with, and manifestations of (new) identities” (367). The mirror (vlog) gives the individual a place/space to construct and perform their mask (identity), and an opportunity to see the reflection and adjust the mask (identity) accordingly. An important feature of the vlog as a mirror is the fact that it is less like a conventional mirror and more like a window with a reflective surface. On YouTube the vlog always involves an audience, who not only watch the performance, but also respond to it. This is in keeping with Goffman’s assertion that there is always an audience involved in any performance of the self. On YouTube, Raun argues, “the need to represent oneself goes hand in hand with the need to connect and communicate” (Raun 369). Networked digital media such as YouTube are inherently social. They invite participation (Smith; Sauter)and community through community building functions such as the ability to like, subscribe, and comment. Michael Strangelove refers to YouTube as a social space, “as a domain of self-expression, community and public confession” (4). The audience and community are important in the process of identity construction and representation as they serve a crucial role in providing feedback and encouragement, legitimising the identity being presented. As Raun writes, the vlog is an opportunity “for seeing one’s own experiences and thoughts reflected in others” (366). Raun identifies that for the trans gender vloggers in his study, simply knowing there is an audience watching their vlogs is enough to affirm their identity. He writes the vlog can be both “an individual act of self validation and . . . a social act of recognition and encouragement” (368). However, in the case of beauty vlogging the audience do more than watch, they form communities embodying and projecting the performance in everyday life and thus collectively challenge social norms, as seen in the “The Power of MAKEUP!” movement. Exploring the “The Power of MAKEUP!” MovementOn 10 May 2015, Nikkie, a well-known beauty vlogger, uploaded a video to her YouTube channel NikkieTutorials titled “The Power of MAKEUP!” Nikkie’s video can be watched here. In her video Nikkie challenges “makeup shaming,” arguing that makeup is not only fun, but can “transform” you into who you want to be. Inspired by an episode of the reality television show RuPaul’s Drag Race, in which the competing drag queens transform half of their face into “glam” (drag), and leave the other half of their face bare (male), Nikkie demonstrates that anyone can use makeup as a transformative tool. In her video Nikkie mirrors the drag queen transformations, transforming half her face into “glam” and leaving the other half of her face bare, as shown in Figure 1. In only transforming half of her face, Nikkie emphasises the scope of the transformation, demonstrating just how much you can change your appearance using only makeup on your face. Nikkie’s video communicates that both a transformed “glam” image and an “unedited” image of the self are perfectly fine, “there are no rules” and neither representations of the self should bring you shame. Figure 1: thumbnail of Nikkie’s videoNikkie’s video started a movement and spread throughout the beauty community on YouTube as a challenge. Other famous beauty vloggers, and everyday makeup lovers, took on the challenge of creating YouTube videos or posting pictures on Instagram of their faces half bare and half transformed using makeup with the tag #thepowerofmakeupchallenge. Since its release in May 2015, Nikkie’s video has been watched over thirty million times, has been liked over five hundred and thirty thousand times, and has received over twenty three thousand comments, many of which echo Nikkie’s experience of “makeup shaming.” “The power of makeup” video went viral and was picked up not only by the online beauty community but also by mainstream media with articles by Huffington Post, Yahoo.com, Marie Claire, BuzzFeed, DailyLife, POPSUGAR, Enews, Urbanshowbiz, BoredPanda, and kickvick among others. On Instagram, thousands of everyday makeup lovers have recreated the transformation and uploaded their pictures of the finished result. Various hashtags have been created around this movement and can be searched on Instagram including #thepowerofmakeupchallenge, #powerofmakeupchallenge, #powerofmakeup. Nikkie’s Instagram page dedicated to the challenge can be seen here. “The power of makeup” video is a direct reaction against what Nikkie calls “makeup shaming”—the idea that makeup is bad, and the assumption that the leading motivation for using makeup is insecurity. In her video Nikkie also reacts to the idea that the made-up-girl is “not really you,” or worse is “fake.” In the introduction to her video Nikkie says,I’ve been noticing a lot lately that girls have been almost ashamed to say that they love makeup because nowadays when you say you love makeup you either do it because you want to look good for boys, you do it because you’re insecure, or you do it because you don’t love yourself. I feel like in a way lately it’s almost a crime to love doing your makeup. So after last weeks RuPaul’s Drag Race with the half drag half male, I was inspired to show you the power of makeup. I notice a lot that when I don’t wear makeup and I have my hair up in a bun and I meet people and I show them picture of my videos or, or whatever looks I have done, they look at me and straight up tell me “that is not you.” They tell me “that’s funny” because I don’t even look like that girl on the picture. So without any further ado I’m going to do half my face full on glam—I’m truly going to transform one side of my face—and the other side is going to be me, raw, unedited, nothing, me, just me. So let’s do it.In her introduction, Nikkie identifies a social attitude that many of her viewers can relate to, that the made-up face isn’t the “real you.” This idea reveals an interesting contradiction in social attitude. As this issue of Media/Culture highlights, the theme of transformation is increasingly popular in contemporary society. Renovation shows, weight loss shows, and “makeover” shows have increased in number and popularity around the world (Lewis). Tania Lewis attributes this to an international shift towards “the real” on television (447). Accompanying this turn towards “the real,” confession, intimacy, and authenticity are now demanded and consumed as entertainment (Goldthwaite; Dovey; King). Sites such as YouTube are arguably popular because they offer real stories, real lives, and have a core value of authenticity (Strangelove; Wesch; Young; Tolson). The power of makeup transformations are challenging because they juxtapose a transformation against the natural, on the self. By only transforming half their face, the beauty vloggers juxtapose the “makeover” (transformation) with “authenticity” (the natural). The power of makeup movement is therefore caught between two contemporary social values. However, the desire for authenticity, and the lack of acceptance that the transformed image is authentic seems to be the main criticism that the members of this movement receive. Beauty vloggers identify a strong social value that “natural” is “good” and any attempt to alter the natural is taboo. Even in the commercial world “natural beauty” is celebrated and features heavily in the marketing and advertising campaigns of popular beauty, cosmetic, and skincare brands. Consider Maybelline’s emphasis on “natural beauty” in their byline “Maybe she’s born with it. Maybe it’s Maybelline.” This is not the way the members of “the power of makeup” movement use and celebrate makeup. They use and celebrate makeup as a transformative and identity forming tool, and their use of makeup is most often criticised for not being natural. In her recreation of Nikkie’s video, Evelina Forsell says “people get upset when I’m not natural.” Like Nikkie, Evelina reveals she often receives the criticism that “the person with a full on face with makeup is not you.” Evelina’s video can be watched here.“The power of makeup” movement and its participants challenge this criticism that the made-up self is not the “real” self. Evelina directly responds to this criticism in her video, stating “when I have a full face of makeup . . . that’s still me, but a more . . . creative me, I guess.” The beauty vloggers in this movement use makeup and YouTube as extensions of the self, as tools for self-expression, self-realisation, and ongoing transformation. Beauty vloggers are demonstrating that makeup is a tool and extension of the self that allows them to explore and play with their self-representations. In the same way that technology enables the individual to extend and “reinvent him/herself online” (Papacharissi 645), so does makeup. And in the same way that technology becomes an extension of the self, or even a second self (Turkle, The Second Self; Vaast) so does makeup. Makeup is a tool and technique of the self. Vlogging is about storytelling (Kavoori), but it is also collective—it’s about telling collective stories (Raun 373) which can be seen in various vlogging genres. As Geert Lovink suggests, YouTube is one of the largest databases of global shared experience. YouTube’s global popularity can be attributed to Strangelove’s assertion that “there’s nothing more interesting to real people . . . than authentic stories told about other real people” (65). Individuals are drawn to Nikkie’s experience, seeing themselves reflected in her story. Famous beauty vloggers on YouTube, and everyday beauty lovers, find community in the collective experience of feeling shame for loving makeup and using makeup to transform and communicate their identity. Effectively, the movement forms communities of practice (Wenger) made up of hundreds of people brought together by the shared value and use of makeup as a transformative tool. The online spaces where these activities take place (mainly on YouTube and Instagram) form affinity spaces (Gee) where the community come together, share information, learn and develop their practice. Hundreds of YouTubers from all over the world took up Nikkie’s invitation to demonstrate the power of makeup by transforming themselves on camera. From well-established beauty vloggers with millions of viewers, to amateur beauty lovers with YouTube channels, many people felt moved by Nikkie’s example and embodied the message, adapting the transformation to suit their circumstances. The movement includes both men and women, children and adults. Some transformations are inspirational such as Shalom Blac’s in which she talks about accepting the scars that are all over her face, but also demonstrates how makeup can make them disappear. Shalom has almost five million views on her “POWER OF MAKEUP” video, and has been labelled “inspirational” by the media. Shalom Blac’s video can be watched here and the media article labelling her as “inspirational” can be viewed here. Others, such as PatrickStarrr, send a powerful message that “It’s okay to be yourself.” Unlike a traditional interpretation of that statement, Patrick is communicating that it is okay to be the self that you construct, on any given day. Patrick also has over four million views on his video which can be watched here. During her transformation, Nikkie points out each feature of her face that she does not like and demonstrates how she can change it using makeup. Nikkie’s video is primarily a tutorial, educating viewers on different makeup techniques that can manipulate the appearance of their natural features into how they would like them to appear. These techniques are also reproduced and embodied through the various contributors to the movement. Thus the tutorial is an educational tool enabling others to use makeup for their own self representations (see Paul A. Soukup for an overview of YouTube as an educational tool). A feminist perspective may deconstruct the empowering, educational intentions of Nikkie’s video, insisting that conceptions of beauty are a social construct (Travis, Meginnis, and Bardari) and should not be re-enforced by encouraging women (and men) to use make-up to feel good. However, this sort of discourse does not appear in the movement, and this paper seeks to analyse the movement as its contributors frame and present it. Rather, “the power of makeup” movement falls within a postfeminist framework celebrating choice, femininity, independence, and the individual construction of modern identity (McRobbie; Butler; Beck, Giddens and Lash). Postfeminism embraces postmodern notions of identity in which individuals are “called up to invent their own structures” (McRobbie 260). Through institutions such as education young women have “become more independent and able,” and “‘dis-embedded’ from communities where gender roles were fixed” (McRobbie 260). Angela McRobbie attributes this to the work of scholars such as Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck and their emphasis on individualisation and reflexive modernisation. These scholars take a Foucauldian approach to identity construction in the modern age, where the individual must choose their own structures “internally and individualistically” (260), engaging in an ongoing process of self-monitoring and self-improvement, and resulting in the current self-help culture (McRobbie). In addition to being an educational and constructive tool, Nikkie’s video is also an exercise in self-branding and self-promotion(see Marwick; Duffy and Hund; and van Nuenen for scholarship on self-branding). Through her ongoing presence on YouTube, presenting this video in conjunction with her other tutorials, Nikkie is establishing herself as a beauty vlogger/guru. Nikkie lists all of the products that she uses in her transformation below her video with links to where people can buy them. She also lists her social media accounts, ways that people can connect with her, and other videos that people might be interested in watching. There are also prompts to subscribe, both during her video and in the description bar below her video. Nikkie’s transformation is both an ongoing endeavour to create her image and public persona as a beauty vlogger, and a physical transformation on camera. There is also a third transformation that takes place because her vlog is in the public sphere and consequently mobilises a movement. The transformation is of the way people talk about and eventually perceive makeup. Nikkie’s video aims to end makeup shaming and promote makeup as an empowering tool. With each recreation of her video, with each Instagram photo featuring the transformation, and with each mainstream media article featuring the movement, #thepowerofmakeup movement community are transforming the image of the made-up girl—transforming the association of makeup with presenting an inauthentic identity—in society. ConclusionThe “The Power of MAKEUP!” movement, started by NikkieTutorials, demonstrates one way in which people are using YouTube as a transformative tool, and mirror, to document, construct, and present their identity online, using makeup. Through their online transformation the members of the movement not only engage in a process of constructing and presenting their identity, but they form communities who share a love of makeup and its transformative potential. 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Introduction This paper offers a survey of familiar popular music performers and songwriters who reference coffee in their work. It examines three areas of discourse: the psychoactive effects of caffeine, coffee and courtship rituals, and the politics of coffee consumption. I claim that coffee carries a cultural and musicological significance comparable to that of the chemical stimulants and consumer goods more readily associated with popular music. Songs about coffee may not be as potent as those featuring drugs and alcohol (Primack; Schapiro), or as common as those referencing commodities like clothes and cars (Englis; McCracken), but they do feature across a wide range of genres, some of which enjoy archetypal associations with this beverage. m.o.m.m.y. Needs c.o.f.f.e.e.: The Psychoactive Effect of Coffee The act of performing and listening to popular music involves psychological elements comparable to the overwhelming sensory experience of drug taking: altered perceptions, repetitive grooves, improvisation, self-expression, and psychological empathy—such as that between musician and audience (Curry). Most popular music genres are, as a result, culturally and sociologically identified with the consumption of at least one mind-altering substance (Lyttle; Primack; Schapiro). While the analysis of lyrics referring to this theme has hitherto focused on illegal drugs and alcoholic beverages (Cooper), coffee and its psychoactive ingredient caffeine have been almost entirely overlooked (Summer). The most recent study of drugs in popular music, for example, defined substance use as “tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine and other stimulants, heroin and other opiates, hallucinogens, inhalants, prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, and nonspecific substances” (Primack 172), thereby ignoring a chemical stimulant consumed by 90 per cent of adult Americans every day (Lovett). The wide availability of coffee and the comparatively mild effect of caffeine means that its consumption rarely causes harm. One researcher has described it as a ubiquitous and unobtrusive “generalised public activity […] ‘invisible’ to analysts seeking distinctive social events” (Cooper 92). Coffee may provide only a relatively mild “buzz”—but it is now accepted that caffeine is an addictive substance (Juliano) and, due to its universal legality, coffee is also the world’s most extensively traded and enthusiastically consumed psychoactive consumer product (Juliano 1). The musical genre of jazz has a longstanding relationship with marijuana and narcotics (Curry; Singer; Tolson; Winick). Unsurprisingly, given its Round Midnight connotations, jazz standards also celebrate the restorative impact of coffee. Exemplary compositions include Burke/Webster’s insomniac torch song Black Coffee, which provided hits for Sarah Vaughan (1949), Ella Fitzgerald (1953), and Peggy Lee (1960); and Frank Sinatra’s recordings of Hilliard/Dick’s The Coffee Song (1946, 1960), which satirised the coffee surplus in Brazil at a time when this nation enjoyed a near monopoly on production. Sinatra joked that this ubiquitous drink was that country’s only means of liquid refreshment, in a refrain that has since become a headline writer’s phrasal template: “There’s an Awful Lot of Coffee in Vietnam,” “An Awful Lot of Coffee in the Bin,” and “There’s an Awful Lot of Taxes in Brazil.” Ethnographer Aaron Fox has shown how country music gives expression to the lived social experience of blue-collar and agrarian workers (Real 29). Coffee’s role in energising working class America (Cooper) is featured in such recordings as Dolly Parton’s Nine To Five (1980), which describes her morning routine using a memorable “kitchen/cup of ambition” rhyme, and Don't Forget the Coffee Billy Joe (1973) by Tom T. Hall which laments the hardship of unemployment, hunger, cold, and lack of healthcare. Country music’s “tired truck driver” is the most enduring blue-collar trope celebrating coffee’s analeptic powers. Versions include Truck Drivin' Man by Buck Owens (1964), host of the country TV show Hee Haw and pioneer of the Bakersfield sound, and Driving My Life Away from pop-country crossover star Eddie Rabbitt (1980). Both feature characteristically gendered stereotypes of male truck drivers pushing on through the night with the help of a truck stop waitress who has fuelled them with caffeine. Johnny Cash’s A Cup of Coffee (1966), recorded at the nadir of his addiction to pills and alcohol, has an incoherent improvised lyric on this subject; while Jerry Reed even prescribed amphetamines to keep drivers awake in Caffein [sic], Nicotine, Benzedrine (And Wish Me Luck) (1980). Doye O’Dell’s Diesel Smoke, Dangerous Curves (1952) is the archetypal “truck drivin’ country” song and the most exciting track of its type. It subsequently became a hit for the doyen of the subgenre, Red Simpson (1966). An exhausted driver, having spent the night with a woman whose name he cannot now recall, is fighting fatigue and wrestling his hot-rod low-loader around hairpin mountain curves in an attempt to rendezvous with a pretty truck stop waitress. The song’s palpable energy comes from its frenetic guitar picking and the danger implicit in trailing a heavy load downhill while falling asleep at the wheel. Tommy Faile’s Phantom 309, a hit for Red Sovine (1967) that was later covered by Tom Waits (Big Joe and the Phantom 309, 1975), elevates the “tired truck driver” narrative to gothic literary form. Reflecting country music’s moral code of citizenship and its culture of performative storytelling (Fox, Real 23), it tells of a drenched and exhausted young hitchhiker picked up by Big Joe—the driver of a handsome eighteen-wheeler. On arriving at a truck stop, Joe drops the traveller off, giving him money for a restorative coffee. The diner falls silent as the hitchhiker orders up his “cup of mud”. Big Joe, it transpires, is a phantom trucker. After running off the road to avoid a school bus, his distinctive ghost rig now only reappears to rescue stranded travellers. Punk rock, a genre closely associated with recreational amphetamines (McNeil 76, 87), also features a number of caffeine-as-stimulant songs. Californian punk band, Descendents, identified caffeine as their drug of choice in two 1996 releases, Coffee Mug and Kids on Coffee. These songs describe chugging the drink with much the same relish and energy that others might pull at the neck of a beer bottle, and vividly compare the effects of the drug to the intense rush of speed. The host of “New Music News” (a segment of MTV’s 120 Minutes) references this correlation in 1986 while introducing the band’s video—in which they literally bounce off the walls: “You know, while everybody is cracking down on crack, what about that most respectable of toxic substances or stimulants, the good old cup of coffee? That is the preferred high, actually, of California’s own Descendents—it is also the subject of their brand new video” (“New Music News”). Descendents’s Sessions EP (1997) featured an overflowing cup of coffee on the sleeve, while punk’s caffeine-as-amphetamine trope is also promulgated by Hellbender (Caffeinated 1996), Lagwagon (Mr. Coffee 1997), and Regatta 69 (Addicted to Coffee 2005). Coffee in the Morning and Kisses in the Night: Coffee and Courtship Coffee as romantic metaphor in song corroborates the findings of early researchers who examined courtship rituals in popular music. Donald Horton’s 1957 study found that hit songs codified the socially constructed self-image and limited life expectations of young people during the 1950s by depicting conservative, idealised, and traditional relationship scenarios. He summarised these as initial courtship, honeymoon period, uncertainty, and parting (570-4). Eleven years after this landmark analysis, James Carey replicated Horton’s method. His results revealed that pop lyrics had become more realistic and less bound by convention during the 1960s. They incorporated a wider variety of discourse including the temporariness of romantic commitment, the importance of individual autonomy in relationships, more liberal attitudes, and increasingly unconventional courtship behaviours (725). Socially conservative coffee songs include Coffee in the Morning and Kisses in the Night by The Boswell Sisters (1933) in which the protagonist swears fidelity to her partner on condition that this desire is expressed strictly in the appropriate social context of marriage. It encapsulates the restrictions Horton identified on courtship discourse in popular song prior to the arrival of rock and roll. The Henderson/DeSylva/Brown composition You're the Cream in My Coffee, recorded by Annette Hanshaw (1928) and by Nat King Cole (1946), also celebrates the social ideal of monogamous devotion. The persistence of such idealised traditional themes continued into the 1960s. American pop singer Don Cherry had a hit with Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye (1962) that used coffee as a metaphor for undying and everlasting love. Otis Redding’s version of Butler/Thomas/Walker’s Cigarettes and Coffee (1966)—arguably soul music’s exemplary romantic coffee song—carries a similar message as a couple proclaim their devotion in a late night conversation over coffee. Like much of the Stax catalogue, Cigarettes and Coffee, has a distinctly “down home” feel and timbre. The lovers are simply content with each other; they don’t need “cream” or “sugar.” Horton found 1950s blues and R&B lyrics much more sexually explicit than pop songs (567). Dawson (1994) subsequently characterised black popular music as a distinct public sphere, and Squires (2002) argued that it displayed elements of what she defined as “enclave” and “counterpublic” traits. Lawson (2010) has argued that marginalised and/or subversive blues artists offered a form of countercultural resistance against prevailing social norms. Indeed, several blues and R&B coffee songs disregard established courtship ideals and associate the product with non-normative and even transgressive relationship circumstances—including infidelity, divorce, and domestic violence. Lightnin’ Hopkins’s Coffee Blues (1950) references child neglect and spousal abuse, while the narrative of Muddy Waters’s scorching Iodine in my Coffee (1952) tells of an attempted poisoning by his Waters’s partner. In 40 Cups of Coffee (1953) Ella Mae Morse is waiting for her husband to return home, fuelling her anger and anxiety with caffeine. This song does eventually comply with traditional courtship ideals: when her lover eventually returns home at five in the morning, he is greeted with a relieved kiss. In Keep That Coffee Hot (1955), Scatman Crothers supplies a counterpoint to Morse’s late-night-abandonment narrative, asking his partner to keep his favourite drink warm during his adulterous absence. Brook Benton’s Another Cup of Coffee (1964) expresses acute feelings of regret and loneliness after a failed relationship. More obliquely, in Coffee Blues (1966) Mississippi John Hurt sings affectionately about his favourite brand, a “lovin’ spoonful” of Maxwell House. In this, he bequeathed the moniker of folk-rock band The Lovin’ Spoonful, whose hits included Do You Believe in Magic (1965) and Summer in the City (1966). However, an alternative reading of Hurt’s lyric suggests that this particular phrase is a metaphorical device proclaiming the author’s sexual potency. Hurt’s “lovin’ spoonful” may actually be a portion of his seminal emission. In the 1950s, Horton identified country as particularly “doleful” (570), and coffee provides a common metaphor for failed romance in a genre dominated by “metanarratives of loss and desire” (Fox, Jukebox 54). Claude Gray’s I'll Have Another Cup of Coffee (Then I’ll Go) (1961) tells of a protagonist delivering child support payments according to his divorce lawyer’s instructions. The couple share late night coffee as their children sleep through the conversation. This song was subsequently recorded by seventeen-year-old Bob Marley (One Cup of Coffee, 1962) under the pseudonym Bobby Martell, a decade prior to his breakthrough as an international reggae star. Marley’s youngest son Damian has also performed the track while, interestingly in the context of this discussion, his older sibling Rohan co-founded Marley Coffee, an organic farm in the Jamaican Blue Mountains. Following Carey’s demonstration of mainstream pop’s increasingly realistic depiction of courtship behaviours during the 1960s, songwriters continued to draw on coffee as a metaphor for failed romance. In Carly Simon’s You’re So Vain (1972), she dreams of clouds in her coffee while contemplating an ostentatious ex-lover. Squeeze’s Black Coffee In Bed (1982) uses a coffee stain metaphor to describe the end of what appears to be yet another dead-end relationship for the protagonist. Sarah Harmer’s Coffee Stain (1998) expands on this device by reworking the familiar “lipstick on your collar” trope, while Sexsmith & Kerr’s duet Raindrops in my Coffee (2005) superimposes teardrops in coffee and raindrops on the pavement with compelling effect. Kate Bush’s Coffee Homeground (1978) provides the most extreme narrative of relationship breakdown: the true story of Cora Henrietta Crippin’s poisoning. Researchers who replicated Horton’s and Carey’s methodology in the late 1970s (Bridges; Denisoff) were surprised to find their results dominated by traditional courtship ideals. The new liberal values unearthed by Carey in the late 1960s simply failed to materialise in subsequent decades. In this context, it is interesting to observe how romantic coffee songs in contemporary soul and jazz continue to disavow the post-1960s trend towards realistic social narratives, adopting instead a conspicuously consumerist outlook accompanied by smooth musical timbres. This phenomenon possibly betrays the influence of contemporary coffee advertising. From the 1980s, television commercials have sought to establish coffee as a desirable high end product, enjoyed by bohemian lovers in a conspicuously up-market environment (Werder). All Saints’s Black Coffee (2000) and Lebrado’s Coffee (2006) identify strongly with the culture industry’s image of coffee as a luxurious beverage whose consumption signifies prominent social status. All Saints’s promotional video is set in a opulent location (although its visuals emphasise the lyric’s romantic disharmony), while Natalie Cole’s Coffee Time (2008) might have been itself written as a commercial. Busting Up a Starbucks: The Politics of Coffee Politics and coffee meet most palpably at the coffee shop. This conjunction has a well-documented history beginning with the establishment of coffee houses in Europe and the birth of the public sphere (Habermas; Love; Pincus). The first popular songs to reference coffee shops include Jaybird Coleman’s Coffee Grinder Blues (1930), which boasts of skills that precede the contemporary notion of a barista by four decades; and Let's Have Another Cup of Coffee (1932) from Irving Berlin’s depression-era musical Face The Music, where the protagonists decide to stay in a restaurant drinking coffee and eating pie until the economy improves. Coffee in a Cardboard Cup (1971) from the Broadway musical 70 Girls 70 is an unambiguous condemnation of consumerism, however, it was written, recorded and produced a generation before Starbucks’ aggressive expansion and rapid dominance of the coffee house market during the 1990s. The growth of this company caused significant criticism and protest against what seemed to be a ruthless homogenising force that sought to overwhelm local competition (Holt; Thomson). In response, Starbucks has sought to be defined as a more responsive and interactive brand that encourages “glocalisation” (de Larios; Thompson). Koller, however, has characterised glocalisation as the manipulative fabrication of an “imagined community”—whose heterogeneity is in fact maintained by the aesthetics and purchasing choices of consumers who make distinctive and conscious anti-brand statements (114). Neat Capitalism is a more useful concept here, one that intercedes between corporate ideology and postmodern cultural logic, where such notions as community relations and customer satisfaction are deliberately and perhaps somewhat cynically conflated with the goal of profit maximisation (Rojek). As the world’s largest chain of coffee houses with over 19,400 stores in March 2012 (Loxcel), Starbucks is an exemplar of this phenomenon. Their apparent commitment to environmental stewardship, community relations, and ethical sourcing is outlined in the company’s annual “Global Responsibility Report” (Vimac). It is also demonstrated in their engagement with charitable and environmental non-governmental organisations such as Fairtrade and Co-operative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE). By emphasising this, Starbucks are able to interpellate (that is, “call forth”, “summon”, or “hail” in Althusserian terms) those consumers who value environmental protection, social justice and ethical business practices (Rojek 117). Bob Dylan and Sheryl Crow provide interesting case studies of the persuasive cultural influence evoked by Neat Capitalism. Dylan’s 1962 song Talkin’ New York satirised his formative experiences as an impoverished performer in Greenwich Village’s coffee houses. In 1995, however, his decision to distribute the Bob Dylan: Live At The Gaslight 1962 CD exclusively via Starbucks generated significant media controversy. Prominent commentators expressed their disapproval (Wilson Harris) and HMV Canada withdrew Dylan’s product from their shelves (Lynskey). Despite this, the success of this and other projects resulted in the launch of Starbucks’s in-house record company, Hear Music, which released entirely new recordings from major artists such as Ray Charles, Paul McCartney, Joni Mitchell, Carly Simon and Elvis Costello—although the company has recently announced a restructuring of their involvement in this venture (O’Neil). Sheryl Crow disparaged her former life as a waitress in Coffee Shop (1995), a song recorded for her second album. “Yes, I was a waitress. I was a waitress not so long ago; then I won a Grammy” she affirmed in a YouTube clip of a live performance from the same year. More recently, however, Crow has become an avowed self-proclaimed “Starbucks groupie” (Tickle), releasing an Artist’s Choice (2003) compilation album exclusively via Hear Music and performing at the company’s 2010 Annual Shareholders’s Meeting. Songs voicing more unequivocal dissatisfaction with Starbucks’s particular variant of Neat Capitalism include Busting Up a Starbucks (Mike Doughty, 2005), and Starbucks Takes All My Money (KJ-52, 2008). The most successful of these is undoubtedly Ron Sexsmith’s Jazz at the Bookstore (2006). Sexsmith bemoans the irony of intense original blues artists such as Leadbelly being drowned out by the cacophony of coffee grinding machines while customers queue up to purchase expensive coffees whose names they can’t pronounce. In this, he juxtaposes the progressive patina of corporate culture against the circumstances of African-American labour conditions in the deep South, the shocking incongruity of which eventually cause the old bluesman to turn in his grave. Fredric Jameson may have good reason to lament the depthless a-historical pastiche of postmodern popular culture, but this is no “nostalgia film”: Sexsmith articulates an artfully framed set of subtle, sensitive, and carefully contextualised observations. Songs about coffee also intersect with politics via lyrics that play on the mid-brown colour of the beverage, by employing it as a metaphor for the sociological meta-narratives of acculturation and assimilation. First popularised in Israel Zangwill’s 1905 stage play, The Melting Pot, this term is more commonly associated with Americanisation rather than miscegenation in the United States—a nuanced distinction that British band Blue Mink failed to grasp with their memorable invocation of “coffee-coloured people” in Melting Pot (1969). Re-titled in the US as People Are Together (Mickey Murray, 1970) the song was considered too extreme for mainstream radio airplay (Thompson). Ike and Tina Turner’s Black Coffee (1972) provided a more accomplished articulation of coffee as a signifier of racial identity; first by associating it with the history of slavery and the post-Civil Rights discourse of African-American autonomy, then by celebrating its role as an energising force for African-American workers seeking economic self-determination. Anyone familiar with the re-casting of black popular music in an industry dominated by Caucasian interests and aesthetics (Cashmore; Garofalo) will be unsurprised to find British super-group Humble Pie’s (1973) version of this song more recognisable. Conclusion Coffee-flavoured popular songs celebrate the stimulant effects of caffeine, provide metaphors for courtship rituals, and offer critiques of Neat Capitalism. Harold Love and Guthrie Ramsey have each argued (from different perspectives) that the cultural micro-narratives of small social groups allow us to identify important “ethnographic truths” (Ramsey 22). Aesthetically satisfying and intellectually stimulating coffee songs are found where these micro-narratives intersect with the ethnographic truths of coffee culture. Examples include the unconventional courtship narratives of blues singers Muddy Waters and Mississippi John Hurt, the ritualised storytelling tradition of country performers Doye O’Dell and Tommy Faile, and historicised accounts of the Civil Rights struggle provided by Ron Sexsmith and Tina Turner. References Argenti, Paul. “Collaborating With Activists: How Starbucks Works With NGOs.” California Management Review 47.1 (2004): 91–116. Althusser, Louis. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. London: Monthly Review Press, 1971. Bridges, John, and R. Serge Denisoff. “Changing Courtship Patterns in the Popular Song: Horton and Carey revisited.” Popular Music and Society 10.3 (1986): 29–45. Carey, James. “Changing Courtship Patterns in the Popular Song.” The American Journal of Sociology 74.6 (1969): 720–31. Cashmere, Ellis. The Black Culture Industry. 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IntroductionFood Studies is a relatively recent area of research enquiry in Australia and Magazine Studies is even newer (Le Masurier and Johinke), with the consequence that Australian culinary magazines are only just beginning to be investigated. Moreover, although many major libraries have not thought such popular magazines worthy of sustained collection (Fox and Sornil), considering these publications is important. As de Certeau argues, it can be of considerable consequence to identify and analyse everyday practices (such as producing and reading popular magazines) that seem so minor and insignificant as to be unworthy of notice, as these practices have the ability to affect our lives. It is important in this case as these publications were part of the post-war gastronomic environment in Australia in which national tastes in domestic cookery became radically internationalised (Santich). To further investigate Australian magazines, as well as suggesting how these cosmopolitan eating habits became more widely embraced, this article will survey the various ways in which the idea of “abroad” is expressed in one Australian culinary serial from the post-war period, Australian Wines & Food Quarterly magazine, which was published from 1956 to 1960. The methodological approach taken is an historically-informed content analysis (Krippendorff) of relevant material from these magazines combined with germane media data (Hodder). All issues in the serial’s print run have been considered.Australian Post-War Culinary PublishingTo date, studies of 1950s writing in Australia have largely focused on literary and popular fiction (Johnson-Wood; Webby) and literary criticism (Bird; Dixon; Lee). There have been far fewer studies of non-fiction writing of any kind, although some serial publications from this time have attracted some attention (Bell; Lindesay; Ross; Sheridan; Warner-Smith; White; White). In line with studies internationally, groundbreaking work in Australian food history has focused on cookbooks, and includes work by Supski, who notes that despite the fact that buying cookbooks was “regarded as a luxury in the 1950s” (87), such publications were an important information source in terms of “developing, consolidating and extending foodmaking knowledge” at that time (85).It is widely believed that changes to Australian foodways were brought about by significant post-war immigration and the recipes and dishes these immigrants shared with neighbours, friends, and work colleagues and more widely afield when they opened cafes and restaurants (Newton; Newton; Manfredi). Although these immigrants did bring new culinary flavours and habits with them, the overarching rhetoric guiding population policy at this time was assimilation, with migrants expected to abandon their culture, language, and habits in favour of the dominant British-influenced ways of living (Postiglione). While migrants often did retain their foodways (Risson), the relationship between such food habits and the increasingly cosmopolitan Australian food culture is much more complex than the dominant cultural narrative would have us believe. It has been pointed out, for example, that while the haute cuisine of countries such as France, Italy, and Germany was much admired in Australia and emulated in expensive dining (Brien and Vincent), migrants’ own preference for their own dishes instead of Anglo-Australian choices, was not understood (Postiglione). Duruz has added how individual diets are eclectic, “multi-layered and hybrid” (377), incorporating foods from both that person’s own background with others available for a range of reasons including availability, cost, taste, and fashion. In such an environment, popular culinary publishing, in terms of cookbooks, specialist magazines, and recipe and other food-related columns in general magazines and newspapers, can be posited to be another element contributing to this change.Australian Wines & Food QuarterlyAustralian Wines & Food Quarterly (AWFQ) is, as yet, a completely unexamined publication, and there appears to be only three complete sets of this magazine held in public collections. It is important to note that, at the time it was launched in the mid-1950s, food writing played a much less significant part in Australian popular publishing than it does today, with far fewer cookbooks released than today, and women’s magazines and the women’s pages of newspapers containing only small recipe sections. In this environment, a new specialist culinary magazine could be seen to be timely, an audacious gamble, or both.All issues of this magazine were produced and printed in, and distributed from, Melbourne, Australia. Although no sales or distribution figures are available, production was obviously a struggle, with only 15 issues published before the magazine folded at the end of 1960. The title of the magazine changed over this time, and issue release dates are erratic, as is the method in which volumes and issues are numbered. Although the number of pages varied from 32 up to 52, and then less once again, across the magazine’s life, the price was steadily reduced, ending up at less than half the original cover price. All issues were produced and edited by Donald Wallace, who also wrote much of the content, with contributions from family members, including his wife, Mollie Wallace, to write, illustrate, and produce photographs for the magazine.When considering the content of the magazine, most is quite familiar in culinary serials today, although AWFQ’s approach was radically innovative in Australia at this time when cookbooks, women’s magazines, and newspaper cookery sections focused on recipes, many of which were of cakes, biscuits, and other sweet baking (Bannerman). AWFQ not only featured many discursive essays and savory meals, it also featured much wine writing and review-style content as well as information about restaurant dining in each issue.Wine-Related ContentWine is certainly the most prominent of the content areas, with most issues of the magazine containing more wine-related content than any other. Moreover, in the early issues, most of the food content is about preparing dishes and/or meals that could be consumed alongside wines, although the proportion of food content increases as the magazine is published. This wine-related content takes a clearly international perspective on this topic. While many articles and advertisements, for example, narrate the long history of Australian wine growing—which goes back to early 19th century—these articles argue that Australia's vineyards and wineries measure up to international, and especially French, examples. In one such example, the author states that: “from the earliest times Australia’s wines have matched up to world standard” (“Wine” 25). This contest can be situated in Australia, where a leading restaurant (Caprice in Sydney) could be seen to not only “match up to” but also, indeed to, “challenge world standards” by serving Australian wines instead of imports (“Sydney” 33). So good, indeed, are Australian wines that when foreigners are surprised by their quality, this becomes newsworthy. This is evidenced in the following excerpt: “Nearly every English businessman who has come out to Australia in the last ten years … has diverted from his main discussion to comment on the high quality of Australian wine” (Seppelt, 3). In a similar nationalist vein, many articles feature overseas experts’ praise of Australian wines. Thus, visiting Italian violinist Giaconda de Vita shows a “keen appreciation of Australian wines” (“Violinist” 30), British actor Robert Speaight finds Grange Hermitage “an ideal wine” (“High Praise” 13), and the Swedish ambassador becomes their advocate (Ludbrook, “Advocate”).This competition could also be located overseas including when Australian wines are served at prestigious overseas events such as a dinner for members of the Overseas Press Club in New York (Australian Wines); sold from Seppelt’s new London cellars (Melbourne), or the equally new Australian Wine Centre in Soho (Australia Will); or, featured in exhibitions and promotions such as the Lausanne Trade Fair (Australia is Guest;“Wines at Lausanne), or the International Wine Fair in Yugoslavia (Australia Wins).Australia’s first Wine Festival was held in Melbourne in 1959 (Seppelt, “Wine Week”), the joint focus of which was the entertainment and instruction of the some 15,000 to 20,000 attendees who were expected. At its centre was a series of free wine tastings aiming to promote Australian wines to the “professional people of the community, as well as the general public and the housewife” (“Melbourne” 8), although admission had to be recommended by a wine retailer. These tastings were intended to build up the prestige of Australian wine when compared to international examples: “It is the high quality of our wines that we are proud of. That is the story to pass on—that Australian wine, at its best, is at least as good as any in the world and better than most” (“Melbourne” 8).There is also a focus on promoting wine drinking as a quotidian habit enjoyed abroad: “We have come a long way in less than twenty years […] An enormous number of husbands and wives look forward to a glass of sherry when the husband arrives home from work and before dinner, and a surprising number of ordinary people drink table wine quite un-selfconsciously” (Seppelt, “Advance” 3). However, despite an acknowledged increase in wine appreciation and drinking, there is also acknowledgement that this there was still some way to go in this aim as, for example, in the statement: “There is no reason why the enjoyment of table wines should not become an Australian custom” (Seppelt, “Advance” 4).The authority of European experts and European habits is drawn upon throughout the publication whether in philosophically-inflected treatises on wine drinking as a core part of civilised behaviour, or practically-focused articles about wine handling and serving (Keown; Seabrook; “Your Own”). Interestingly, a number of Australian experts are also quoted as stressing that these are guidelines, not strict rules: Crosby, for instance, states: “There is no ‘right wine.’ The wine to drink is the one you like, when and how you like it” (19), while the then-manager of Lindemans Wines is similarly reassuring in his guide to entertaining, stating that “strict adherence to the rules is not invariably wise” (Mackay 3). Tingey openly acknowledges that while the international-style of regularly drinking wine had “given more dignity and sophistication to the Australian way of life” (35), it should not be shrouded in snobbery.Food-Related ContentThe magazine’s cookery articles all feature international dishes, and certain foreign foods, recipes, and ways of eating and dining are clearly identified as “gourmet”. Cheese is certainly the most frequently mentioned “gourmet” food in the magazine, and is featured in every issue. These articles can be grouped into the following categories: understanding cheese (how it is made and the different varieties enjoyed internationally), how to consume cheese (in relation to other food and specific wines, and in which particular parts of a meal, again drawing on international practices), and cooking with cheese (mostly in what can be identified as “foreign” recipes).Some of this content is produced by Kraft Foods, a major advertiser in the magazine, and these articles and recipes generally focus on urging people to eat more, and varied international kinds of cheese, beyond the ubiquitous Australian cheddar. In terms of advertorials, both Kraft cheeses (as well as other advertisers) are mentioned by brand in recipes, while the companies are also profiled in adjacent articles. In the fourth issue, for instance, a full-page, infomercial-style advertisement, noting the different varieties of Kraft cheese and how to serve them, is published in the midst of a feature on cooking with various cheeses (“Cooking with Cheese”). This includes recipes for Swiss Cheese fondue and two pasta recipes: spaghetti and spicy tomato sauce, and a so-called Italian spaghetti with anchovies.Kraft’s company history states that in 1950, it was the first business in Australia to manufacture and market rindless cheese. Through these AWFQ advertisements and recipes, Kraft aggressively marketed this innovation, as well as its other new products as they were launched: mayonnaise, cheddar cheese portions, and Cracker Barrel Cheese in 1954; Philadelphia Cream Cheese, the first cream cheese to be produced commercially in Australia, in 1956; and, Coon Cheese in 1957. Not all Kraft products were seen, however, as “gourmet” enough for such a magazine. Kraft’s release of sliced Swiss Cheese in 1957, and processed cheese slices in 1959, for instance, both passed unremarked in either the magazine’s advertorial or recipes.An article by the Australian Dairy Produce Board urging consumers to “Be adventurous with Cheese” presented general consumer information including the “origin, characteristics and mode of serving” cheese accompanied by a recipe for a rich and exotic-sounding “Wine French Dressing with Blue Cheese” (Kennedy 18). This was followed in the next issue by an article discussing both now familiar and not-so familiar European cheese varieties: “Monterey, Tambo, Feta, Carraway, Samsoe, Taffel, Swiss, Edam, Mozzarella, Pecorino-Romano, Red Malling, Cacio Cavallo, Blue-Vein, Roman, Parmigiano, Kasseri, Ricotta and Pepato” (“Australia’s Natural” 23). Recipes for cheese fondues recur through the magazine, sometimes even multiple times in the same issue (see, for instance, “Cooking With Cheese”; “Cooking With Wine”; Pain). In comparison, butter, although used in many AWFQ’s recipes, was such a common local ingredient at this time that it was only granted one article over the entire run of the magazine, and this was largely about the much more unusual European-style unsalted butter (“An Expert”).Other international recipes that were repeated often include those for pasta (always spaghetti) as well as mayonnaise made with olive oil. Recurring sweets and desserts include sorbets and zabaglione from Italy, and flambéd crepes suzettes from France. While tabletop cooking is the epitome of sophistication and described as an international technique, baked Alaska (ice cream nestled on liquor-soaked cake, and baked in a meringue shell), hailing from America, is the most featured recipe in the magazine. Asian-inspired cuisine was rarely represented and even curry—long an Anglo-Australian staple—was mentioned only once in the magazine, in an article reprinted from the South African The National Hotelier, and which included a recipe alongside discussion of blending spices (“Curry”).Coffee was regularly featured in both articles and advertisements as a staple of the international gourmet kitchen (see, for example, Bancroft). Articles on the history, growing, marketing, blending, roasting, purchase, percolating and brewing, and serving of coffee were common during the magazine’s run, and are accompanied with advertisements for Bushell’s, Robert Timms’s and Masterfoods’s coffee ranges. AWFQ believed Australia’s growing coffee consumption was the result of increased participation in quality internationally-influenced dining experiences, whether in restaurants, the “scores of colourful coffee shops opening their doors to a new generation” (“Coffee” 39), or at home (Adams). Tea, traditionally the Australian hot drink of choice, is not mentioned once in the magazine (Brien).International Gourmet InnovationsAlso featured in the magazine are innovations in the Australian food world: new places to eat; new ways to cook, including a series of sometimes quite unusual appliances; and new ways to shop, with a profile of the first American-style supermarkets to open in Australia in this period. These are all seen as overseas innovations, but highly suited to Australia. The laws then controlling the service of alcohol are also much discussed, with many calls to relax the licensing laws which were seen as inhibiting civilised dining and drinking practices. The terms this was often couched in—most commonly in relation to the Olympic Games (held in Melbourne in 1956), but also in relation to tourism in general—are that these restrictive regulations were an embarrassment for Melbourne when considered in relation to international practices (see, for example, Ludbrook, “Present”). This was at a time when the nightly hotel closing time of 6.00 pm (and the performance of the notorious “six o’clock swill” in terms of drinking behaviour) was only repealed in Victoria in 1966 (Luckins).Embracing scientific approaches in the kitchen was largely seen to be an American habit. The promotion of the use of electricity in the kitchen, and the adoption of new electric appliances (Gas and Fuel; Gilbert “Striving”), was described not only as a “revolution that is being wrought in our homes”, but one that allowed increased levels of personal expression and fulfillment, in “increas[ing] the time and resources available to the housewife for the expression of her own personality in the management of her home” (Gilbert, “The Woman’s”). This mirrors the marketing of these modes of cooking and appliances in other media at this time, including in newspapers, radio, and other magazines. This included features on freezing food, however AWFQ introduced an international angle, by suggesting that recipe bases could be pre-prepared, frozen, and then defrosted to use in a range of international cookery (“Fresh”; “How to”; Kelvinator Australia). The then-new marvel of television—another American innovation—is also mentioned in the magazine ("Changing concepts"), although other nationalities are also invoked. The history of the French guild the Confrerie de la Chaine des Roitisseurs in 1248 is, for instance, used to promote an electric spit roaster that was part of a state-of-the-art gas stove (“Always”), and there are also advertisements for such appliances as the Gaggia expresso machine (“Lets”) which draw on both Italian historical antecedence and modern science.Supermarket and other forms of self-service shopping are identified as American-modern, with Australia’s first shopping mall lauded as the epitome of utopian progressiveness in terms of consumer practice. Judged to mark “a new era in Australian retailing” (“Regional” 12), the opening of Chadstone Regional Shopping Centre in suburban Melbourne on 4 October 1960, with its 83 tenants including “giant” supermarket Dickens, and free parking for 2,500 cars, was not only “one of the most up to date in the world” but “big even by American standards” (“Regional” 12, italics added), and was hailed as a step in Australia “catching up” with the United States in terms of mall shopping (“Regional” 12). This shopping centre featured international-styled dining options including Bistro Shiraz, an outdoor terrace restaurant that planned to operate as a bistro-snack bar by day and full-scale restaurant at night, and which was said to offer diners a “Persian flavor” (“Bistro”).ConclusionAustralian Wines & Food Quarterly was the first of a small number of culinary-focused Australian publications in the 1950s and 1960s which assisted in introducing a generation of readers to information about what were then seen as foreign foods and beverages only to be accessed and consumed abroad as well as a range of innovative international ideas regarding cookery and dining. For this reason, it can be posited that the magazine, although modest in the claims it made, marked a revolutionary moment in Australian culinary publishing. As yet, only slight traces can be found of its editor and publisher, Donald Wallace. The influence of AWFQ is, however, clearly evident in the two longer-lived magazines that were launched in the decade after AWFQ folded: Australian Gourmet Magazine and The Epicurean. Although these serials had a wider reach, an analysis of the 15 issues of AWFQ adds to an understanding of how ideas of foods, beverages, and culinary ideas and trends, imported from abroad were presented to an Australian readership in the 1950s, and contributed to how national foodways were beginning to change during that decade.ReferencesAdams, Jillian. “Australia’s American Coffee Culture.” Australian Journal of Popular Culture 2.1 (2012): 23–36.“Always to Roast on a Turning Spit.” The Magazine of Good Living: Australian Wines and Food 4.2 (1960): 17.“An Expert on Butter.” The Magazine of Good Living: The Australian Wine & Food 4.1 (1960): 11.“Australia Is Guest Nation at Lausanne.” The Magazine of Good Living: Australian Wines and Food 4.2 (1960): 18–19.“Australia’s Natural Cheeses.” The Magazine of Good Living: The Australian Wine & Food 4.1 (1960): 23.“Australia Will Be There.” The Magazine of Good Living: Australian Wines and Food 4.2 (1960): 14.“Australian Wines Served at New York Dinner.” Australian Wines & Food Quarterly 1.5 (1958): 16.“Australia Wins Six Gold Medals.” Australian Wines & Food: The Magazine of Good Living 2.11 (1959/1960): 3.Bancroft, P.A. “Let’s Make Some Coffee.” The Magazine of Good Living: The Australian Wine & Food 4.1 (1960): 10. 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In a field of study as well-established as the Gothic, it is surprising how much contention there is over precisely what that term refers to. Is Gothic a genre, for example, or a mode? Should it be only applicable to literary and film texts that deal with tropes of haunting and trauma set in a gloomy atmosphere, or might it meaningfully be applied to other cultural forms of production, such as music or animation? Can television shows aimed at children be considered Gothic? What about food? When is something “Gothic” and when is it “horror”? Is there even a difference? The Gothic as a phenomenon is commonly identified as beginning with Horace Walpole’s novel The Castle of Otranto (1764), which was followed by Clara Reeve’s The Old English Baron (1778), the romances of Ann Radcliffe and Matthew Lewis’ The Monk (1796). Nineteenth-century Gothic literature was characterised by “penny dreadfuls” and novels such as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) and Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897). Frequently dismissed as sensational and escapist, the Gothic has experienced a critical revival in recent decades, beginning with the feminist revisionism of the 1970s by critics such as Ellen Moers, Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar. With the appearance of studies such as David Punter’s The Literature of Terror (1980), Gothic literature became a reputable field of scholarly research, with critics identifying suburban Gothic, imperial Gothic, postcolonial Gothic and numerous national Gothics, including Irish Gothic and the Gothic of the American South. Furthermore, as this special edition on Gothic shows, the Gothic is by no means limited to literature, with film, television, animation and music all partaking of the Gothic inflection. Indeed, it would be unwise to negate the ways in which the Gothic has developed to find fertile ground beyond the bounds of literature. In our media-centred twenty-first century, the Gothic has colonised different forms of expression, where the impact left by literary works, that were historically the centre of the Gothic itself, is all but a legacy. Film, in particular, has a close connection to the Gothic, where the works of, for instance, Tim Burton, have shown the representative potential of the Gothic mode; the visual medium of film, of course, has a certain experiential immediacy that marries successfully with the dark aesthetics of the Gothic, and its connections to representing cultural anxieties and desires (Botting). The analysis of Gothic cinema, in its various and extremely international incarnations, has now established itself as a distinct area of academic research, where prominent Gothic scholars such as Ken Gelder—with the recent publication of his New Vampire Cinema (2012)—continue to lead the way to advance Gothic scholarship outside of the traditional bounds of the literary.As far as cinema is concerned, one cannot negate the interconnections, both aesthetic and conceptual, between traditional Gothic representation and horror. Jerrold Hogle has clearly identified the mutation and transformation of the Gothic from a narrative solely based on “terror”, to one that incorporates elements of “horror” (Hogle 3). While the separation between the two has a long-standing history—and there is no denying that both the aesthetics and the politics of horror and the Gothic can be fundamentally different—one has to be attuned to the fact that, in our contemporary moment, the two often tend to merge and intersect, often forming hybrid visions of the Gothic, with cinematic examples such as Guillermo Del Toro’s Pan’s Labyrinth (2006) playing testament to this. Indeed, the newly formed representations of “Gothic Horror” and “Gothic Terror” alerts us to the mutable and malleable nature of the Gothic itself, an adaptable mode that is always contextually based. Film is not, however, the only non-literary medium that has incorporated elements of the Gothic over the years. Other visual representations of the Gothic abound in the worlds of television, animation, comics and graphic novels. One must only think here of the multiple examples of recent television series that have found fruitful connections with both the psychologically haunting aspects of Gothic terror, and the gory and grisly visual evocations of Gothic horror: the list is long and diverse, and includes Dexter (2006-2013), Hannibal (2013-), and Penny Dreadful (2014-), to mention but a few. The animation front —in its multiple in carnations —has similarly been entangled with Gothic tropes and concerns, a valid interconnection that is visible both in cinematic and television examples, from The Corpse Bride (2005) to Coraline (2009) and Frankenweeinie (2012). Comics and graphics also have a long-standing tradition of exploiting the dark aesthetics of the Gothic mode, and its sensationalist connections to horror; the instances from this list pervade the contemporary media scope, and feature the inclusion of Gothicised ambiences and characters in both singular graphic novels and continuous comics —such as the famous Arkham Asylum (1989) in the ever-popular Batman franchise. The inclusion of these multi-media examples here is only representative, and it is an almost prosaic accent in a list of Gothicised media that extends to great bounds, and also includes the worlds of games and music. The scholarship, for its part, has not failed to pick up on the transformations and metamorphoses that the Gothic mode has undergone in recent years. The place of both Gothic horror and Gothic terror in a multi-media context has been critically evaluated in detail, and continues to attract academic attention, as the development of the multi-genre and multi-medium journey of the Gothic unfolds. Indeed, this emphasis is now so widespread that a certain canonicity has developed for the study of the Gothic in media such as television, extending the reach of Gothic Studies into the wider popular culture scope. Critical texts that have recently focused on identifying the Gothic in media beyond not only literature, but also film, include Helen Wheatley’s Gothic Television (2007), John C. Tibbetts’ The Gothic Imagination: Conversation of Fantasy, Horror, and Science Fiction in the Media (2011), and Julia Round’s Gothic in Comics and Graphic Novels (2014). Critics often suggest that the Gothic returns at moments of particular cultural crisis, and if this is true, it seems as if we are in such a moment ourselves. Popular television shows such as True Blood and The Walking Dead, books such as the Twilight series, and the death-obsessed musical stylings of Lana Del Ray all point to the pertinence of the Gothic in contemporary culture, as does the amount of submissions received for this edition of M/C Journal, which explore a wide range of Gothic texts. Timothy Jones’ featured essay “The Black Mass as Play: Dennis Wheatley’s The Devil Rides Out” suggests that although scholarly approaches to the Gothic tend to adopt the methodologies used to approach literary texts and applied them to Gothic texts, yielding readings that are more-or-less congruous with readings of other sorts of literature, the Gothic can be considered as something that tells us about more than simply ourselves and the world we live in. For Jones, the fact that the Gothic is a production of popular culture as much as “highbrow” literature suggests there is something else happening with the way popular Gothic texts function. What if, Jones asks, the popular Gothic were not a type of work, but a kind of play? Jones uses this approach to suggest that texts such as Wheatley’s The Devil Rides Out might direct readers not primarily towards the real, but away from it, at least for a time. Wheatley’s novel is explored by Jones as a venue for readerly play, apart from the more substantial and “serious” concerns that occupy most literary criticism. Samantha Jane Lindop’s essay foregrounds the debt David Lynch’s film Mulholland Drive owes to J. Sheridan le Fanu’s Carmilla (1872) thus adding to studies of the film that have noted Lynch’s intertextual references to classic cinema such as Billy Wilder’s Sunset Boulevard (1950), Alfred Hitchcock’s Vertigo (1958) and Ingmar Bergman’s Persona (1966). Lindop explores not just the striking similarity between Carmilla and Mulholland Drive in terms of character and plot, but also the way that each text is profoundly concerned with the uncanny. Lorna Piatti-Farnell’s contribution, “What’s Hidden in Gravity Falls: Strange Creatures and the Gothic Intertext” is similarly interested in the intertextuality of the Gothic mode, noting that since its inception this has taken many and varied incarnations, from simple references and allusions to more complicated uses of style and plot organisation. Piatti-Farnell suggests it is unwise to reduce the Gothic text to a simple master narrative, but that within its re-elaborations and re-interpretations, interconnections do appear, forming “the Gothic intertext”. While the Gothic has traditionally found fertile ground in works of literature, other contemporary media, such as animation, have offered the Gothic an opportunity for growth and adaptation. Alex Hirsch’s Gravity Falls is explored by Piatti-Farnell as a visual text providing an example of intersecting monstrous creatures and interconnected narrative structures that reveal the presence of a dense and intertextual Gothic network. Those interlacings are connected to the wider cultural framework and occupy an important part in unravelling the insidious aspects of human nature, from the difficulties of finding “oneself” to the loneliness of the everyday. Issues relating to identity also feature in Patrick Usmar’s “Born To Die: Lana Del Rey, Beauty Queen or Gothic Princess?”, which further highlights the presence of the Gothic in a wide range of contemporary media forms. Usmar explores the music videos of Del Rey, which he describes as Pop Gothic, and that advance themes of consumer culture, gender identity, sexuality and the male gaze. Jen Craig’s “The Agitated Shell: Thinspiration and the Gothic Experience of Eating Disorders” similarly focuses on contemporary media and gender identity, problematising these issues by exploring the highly charged topic of “thinspiration” web sites. Hannah Irwin’s contribution also focuses on female experience. “Not of this earth: Jack the Ripper and the development of Gothic Whitechapel” focuses on the murder of five women who were the victims of an assailant commonly referred to by the epithet “Jack the Ripper”. Irwin discusses how Whitechapel developed as a Gothic location through the body of literature devoted to the Whitechapel murders of 1888, known as “Ripperature”. The subject of the Gothic space is also taken up by Donna Brien’s “Forging Continuing Bonds from the Dead to the Living: Gothic Commemorative Practices along Australia’s Leichhardt Highway.” This essay explores the memorials along Leichhardt’s highway as Gothic practice, in order to illuminate some of the uncanny paradoxes around public memorials, as well as the loaded emotional terrain such commemorative practices may inhabit. Furthering our understanding of the Australian Gothic is Patrick West’s contribution “Towards a Politics & Art of the Land: Gothic Cinema of the Australian New Wave and its Reception by American Film Critics.” West argues that many films of the Australian New Wave of the 1970s and 1980s can be defined as Gothic and that international reviews of such films tended to overlook the importance of the Australian landscape, which functions less as a backdrop and more as a participating element, even a character, in the drama, saturating the mise-en-scène. Bruno Starrs’ “Writing My Indigenous Vampires: Aboriginal Gothic or Aboriginal Fantastic” is dedicated to illuminating a new genre of creative writing: that of the “Aboriginal Fantastic”. Starrs’ novel That Blackfella Bloodsucka Dance! is part of this emerging genre of writing that is worthy of further academic interrogation. Similarly concerned with the supernatural, Erin Mercer’s contribution “‘A Deluge of Shrieking Unreason’: Supernaturalism and Settlement in New Zealand Gothic Fiction” explores the absence of ghosts and vampires in contemporary Gothic produced in New Zealand, arguing that this is largely a result of a colonial Gothic tradition utilising Maori ghosts that complicates the processes through which contemporary writers might build on that tradition. Although there is no reason why the Gothic must include supernatural elements, it is an enduring feature that is taken up by Jessica Balanzategui in “‘You Have a Secret that You Don’t Want To Tell Me’: The Child as Trauma in Spanish and American Horror Film.” This essay explores the uncanny child character and how such children act as an embodiment of trauma. Sarah Baker’s “The Walking Dead and Gothic Excess: The Decaying Social Structures of Contagion” focuses on the figure of the zombie as it appears in the television show The Walking Dead, which Baker argues is a way of exploring themes of decay, particularly of family and society. The essays contained in this special Gothic edition of M/C Journal highlight the continuing importance of the Gothic mode in contemporary culture and how that mode is constantly evolving into new forms and manifestations. The multi-faceted nature of the Gothic in our contemporary popular culture moment is accurately signalled by the various media on which the essays focus, from television to literature, animation, music, and film. The place occupied by the Gothic beyond representational forms, and into the realms of cultural practice, is also signalled, an important shift within the bounds of Gothic Studies which is bound to initiate fascinating debates. The transformations of the Gothic in media and culture are, therefore, also surveyed, so to continue the ongoing critical conversation on not only the place of the Gothic in contemporary narratives, but also its duplicitous, malleable, and often slippery nature. It is our hope that the essays here stimulate further discussion about the Gothic and we will hope, and look forward, to hearing from you. References Botting, Fred. Gothic: The New Critical Idiom. 2nd edition. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2014. Hogle, Jerrold. “Introduction: The Gothic in Western Culture”. The Cambridge Companion of Gothic Fiction, ed. Jerrold Hogle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 1-20.