Academic literature on the topic '1870 Risorgimento; sources; Lombardy'

Adelaide Ironside (1831–1867) is best known as the first Australian-born artist to train overseas. While her life offers a portal into Republican Sydney, Pre-Raphaelite London and Risorgimento Rome, the nature of her archive also highlights the limits of historical method and the need to employ what Virginia Woolf called ‘the biographer’s licence’ when researching and writing about subjects with problematic sources. In this article, I employ biographical license to contrast the better-known and better-documented death of the English poet John Keats (1795–1821), with the few records associated with Ironside’s death some forty years later, to speculate about the silences in her sources. There are several factors encouraging this approach. Both artists died in Rome of pulmonary tuberculosis. Both were patients of the famous doctor, Sir James Clark (1788–1870), and both died during winter in the care of the person with whom they are now buried. By situating Ironside within these broader nineteenth-century contexts, my biographical subject evolves from a shadowy historical representative of demographic and an era into a figure who is more flesh and blood than an accocount focused upon her accomplishments and acquaintances might otherwise allow.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> With the establishment of the second Austrian rule on the eastern Adriatic coast (1815), after several centuries, the Adriatic Sea was divided between two sides – Italian (Papal States and Kingdom of Two Sicilies) which ruled the western Adriatic coast, and the Austrian, which ruled the eastern coast and Lombardy-Venetia. Such division of the Adriatic Sea between the two powers in constant tension adversely affected the dynamics of mapping, and in the mid-19th century, there was a serious setback in mapping. In the 1860s, the strengthening of Italian and Austrian realms (Italy began its unification in 1860, and the Austrian Empire was converted into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1867) created a need for cooperation between the two empires on the joint mapping of the Adriatic Sea, which was to enable the production of modern charts based on a comprehensive survey covering the whole sea surface area, from coast to coast.</p><p>For the purposes of the hydrographic survey, both imperial powers established their hydrographic offices as part of their military (naval) forces. The Austrian Empire established its Hydrographic Office in 1860, at first in Trieste and, from 1869 onwards, in the city of Pula (<i>Hydrographisches Amt der k. u. k. Kriegsmarine</i>). Its Italian counterpart, the <i>Istituto idrografico della Marina</i>, was founded in 1872 with its headquarters in Genoa (yet its first administrative act appeared as early as 1867). A systematic survey of the Adriatic Sea was started on its eastern side by the Austrian Hydrographic Office. It was conducted from 1866 to 1870 under the supervision of the experienced mariner and hydrographer Tobias Ritter von Oesterreicher. After land and sea surveys had been carried out on the basis of a dense triangulation network (first-, second-, and third-order triangulation), the first edition of the hydrographic charts of the eastern Adriatic coast was prepared by the Military Geographical Institute in Vienna and published by W. Essmann in Trieste as early as 1870 (and reissued in 1872). The survey resulted in a general chart of the Adriatic at a scale of 1:1 000 000, four course charts of the whole Adriatic Sea at a scale of 1:350 000, thirty-one coastal charts of the eastern Adriatic at scales of 1:40 000 to 1:100 000, and fifty-seven harbour charts at scales of 1:20 000 to 1:30 000. The survey of the Italian side of the Adriatic was conducted under the supervision of Counter-Admiral Duke Antonio Imbert, who earlier assisted Oesterreicher in the survey of the eastern coast. It started in 1867 and, by the end of 1873, conducted by the joint forces of the Austro-Hungarian and Italian hydrographic offices, resulted in a series of twenty-four charts at a scale of 1:100 000. Printed by the Military Geographical Institute in Vienna in 1873, together with a series covering the eastern Adriatic coast, these charts continued to serve as the main base map in the Office’s cartographic production for several decades, but also as a template for maps of Adriatic issued by foreign hydrographic offices, including that of the British Admiralty.</p><p>The collaboration between the Austrian and Italian hydrographic offices continued, jointly promoting the improvement of quality of nautical charts of the Adriatic and the development of the hydrographic service in general. Apart from producing the first modern charts of the Adriatic, this survey marked the beginning of a state institutions for hydrographic exploration, including first measurements of geomagnetism, salinity, currents, and tides. The 19th-century charting thus played a crucial role in the birth of the official hydrographic services and the development of modern hydrographic exploration of the Adriatic. The proposed paper is based on archival sources.</p></p>

Entre 1861 et 1866, les Bourbons de Naples et le gouvernement napolitain en exil à Rome se sont battus pour entretenir la loyauté de leurs partisans dans l’ancien royaume et s’attirer la reconnaissance de la communauté internationale, dans l’espoir de hâter l’effondrement selon eux inévitable de l’Italie unifiée. En confrontant les archives bourboniennes à d’autres sources (policières, militaires et diplomatiques) italiennes et étrangères, ce travail examine d’abord les rapports entre le gouvernement napolitain en exil, l’émigration légitimiste et l’opposition intérieure, de la chute de Gaète à la révolte de Palerme. Une partie consacrée à la guérilla antiunitaire à la frontière méridionale des États pontificaux aborde ensuite la participation de volontaires étrangers au service du roi François II, ainsi que l’attitude des autorités romaines face aux activités de l’émigration et du gouvernement napolitains. L’analyse des mécanismes matériels de la mobilisation armée internationale en faveur des Bourbons de Naples permet de poser la question d’une solidarité européenne de la contre-révolution qui s’exprime tout au long du XIXe siècle par la circulation des combattants. L’étude expose enfin les efforts du gouvernement bourbonien en exil pour s’assurer, à travers son réseau d’agents diplomatiques, l’appui des puissances européennes et la sympathie des opinions publiques
Between 1861 and 1866, the Bourbons of Naples and the Neapolitan government-in-exile in Rome fought to maintain the loyalty of their supporters in their former Kingdom and win recognition from the international community, in the hope of hastening the collapse of unified Italy that they deemed inevitable. By comparing the Bourbons’ records to others sources (police, military and diplomatic) in Italy and abroad, this study first examines the relationships between the Neapolitan government-in-exile, legitimist emigration and domestic opposition, from the fall of Gaeta to the revolt of Palermo. Then, a section devoted to the anti-Italian guerrilla in the Southern border of the Papal States focuses on the participation of foreign volunteers in the service of King Francis II and the attitude of the Roman authorities towards the activities of the Neapolitan government and emigration. Analyzing the actual mechanisms of the international armed mobilization in favor of the Bourbons of Naples, the following section discusses the idea of a European counter-revolutionary solidarity that expresses itself throughout the nineteenth century through the circulation of combatants. The last part brings out the Neapolitan government-in-exile’s efforts to ensure, through its network of diplomatic agents, both the support of European powers and the sympathy of public opinion