Dissertations / Theses on the topic '180105 Commercial and Contract Law'

Includes abstract.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 258-302).
The focal research question of this thesis is the relevance of the contract of employment in modern employment. In answering this question three broad areas associated with the contract are explored: (1) the evolution of the contract of employment in South Africa and the dichotomy between the contract of employment and the independent contract; (2) the forms of engagement of workers in the South African labour market; and (3) alternative regulatory models with specific reference to models that are consistent with the South African Constitution. Using a comparative approach it is shown that the contract of employment in South Africa is in a relative state of unification. However, some assumptions about its historical evolution and the influence of Roman and Roman-Dutch law are overstated, and more recent developments, such as tax legislation, arguably had a greater influence on the dichotomising of labour law. The study of the South African world of work illustrates that modern work is performed in diverse ways. After illustrating that labour law has both countervailing and social developmental roles, it is concluded that the contract of employment as traditionally understood is no longer capable of performing these roles. It is further claimed that a process of diversification (as opposed to the unification of the contract of employment) will help to redefine the contract of employment and this may extend the coverage of labour legislation to those who, bearing in mind the purpose of labour law, ought to be protected by labour laws. Finally, it is argued that the South African Constitution provides a ready paradigm within which to achieve such a process of diversification which would ultimately lead to an extension of the coverage of labour laws.

This paper analyses the need for multinationals to adopt and fully implement the UN Global Compact principles in their operations by influencing sustainability down their international supply chains. This analysis is premised on the various theories supporting the adoption of sustainable business practices by businesses in terms of labour, human rights, environmental responsibility and anti-corruption. The objective of the analysis is to propose the applicable law of contract tools that the multinationals can use to implement their sustainability commitments down international supply chains. Since the supply chain partners of these multinationals are distinct entities operating independently and only dealing with the multinationals through contracts, the paper proposes that sustainability can be influenced through the use of such contracts. In this, the paper appraises conditions precedent and express contractual terms as the law of contract tools that can best be utilized by multinationals in influencing supply chain sustainability. The paper shows that these tools can be utilized to guarantee that supply chain partners operate sustainably and in a manner that implements the sustainability commitments of the focal firm - the multinational. Against the background of the already existing systems, this study illustrates that the proposed tools can be used to strengthen the existing systems and especially the use of supplier codes of conduct. It also demonstrates that the effective use of these tools guarantees the adoption of sustainable practices and systems that eventually make the entire supply chain sustainable. The paper concludes that the use of these tools will guarantee the implementation of sustainability commitments, as based on the UN Global Compact, in international supply chains.

This thesis will examine issues related to the formation and validity of electronic contracts on a comparative basis between the English, American and UNCITRAL approaches.  When examining the English approach, reference will be made to relevant EC Directives in relation to the subject matter. This thesis has four main objectives.  First, to assess the impact of using electronic communication tools to reach agreement.  Second, to identify some key points that should be considered when examining the formal validity of electronic contracts. Third, to establish a foundation for having a valid contract in which rights and obligations could arise accordingly.  Finally, this thesis aims to identify whether the traditional contract law rules are able to meet the challenges that are brought by the use of electronic communication tools, or whether they require reform. It will be noticed throughout that electronic contracts come in different types.  This leads to difficulty with introducing one rule to cover all types of electronic contracts. Furthermore, some concerns arise when electronic communication tools are used to form contracts as to the exact time of contracting. Other concerns arise when trying to fulfil some legal formalities such as writing and signature.  This is because of the special and dual nature of electronic data and the possibility of using different types of signature methods in cyberspace. Finally, it is important to consider taking steps to update some of the current contract law rules to work alongside the electronic technology revolution.  Some aspects of the traditional contract law rules become challenging when applied to electronic contracts.  For example, the issues of contract formation and the use of electronic and intelligent software require direct attention when considering the issue of e-contracts.  The reference to such challenging well-established contract law rules is necessary throughout this thesis, however, since the current rules which deal with electronic commerce in general and electronic contracts in particular do not cover all the issues that are related to electronic contracts.  Lastly, this thesis will sound the alarm on the need to raise the legal awareness of both online users and website developers when contracting online. Chapter Two will assess the use of electronic communication tools to form such contracts, and the sorts of problems that could arise as a consequence. Chapter Three will highlight whether or not electronic contracts can be considered written and signed when the law imposes such requirement.  This chapter will also seek to determine whether there is a need for such formalities in cyberspace. Chapter Four is designed to deal with selected issues of material validity of electronic contracts.  This chapter is essential when considering all types of electronic contracts, including formal ones.  It will consider issues that are related to mutual assent in cyberspace, and the problems that could arise with web-based contracts in relation to these.

GOD says in the Holy Qur'aan "O' people, I have created you from a single pair of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes that ye may know each other. Verily the most honored of you in the sight of GOD is the most righteous of you..." (Holy Qur'aan, 49:13).
This thesis is laid down in accordance with GOD's order to connect civilizations with each other and to benefit from each other's experience and knowledge toward a much better future for humanity.
The thesis tries to reflect upon the opinions of Islamic Fiqh with regard to the contract of international carriage of passengers by air and e-ticketing in a manner that is understandable to both Fiqh oriented and Western Law oriented readers. Therefore, it has been designed to include three major Parts where the first introduces the Western Law oriented reader to Islamic Fiqh. The Second Part introduces the Fiqh Oriented reader to the world of tickets and travel documents. Finally, the third chapter concentrates on the issue of electronic ticketing. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Good faith is recognised as an underlying principle in South African contract law, and the contract law of many countries. There has been noticeable reluctance in some common law jurisdictions against the elevation of the role of good faith in contract law. This paper seeks to explore the tension between the Supreme Court of Appeal and the Constitutional Court in the application of good faith and by implication, fairness to South African contractual disputes. It illustrates that the Constitutional Court seeks to elevate the role of good faith while the SCA is not in favour of such an approach. As the two benches are not in step with their approach, this has led to legal uncertainty in this area of South African contract law. In South African consumer contracts, the concept of fairness is explored, and the remedies at the disposal of consumers to escape the operation of unfair contract terms in different sectors. As South Africa has only provided legislative protection for consumers in the past twenty years, this area of law is comparatively speaking 'new' when compared with other countries. There are therefore lessons to be learnt from other countries in this regard as they have the advantage of time and thereby experience gained over South Africa. For comparative purposes two common law jurisdictions were also explored, namely Australia and the United Kingdom. Both countries are facing similar challenges as South Africa to elevate and expand the role of good faith in the contractual space. Recent notable court decisions in Australia and England in the commercial contract space are explored to demonstrate these challenges. This paper also considers their consumer protection legislation in order to identify if there were lessons to be learnt from their protections that should be considered for South African legislation. Due to the EU membership by the UK, the increased recognition of good faith in civil law jurisdictions has made its way into UK legislation. Good faith as a concept has also found its way into Australian consumer legislation. It may only be a matter of time before the three countries explored in this paper elevate and expand the role of good faith and fairness beyond consumer contracts. The Constitutional mandate to develop the South African common law, the UK's (current) need to comply with civil law principles due to EU membership and generally, the conventional practice by common law legislatures, academics and courts of looking to England for legal developments, are factors which will contribute to the development.

This dissertation aims to focus on whether the parties to an international sale contract on CIF Incoterms varied in the oil and gas industry, specifically the petroleum sector, achieve the objective of linking the passing of ownership in the petroleum products1 sold from England to South Africa, to the passing of risk in those petroleum products by indicating such intention in their contract of sale?

This thesis focuses on remedies for a breach of the Contract of Sale of Goods under English and Saudi law, wherever the Contract is in the course of business. The primary aim of the thesis is to describe and analyse those remedies and how each of the above legal regimes has dealt with breaches. For this purpose, the remedies must be analysed to identify differences and similarities between the two regimes, while at the same time highlighting the weaknesses and strengths of each. In addition, the reasons why the two legal systems have adopted their respective approaches in favouring specific remedies will be considered, in order to determine whether there are any differences in the underlying legal principles affecting the de facto results for the Buyer and Seller. In so doing, the aim is to provide a detailed and ingenious analysis, which may be of assistance in understanding each regime.

This thesis is study of the principle of good faith in contract law. In the last fifteen years enormous attempts have been made by contract lawyers, especially those in common law systems, to consider the question of good faith in contracts. But the approach that has been taken by those lawyers in dealing with this important question is unsatisfactory and incapable of producing a coherent understanding of the role of good faith in contracts. Instead of considering the essential question of good faith in contracts, especially commercial contracts, the debate has turned out into a battle between common law and civil law. This approach creates a polarized debate. This study will concentrate on the applications of good faith in arm 's length contractual relationships. This will no doubt concentrate the analysis on its operation in contracts generally, without involving other theories that may explain the courts' concern over the problems of bad faith conducts. Examining good faith as a general requirement in contracts is vitally important in order to reach a coherent understanding of its implications for contracting parties. This study will examine in depth the most important issues regarding the operation of the good faith principle in contract law. I will examine the rationality of this principle in pre-contractual negotiations. This area of contract raises difficult questions in many common law legal systems. The Introduction of the principle of good faith at the stage of negotiation under the PECL and the UNIDROIT Principles has strengthened the role of that principle at the formation of contracts. The interaction between the principle of good faith and express terms in contracts will also be examined in an attempt to identify the limits of the parties' freedom in the enforcement of contract terms. In addition to dealing with the operation of the principle of good faith throughout the life of the contract, it is also vitally important to analyse the general provisions of good faith in the PECL, CISG, UCC and the UNIDROIT Principles. Examining these general provisions of good faith will help us to understand its role in commercial contracts.

Sammanfattning

Bredbands- och digital-TV-marknaden växer kraftigt och det är av stor betydelse ur konsumentsynpunkt att företagen tillämpar skäliga avtalsvillkor. I denna uppsats granskas ett antal standardavtal utfärdade av företagen på respektive marknad. Företagen vars villkor vi analyserar är Universal Telecom, Glocalnet och Tyfon Svenska AB som tillhandahåller bredbandstjänster, samt Viasat, Boxer och Canal Digital, som levererar digital-TV. Det rör sig i dessa fall om ensidigt upprättade standardavtal där konsumenten inte har möjlighet till individuell förhandling. Syftet med uppsatsen är att bringa klarhet i hur man går tillväga vid en oskälighetsbedömning av villkor i standardavtal riktade till konsumenter samt vilken lagstiftning som till övervägande del används inom området. Vi vill även utreda om dessa avtal innehåller oskäliga avtalsvillkor samt i förekommande fall presentera vilka slags oskäliga avtalsvillkor det rör sig om.

Vid en oskälighetsbedömning skall hänsyn tas till god sed, tvingande konsumentskyddande lagstiftning, allmänna tvingande rättsprinciper, dispositiv lag samt om obalans uppkommer till följd av en avtalsbestämmelse. Avtalsvillkoren får heller inte vara vilseledande eller otydligt utformade.

De lagar som främst tillämpas på dessa marknader är AVLK, EkomL, KkL och KtjL. De två sistnämnda lagarna är dock inte direkt tillämpliga utan får tillämpas analogt.

Vid ingången av arbetet misstänkte vi att det kunde vara svårt att hitta oskäliga avtalsvillkor i så stora företag som vi faktiskt valt, men i samtliga av de granskade standardavtalen förekom oskäliga avtalsvillkor. En gemensam nämnare för företagen är att deras avtal innehöll villkor som på ett eller annat sätt oskäligt begränsade konsumentens rätt till ersättning, s.k. ansvarsbegränsningsklausuler. Alla företagen har även villkorsändringsklausuler som bedömts som oskäliga eftersom de ger näringsidkaren ensidig rätt att ändra i villkoren avseende pris, tjänst eller dylikt.

Villkor som föreskriver formkrav vid uppsägning, reklamation eller andra meddelanden återfanns i inte mindre än tre av de granskade företagen. Detta är anmärkningsvärt eftersom det med stöd av förarbetena till KkL och tidigare avgöranden har bedömts som oskäligt en längre tid. En del av de undersökta bolagen försöker utnyttja sig av force majeure-klausuler för att slippa prestera sin del av avtalet. Force majeure är omständigheter som det inte kan rådas över, exempelvis krig och naturkatastrofer. Många av företagen utvidgar innebörden till att innefatta även andra omständigheter som ligger inom kontrollsfären.

Depuis quelques années, le bail commercial, contrat de droit privé, connaît une environnementalisation, entendue comme l’action grandissante de l’environnement sur cet accord de volontés. Ce mouvement incite à s’interroger sur la question environnementale dans le contrat de bail commercial et plus spécifiquement sur le rôle et l’évolution de ce contrat. Dès lors, il s’agit de rechercher l’environnement dans et par le contrat de bail commercial. Schématiquement, l’environnement est à la fois facteur de perturbation et de socialisation du contrat de bail commercial. D’une part, il intègre massivement des obligations d’information environnementale, lesquelles s’accompagnent de limites et d’incohérences. Outre cette effervescence, la problématique des sites et sols pollués provoque tout au long de la vie de ce contrat de nombreuses interférences entre le droit des baux et le droit de l’environnement (avec les législations d’ordre public sur les installations classées, les déchets et les sites et sols pollués). D’autre part, le bail commercial appréhende l’intérêt général environnemental par l’intermédiaire du législateur, du juge ou des parties, ce qui le conduit à protéger l’environnement. Alors que le statut des baux commerciaux est depuis toujours socialisé pour les besoins du preneur et de son entreprise, avec un ordre public de plus en plus prégnant et une liberté contractuelle cantonnée, cette convention de jouissance est ainsi fonctionnalisée au service de l’environnement. Elle acquiert une fonction sociale à dimension environnementale. L’effet de cette fonctionnalisation est ambivalent puisque le bail commercial est susceptible de présenter des avancées pour l’environnement mais se heurte à des difficultés tant internes qu’externes et peine à adapter son modèle à l’environnement. De ce fait, dans une posture résolument tournée vers la protection de l’environnement, des perspectives sont recensées et suggérées. Les rapports du droit de l’environnement et du droit des baux tiennent à la fois de la concurrence et de la complémentarité devant faire coexister la rentabilité économique et le respect de l’environnement. La dynamique d’imprégnation environnementale engendre un changement de philosophie de ce contrat. L’environnement force au dialogue et à la concertation et modifie les rapports à l’immeuble tandis que le bail commercial scelle l’environnement à un modèle pragmatique en lui apportant une appréhension matérielle dans des rapports locatifs structurés et éprouvés
For the past few years, the commercial lease, a contract under private law, has been subject to greening, as the growing trend of being environment-minded when entering into legally binding agreements takes hold. This trend involves increased attention to environmental issues when considering commercial lease contracts and, more specifically, about the role and evolution of the contract. Therefore, we must be aware of the impact of environmental issues in and through the commercial lease agreement. Mechanically, the environment is both a disruptive and a socializing factor in the commercial lease contract. On one hand, there is a massive duty to integrate environmental information, which may involve limits and incoherence’s. Furthering this effervescence of information are issues of contaminated sites and soil causing numerous interferences throughout the life of this contract between lease agreement and environmental law (with public policy legislation on classified facilities, waste and contaminated sites and soil). On the other hand, the commercial lease captures general environmental interests through the rule of law, litigation or interest of involved parties, ultimately leading to environment protection. While the status of commercial leases has always been settled for the needs of the lessee and associated corporate structure, with an increasingly strong public policy and limited contractual freedom, this tenancy agreement is thus geared toward environment concerns. While filling a necessary social function, the lease agreement also acquires an environmental dimension. The effect of adding an environmental concern to the commercial lease is mixed : while likely to present advances for the environment, the lease agreement faces both internal and external difficulties and has a difficulty adapting its model to the environment. Consequently, adopting a resolutely environmental protection-oriented stance, we will identify and suggest perspectives. The relationship between environmental law and contract law is one of competition and complementarity, requiring a blend of economic profitability and respect for the environment. Bringing elements of respect for the environment into a commercial lease agreement is leading to a change in the philosophy of the contract. Respect for the environment forces dialogue and consultation, reassesses perspectives to the leased structure, while the commercial lease brings environmental concerns to a pragmatic model by providing it with a material understanding in structured and proven rental relationships

The thesis explores whether, prior to the nineteenth century regime of legislative intervention which anglicised the law relating to contracts of sale for goods, the Scots common law underlying contracts of sale developed in a unitary fashion. Did the same principles apply regardless of whether the subject of the sale was corporeal moveable, corporeal immoveable or incorporeal? This question is analysed through a case study of the common law contractual implied warranty of soundness, and its application to the three types of property mentioned above. While this study does not provide a definitive answer on its own, it does give us a preliminary indication as to whether the law was unified or not. The thesis relies primarily on Scots case law and academic writings, employing historical and doctrinal methodologies. The study is supplemented by comparative law from France, Germany, South Africa and England. Roman law, and the works certain Ius Commune writers, are also referenced. The thesis can be divided into four parts. The first part explores whether academic texts on the contract of sale dating prior to the legislative intervention took a unified approach in their discussion. This establishes whether scholars from this period viewed the contract of sale as unified; and aids the analysis in subsequent chapters. The second part examines the warranty’s substantive framework in the context of its development, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, through case law featuring corporeal moveable property. The third part looks at the warranty’s use in contracts of sale for corporeal immoveable property. Here, I establish that: 1) there was no consensus as to whether or not the warranty applied to this type of property; and 2) the warranty was not utilised by buyers of this type of property in practice. I identify a combination of factors which prevented buyers of latently defective corporeal immoveable property from invoking the warranty. The final part of the thesis examines the warranty’s actual and theoretical application to contracts of sale for incorporeal property. It establishes that the warranty would be relevant to some, but not all, types of incorporeal property.

The goal of this thesis is to discover differences in regulation of sales contracts in Anglo-American and Continental legal system. The thesis looks for and compares distinctions between regulation in Uniform Commerical Code adopted in most of the states of the USA that represents the Anglo-American System, and Louisiana Civil Code which was chosen by the author thanks to its strong link to french Code Civil as a representative of Continental System. The author analyzes differences in definition of sales contract, the process of its formation, she looks at the question of passage of title and passage of risk, furthermore she deals with rights and obligations of seller and buyer. Eventually, she summarizes the distinctions found.

This thesis analyses how and to what extent the contractual and treaty instruments interact in protecting upstream energy contracts against political interference by the host state. The study considers whether the interaction between the upstream contracts and international investment treaties provide effective protection for the upstream investors and whether the interaction between them prevents the host state from exercising its regulatory rights. By examining both jurisdictional and substantive aspects of the interaction between these two instruments, the study found that political risks in the upstream industry are not effectively mitigated and managed. The study therefore calls for a higher degree of interaction between these two instruments. This can be achieved by drafting the relevant upstream contracts and investment treaties in a more interactive manner so that they would together provide maximum protection for the upstream investors.

To compete effectively in the global economy, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations [hereinafter ASEAN] needs supranational legal infrastructure that facilitates international business transactions. As such, this thesis examines choice of law issues in contract and tort in Canada, Louisiana, the Second Restatement on Conflict of Laws 1969, the United Kingdom, the Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations 1980, and Singapore. Using a proposed Model Law on contract and tort choice of law in ASEAN, this thesis will demonstrate that despite differences in the existing choice of law rules, a uniform regime may nevertheless be formulated without significant compromises. On the broader level, this thesis proposes a uniform conflict of laws regime in ASEAN. Using the analogy of contract and tort choice of law, this thesis argues that divergences may be reconciled and a uniform regime forged. It is desired that this thesis will contribute towards the uniformizing of conflict of laws in ASEAN.

Après l’octroi des premières capitulations au début du XVIe siècle par les sultans turcs, de nombreux négociants provençaux fondent des établissement dans les principales places de commerce de l’Empire ottoman. Depuis l’Époque médiévale, celles-ci sont désignées sous le vocable d’échelles du Levant et de Barbarie. Ces termes renvoient également aux cadres juridiques développés pour organiser ce commerce international de grande ampleur. Dès lors, les marchands des échelles sont soumis à une triple contrainte résultant du droit capitulaire turc, des usages commerciaux et de la législation royale. En s’appuyant sur les capitulations qui garantissent la libre circulation des personnes et des biens sur le territoire ottoman, les négociants français développent des structures juridiques empiriques. À partir de la seconde moitié du XVIIe siècle, les rois de France essayent par ailleurs d’imposer une forme de dirigisme commercial, afin de subordonner l’activité économique à la politique royale et de la faire tendre vers le bien de l’État
After the Ottoman Empire granted France access to selected markets starting in the 16th century, a large number of merchants of Provence established selling agents in the main trading ports of Levant. Since the Medieval period these ports had been called échelles of Levant, in the Middle East, and échelles of Barbary, in North Africa. These terms are also used to name the legal framework governing the international trade with these regions. Since then, the merchants of this marketplaces had to meet three kinds of regulations : local commercial law, regulations from the Turkish administration and regulations from the French Royal administration. French merchants developed new forms of enterprise based on the capitulations that ensured free movement of people and goods within the Ottoman territory. From the second half of the 17th century, the French royal administration tried to implement an interventionist policy in an attempt to control the trade and benefit from it

During the later half of the 20th century standard form contracts began to be used more frequently in contract situations. This trend has been consistent and in today’s world numerous commercial parties employ such contracts in their business transactions. The reasons for the extended use of standard form contracts are the benefits that can be obtained for the parties such as time efficiency, effectiveness and price advantages. Standardised contracts often regulate certain issues of the contract for example the way of delivery, remedies and complaints. The definition of such contracts is corresponding in Sweden and England as contracts containing in advance standardised terms with an aim to be used similarly in contract situations with most clients or customers.

As the usage of standard form contracts increased, the number of unfair contract terms also enhanced. Therefore, the legislative powers in Sweden and England realised that the rules concerning the freedom of contract had to be restricted and governed. As a result, the legislative powers introduced an open control device through statutory control. This was done in Sweden in 1976 with the enforcement of Section 36 of the Contracts Act, and in England the year after when UCTA came into force. The statutory control in both Sweden and England makes it possible to appraise the fairness of exemption clauses. The statutory control is not identical in the two states. UCTA only concerns exclusion clauses and limitation clauses regarding contract terms and non-contractual notices. In Sweden, on the other hand, there is a general doctrine of unfairness and Section 36 of the Contracts Act can set aside all kinds of agreements.

The statutory control is complemented by indirect means of controlling the content of a contract through non statutory methods. The non statutory methods are concerned with the incorporation, interpretation and construction of clauses in a contract. To be valid and for a party to be able to rely on a term it must have been incorporated into the contract. The rules concerning the interpretation of standard form contracts and exclusion clauses are also of great importance. In both states the approach held is that the statutory control should be used preferably over the indirect control means, though the indirect means still has a prominent role in England through common law. Both England and Sweden agree on that the weaker party in a contract situation is in a greater need of protection by the rules of law in unfair contract situations. However unfairness can only arise if the superior party has wrongfully used the exclusion clause.

Our study shows the differences between Swedish and English contract law that can result in difficulties in the harmonisation process. These differences concern the test of reasonableness of exemption clauses, the doctrine of good faith, the legal effects and to what extent the indirect means of control should be applied. The Swedish test of reasonableness may include all relevant circumstances irrespective of the time of their occurrence, before or after the entry of the contract. The courts in England are limited to circumstances that have occurred before the closure of the contract. Section 36 of the Swedish Contracts Act includes a general rule of unfairness applicable to all kinds of contract terms. The rule of unfairness in the UCTA on the other hand, is only applicable to exemption clauses and indemnity clauses and there is no general rule of unfairness in English contract law. Instead the courts rely on indirect means of control, which therefore is of greater importance in English contract law. Finally, adjustments of unfair exemption clauses has a significant role in Swedish contract law, in contrast to English contract law where any adjustment is regarded as an intrusion of the freedom of contract.

To endorse one of the most important aims of the EU; a well working inner market, discussions commenced in 2001. The discussions concerned the harmonisation of the contract law within the union. The questions that arose were whether or not it was possible at all to form a European common contract law and if so, what the effects would be. An action plan was developed by the Commission and today both the EU Parliament and the Council are positive in regard to the continuing work with a reference frame. The Commission aims to pass the reference frame in 2009. Since the EU member states are diverse and have different legal systems a harmonisation of the contract law could cause difficulties. There are differences concerning legal traditions and legal values, hence the legal expertise in Europe is divided in the harmonisation question.

The following study aims to analyse the existing rules of law in Sweden and England representing two diverse legal systems existing in Europe; civil law and common law. The focus of this study regards the control of exclusion clauses in standard form contracts in both legal systems. The comparison will then be used to analyse the fundamental question if the harmonisation of contract law in the EU is feasible. Specific areas within the contract law have already been harmonised, which shows a possibility to coordinate common law and civil law. Directive 93/13/EEC on Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts is one example of harmonised contract law in the EU and the principles in PECL is another example which shows that it is possible to coordinate common law and civil law. A harmonisation of the contract law will probably promote the commerce within the union and be the next step towards one of the most prominent goals of the EU, namely a well functioning common market. However, our study shows that the differences between national legislation and the differences between the legal traditions within the EU are not insignificant and a harmonisation will probably not be enforced without difficulties.

Organiserad hästavel har bedrivits i Sverige sedan sekler tillbaka. Under de senaste åren har aveln ökat och effektiviserats genom användningen av artificiell insemination. I dagsläget kan ett enda ejakulat fördelas på flera ston och stona behöver inte längre transporteras långa sträckor till hingsten. Den nya tekniken har också medfört att aveln blivit mer selektiv och möjligheten att sålla bort olämpliga hingstar har ökat. Tekniken är dock inte perfekt och ibland händer det att hingstar med dolda genetiska fel används i aveln och detta kan orsaka skador och sjukdomar i stoet eller fölet.

Ur juridisk synvinkel uppkommer här en mycket intressant frågeställning: kan köparen av ett ejakulat hävda att ejakulatet är felaktigt på grund av att det innehåller anlag för genetiska sjukdomar och kan köparen i så fall få någon ersättning för de skador han lider på grund av att fölet drabbats av sjukdomen?

Rent definitionsmässigt föreligger en produktskada som avser skador på annat än den köpta varan. Produktansvarets omfattning för säljare har dock varit omdebatterat i svensk rätt och sambandet mellan köprättsliga regler och allmänna produktansvarsregler är förhållandevis oklart. Frågeställningen kompliceras också med hänsyn till den speciella typ av vara som ett ejakulat får anses utgöra och en tillämpning av gällande rätt leder till en del svårlösta tillämpningsproblem. Syftet med uppsatsen har varit att belysa och diskutera dessa problem.

Frågan om ejakulatet är felaktigt får bedömas med hänsyn till vad köparen med fog kan förutsätta om ejakulatets egenskaper och eventuella användningsområde. Ejakulatet är i köprättslig mening inte felaktigt om det inte påverkar varans möjlighet att användas för sitt tilltänka användningsområde. Problemet vid köp av ejakulat är dock att köparen ofta utöver den primära avsikt med ejakulatet har en sekundär avsikt med det producerade fölet och frågan är vilket ansvar säljaren bör ha för att fölet inte går att använda till detta speciella användningsområde. Har köparen tänkt använda en vara till något speciellt krävs i allmänhet att varans lämplighet för det tilltänkta användningsområdet undersöks. Köparens möjlighet att genom en undersökning av ejakulatet kontrollera fölets lämplighet är dock väldigt begränsad och troligen föreligger därför ingen undersökningsplikt. Genom en undersökning av hingsten skulle köparen dock kunna upptäcka ärftliga fel som kan påverka avkomman men då denna undersökning inte omfattar själva varan är det tveksamt om den kan påverka parternas felansvar. Köparen bör därför inte med fog kunna förutsätta att det producerade fölet ska gå att använda till något speciellt användningsområde och således föreligger inget köprättsligt fel.

Även om ejakulatet inte anses som felaktigt föreligger ändå en produktskada och enligt utomobligatoriska skadeståndsregler och rättspraxis har säljaren ett ansvar för culpa eller garanti. Säljarens garantiansvar omfattar utöver uttryckliga garantier även ett ansvar för underförstådda garantier. När en underförstådd garanti kan anses föreligga är dock relativt oklart och kan vara svårt att avgöra. Vid hästavel kan det tänkas att en godkänd avelsvärdering kan utgöra en garanti för att ejakulatet i vart fall ska vara fritt från anlag för sådana sjukdomar som kan orsaka lidande i fölet och som är förbjudna enligt gällande avelsregler.

Garantiansvaret är dock förhållandevis osäkert och då gällande lagar är dispositiva har säljaren en stor möjlighet att begränsa omfattningen av sitt ansvar för produktskador. Med hänsyn till de problem som en tillämpning av gällande rätt medför och den osäkerhet som föreligger får det slutligen anses att köparens bästa möjlighet till att få ersättning för skador i fölet är att välja en försäkring som ger skydd även för dolda och medfödda fel.

 

Inom svensk rätt saknas det lagregler för en situation där ett aktieägaravtal med vitesklausul strider mot ett legalt förbud i ABL. Anledningen till att denna situation blir problematisk är att aktieägaravtalet ses som ett separat rättsförhållande mellan aktieägarna, vilket inte binder bolaget bolagsrättsligt. Att ett aktieägaravtal inte binder aktiebolaget bolagsrättsligt hindrar dock inte aktieägarna från att ingå aktieägaravtal vilka indirekt får samma effekt som om aktiebolaget vore bundet av vad som stadgas i aktieägaravtalet. I små aktiebolag förhåller det sig ofta som så att en aktieägare antingen sitter med i styrelsen eller är verkställande direktör för aktiebolaget. Detta gör att en aktieägare, i egenskap av aktieägare, kan ingå ett aktieägaravtal med en annan aktieägare om exempelvis att denne skall fatta ett specifikt beslut i egenskap av verkställande direktör eller styrelseledamot.

I ABL finns ett antal legala förbud som stadgar vad ett bolagsorgan får respektive inte får göra. Tanken med ett legalt förbud är att det i form av tvingande lagstiftning förbjuder ett visst handlingssätt som lagstiftaren vill komma till rätta med. Komplikationen då ett aktieägaravtal står i strid med ett legalt förbud i ABL är att ABL:s regler inte är tillämpliga på aktieägaravtalet. Detta gör att aktieägaravtalet kringgår den tvingande lagstiftningen i ABL. För att komma till rätta med detta problem har lagstiftaren överlämnat åt domstolen att i varje enskilt fall där syftet med avtalet är att kringgå den tvingande lagstiftningen pröva om ett sådant avtal skall anses vara giltigt eller ej enligt en allmän rättsgrundsats.

Denna bedömning skall enligt praxis undersöka det överträda (1) förbudets syfte, (2) konsekvenserna av ogiltighetspåföljden och (3) behovet av ogiltighet som sanktion i det specifika fallet. Genom att använda sig av denna modell kan man komma fram till om ett specifikt legalt förbud i ABL skall anses inneha tillräckligt stort skyddsvärde för att ogiltighetssanktionen skall drabba aktieägaravtalet.

This examination of the common law obligation of good faith in the performance and enforcement of commercial contracts in Australia seeks to achieve a number of objectives. First, to chart the historical development of the implied good faith obligation. Secondly, to identify a number of issues that remain unresolved at Australian lower court level. Thirdly, to consider five doctrinal approaches that could be adopted by the High Court when ultimately confronted by the competing claims and tensions that have proven divisive in the courts below. Fourthly, to assess each approach against three identified benchmarks. The essential thesis is that good faith should be implied, as a matter of law, in commercial contracts that are relational in nature with an additional call being made for the High Court to explicitly recognise that the underlying basis of the implied good faith obligation is the reasonable expectations of the contractual parties. This approach is the one approach that satisfies all three benchmarks and provides the most satisfactory resolution of the issues that presently bedevil the commercial good faith debate in Australia.

This examination of the common law obligation of good faith in the performance and enforcement of commercial contracts in Australia seeks to achieve a number of objectives. First, to chart the historical development of the implied good faith obligation. Secondly, to identify a number of issues that remain unresolved at Australian lower court level. Thirdly, to consider five doctrinal approaches that could be adopted by the High Court when ultimately confronted by the competing claims and tensions that have proven divisive in the courts below. Fourthly, to assess each approach against three identified benchmarks. The essential thesis is that good faith should be implied, as a matter of law, in commercial contracts that are relational in nature with an additional call being made for the High Court to explicitly recognise that the underlying basis of the implied good faith obligation is the reasonable expectations of the contractual parties. This approach is the one approach that satisfies all three benchmarks and provides the most satisfactory resolution of the issues that presently bedevil the commercial good faith debate in Australia.

La problématique conduit à une analyse du droit européen privé des contrats. La première partie recherche les sources de la liberté contractuelle européenne. La multiplicité des règles et des pratiques permet de constater un défaut de définition. Le premier chapitre souligne que l'autonomie de la volonté est relative parce qu’elle est subjective et évolue au gré des équilibres en jeu. Il s'agit d'une liberté intégrée, issue du code civil romano-germanique. Le second chapitre permet de constater que l'autonomie de la volonté est un principe très relatif en droit international privé. Le pluralisme du droit implique que la liberté contractuelle est une notion sans source et ni stable, ni établie. Le droit international privé européen est en construction et fonctionnel.La seconde partie étudie la liberté contractuelle européenne du point de vue du droit positif au sens large du terme. Cette liberté est un principe relatif en symbiose avec les nécessités de protection des cocontractants et du commerce européen. Il s’agit d'un principe subjectif du fait de l'ordre public européen (qui contient l’ordre public économique, les lois de police et l’ordre public international classique), et d’un principe essentiel dans la construction européenne. Le premier chapitre trace le cadre et la structure générale de la liberté contractuelle européenne. Elle participe au commerce et se doit de respecter les principes essentiels de l’Union au sens de droit objectif (liberté d’établissement, juste concurrence, égalité commerciale) ; elle est traduite par l’essor de principes européens et par la pratique commerciale. Le second chapitre note que la liberté est une notion intégrée dans la société européenne. Elle est fonctionnelle et trouve son équilibre en correspondant avec l’ordre public au sens subjectif (protection des parties les plus faibles et des droits fondamentaux)
Problem drives to analyze what is European right of contract. First part searches the sources of European freedom of contract. The multiplicity of rules and practices allows seeing a defect of definition. The first chapter underlines that the autonomy of the will is relative because it is subjective and it evolves according to the balances in contract. It determines that this freedom is joined and is partly the result from the Romano-Germanic civil code. The second chapter allows noticing that the autonomy of the will is henceforth a very relative principle in international private law.Pluralism of the law involves that the contractual freedom is a notion without spring neither stable nor established. The European private international law is under construction and organized in a functional waySecond part studies the European contractual freedom from the point of view of the substantive law. This freedom is a relative principle in symbiosis with the necessities of protection of the parties of contract and necessities of the European business. It is about a subjective principle because of the European law and order (it contains the economic law and order, the lois de police and the classic international law and order), and because of principles in the European construction. The first chapter draws the frame and the general structure of the European contractual freedom. It participates in the business and owes respect the essential principles of the Union in the direction of objective right-law (freedom of establishment, just competition, commercial equality); it is characterized by the European principal development and by the commercial practice. Second chapter notes that the freedom is integrated into the European Union. It is functional and finds balance by corresponding with the law and order to the subjective direction (protection of the weakest parties and the fundamental rights)

One fundamental principle in Swedish contract law is that passive acceptance does not constitute a binding acceptance of an offer. Still, business owners use the consumers unknowing of this, and form offers saying passivity will lead to a binding agreement. Business owners are thus trying to “negatively bind” the consumer to agreements. There are rules prohibiting this kind of actions in the Swedish marketing law (MFL). In order to find out what constitutes this forbidden kind of agreement-entering according to the Swedish Market Court, an analysis of seven cases settled between 2002-2009 and concerning consumers in these situations, is made. The analysis is made in a comparative manner, identifying the differences and similarities in order to distinguish, if any, common principles that are used by the Market Court to settle these cases. This is of importance since new ways of entering agreements are constantly developed and increasing, especially on the Internet. Consequently, this means that the ways of negatively binding consumers to agreements are increasing as well. It is found that there are some common principles in these cases. Initially, the cases are differently evaluated depending on the existence of earlier agreements between parties. If there is an earlier agreement, the way of negatively binding the consumer to an agreement could be acceptable. Where parties did not have an earlier agreement, the cases were without exceptions regarding orders made online. It was established that using a three-step-model for orders online, would always secure the consumers awareness of actively entering the agreement, thus eliminating the chances of negatively binding the consumer.  It is also discussed whether principles of market law established in judgments by the Market Court, are of interest to cases of civil law, and it is determined that they could be.

The current - and very relevant - debate about the way authors and performers lose control over exploitation, and more importantly, revenue generated through use of their works and performances in the digital world somewhat overshadows the fact that there are existing scenarios arising from the normal course of dealings in such works where the same occurs and were remedy of any such "injustice" has not been fully enshrined in law. A right to additional fair remuneration is a concept recognised to various degrees in some Member States of the EU but not all, scaling from (seemingly) zero in the UK to quite an elaborate regulation in Germany. Where they are recognised, application and enforcement of relevant provisions also vary. The EU sought to harmonise the issue of author's and performer's access to fair share of revenue generated from exploitation of their work or performance (for normal dealings and in digital spheres of copyright exploitation) in its new draft Directive. The Proposal for a Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market published in September 2016 dedicates its Chapter 3 of Title IV to Fair remuneration in contracts of authors and performers; contract adjustment mechanism introduced in Article 15 attempts to tackle the issue by proposing a statutory right to additional remuneration being introduced throughout the EU Member States. Or, was the aim of this provision originally even broader? In this work, three main areas are addressed: (i) the background and justification of inclusion of such provisions into the Draft DSM Directive; (ii) current applicable law in Germany, Czech Republic and the UK; three countries each representing different historical and doctrinal approach to copyright law and thus providing unique benchmarks for the analysis, (iii) reconciliation of the first two parts: analysing what - if any - change in the national legislation would be needed for the three Member States to transpose the provision into the national laws. By way of conclusion, recommendations to amend Article 15 of the draft Directive is based on the analysis made in the third part.

Даља хармонизација међународног трговинског права је неопходна. Међутим, поставља се питање којим методима вршити овај процес. Значајан и несумњив допринос су у том погледу остварили тзв. hard law извори (извори тврдог права), пре свега међународне конвенције. Ипак, услед њихових недостатака отворен је простор за употребу алтернативних видова нормативних метода.Предмет анализе у докторској дисертацији је допринос тзв. soft law инструмената (инструмената меког права) процесу хармонизације међународног трговинског права. С обзиром на то да се ради са теоријског гледишта о проблематичном и неуједначено дефинисаном феномену, истраживање је сконцентрисано на утврђивање карактеристика, те предности и мана коришћења ових инструмената. Наиме, soft law акти су несанкционисана правила која производе значајне de facto правне ефекте чиме доприносе процесу хармонизације права на међународном нивоу, и значајно на нивоу Европске уније у којој се врши главница пројеката ове врсте.Централно место у анализи заузимају Принципи UNIDROIT за међународне трговинске уговоре и Начела европског уговорног права, те судска и арбитражна пракса која се односи на примену ових прописа меког права.Након уводних разматрања, рад се излаже у два дела. У првом делу анализира се сложеност савременог система међународног права која је последица, између осталог, разноликости нормативних техника које се користе при његовом стварању и све већег значаја међународних организација у овим процесима. Затим се на основу мноштва теоријских ставова излажу карактеристике, врсте, функције soft law аката, те поређење са hard law прописима. У другом делу дисертације наглашава се потреба интензивније хармонизације међународног трговинског права, те начини на које се овај процес постиже кроз употребу soft law аката. Могу се користити као модел извори међународним и националним легислативним телима, као меродавно уговорно право, у поступцима пред судовима и поготово арбитражама и као важно средство тумачења и попуњавања правних празнина међународног униформног и националних права. На крају, у закључним разматрањима износе се закључци на основу спроведеног истраживања.
Dalja harmonizacija međunarodnog trgovinskog prava je neophodna. Međutim, postavlja se pitanje kojim metodima vršiti ovaj proces. Značajan i nesumnjiv doprinos su u tom pogledu ostvarili tzv. hard law izvori (izvori tvrdog prava), pre svega međunarodne konvencije. Ipak, usled njihovih nedostataka otvoren je prostor za upotrebu alternativnih vidova normativnih metoda.Predmet analize u doktorskoj disertaciji je doprinos tzv. soft law instrumenata (instrumenata mekog prava) procesu harmonizacije međunarodnog trgovinskog prava. S obzirom na to da se radi sa teorijskog gledišta o problematičnom i neujednačeno definisanom fenomenu, istraživanje je skoncentrisano na utvrđivanje karakteristika, te prednosti i mana korišćenja ovih instrumenata. Naime, soft law akti su nesankcionisana pravila koja proizvode značajne de facto pravne efekte čime doprinose procesu harmonizacije prava na međunarodnom nivou, i značajno na nivou Evropske unije u kojoj se vrši glavnica projekata ove vrste.Centralno mesto u analizi zauzimaju Principi UNIDROIT za međunarodne trgovinske ugovore i Načela evropskog ugovornog prava, te sudska i arbitražna praksa koja se odnosi na primenu ovih propisa mekog prava.Nakon uvodnih razmatranja, rad se izlaže u dva dela. U prvom delu analizira se složenost savremenog sistema međunarodnog prava koja je posledica, između ostalog, raznolikosti normativnih tehnika koje se koriste pri njegovom stvaranju i sve većeg značaja međunarodnih organizacija u ovim procesima. Zatim se na osnovu mnoštva teorijskih stavova izlažu karakteristike, vrste, funkcije soft law akata, te poređenje sa hard law propisima. U drugom delu disertacije naglašava se potreba intenzivnije harmonizacije međunarodnog trgovinskog prava, te načini na koje se ovaj proces postiže kroz upotrebu soft law akata. Mogu se koristiti kao model izvori međunarodnim i nacionalnim legislativnim telima, kao merodavno ugovorno pravo, u postupcima pred sudovima i pogotovo arbitražama i kao važno sredstvo tumačenja i popunjavanja pravnih praznina međunarodnog uniformnog i nacionalnih prava. Na kraju, u zaključnim razmatranjima iznose se zaključci na osnovu sprovedenog istraživanja.
Further harmonization of International commercial law is necessary. However, there is a question of methods to be used during this process. So-called hard law sources, especially international conventions, had a significant and undoubtful contribution, but their flaws opened some space for using alternative means of normative methods.The subject of this dissertation’s analysis is the contribution of so-called soft law instruments to the process of harmonization of International commercial law. Considering the fact that the subject matter that is being theorized about is a difficult and an unevenly defined phenomenon, the research was focused on determining characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of using those instruments. Namely, soft law acts are non-sanctioned rules, which produce important de facto legal effects, contributing to the process of harmonization of the law at the international level, especially at the level of The European union in which the majority of this kind of projects is realized.The UNIDROIT Principles for commercial contract law and Principles of European contract law, court and arbitration practice dealing with applying those soft law regulations are the center of this analysis.After introductory considerations, this thesis is divided into two parts. In the first one, the subject of analysis is the complexity of modern international law system, which is a consequence of, among other things, diversity of normative techniques used in the making of the system, and ever growing importance of international organizations involved in those processes. After that, characteristics, types and functions of soft law acts, and their comparison to hard law regulations, are being presented, all based on a large quantity of theoretical standpoints. The second part of the dissertation emphasizes the need for intensifying the harmonization of International commercial law, and presents the ways to achieve that through using soft law acts. Those acts can be used as model sources to international and national legislation bodies, as law governing the contract, in processes before courts and especially arbitration tribunals and as an important mean of interpretation and supplement to both international uniform and national law. At the end, final considerations present conclusions about the research conducted.

L’arbitrage commercial international est le mode alternatif de règlement de différends le plus utilisé dans le monde. Ce qui contribue notamment à en faire l’acteur principal de la diffusion des règles anationales telles que les principes généraux du droit, les usages du commerce international, ou encore la "lex mercatoria" qui sont souvent choisies par les arbitres en tant que droit applicable au fond du litige. Ce choix s’est étendu aux nouvelles règles élaborées par des institutions internationales privées telles que les Principes d’UNIDROIT relatifs aux contrats du commerce international. Une codification doctrinale conçue comme un instrument de "soft law" et qui trouve de plus en plus application dans la pratique arbitrale. Notre étude cependant montre que peu de sentences arbitrales rendues dans des affaires dont l’une des parties est arabe ont fait référence aux Principes Unidroit. L’explication n’est pas à rechercher dans une incompatibilité entre ceux-ci et le droit des contrats des pays arabes mais dans la méconnaissance de cette codification doctrinale par les juristes arabes. À cela s’ajoute un sentiment de méfiance à l’égard d’une manifestation de la soft law. Il convient dès lors de s’interroger sur les moyens qui permettraient aux Principes Unidroit de trouver leur place dans le droit et la pratique des pays arabes
International commercial arbitration is the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) the most used in the world. Which contributes in particular to make the main actor of the diffusion of a-national rules as the general principles of law, usages of international trade, or the lex mercatoria, often chosen by the arbitrators as the law applicable to the substantive of the dispute. This choice was extended to the new rules developed by private international institutions such as the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts. A doctrinal codification conceived as a soft law instrument, which is increasingly applied in arbitration practice. Our study shows, however, that few awards rendered in cases in which one of the parties is Arabic made a reference to UNIDROIT Principles. The explanation is not to look for in an incompatibility between them and contract law in Arab countries but in the ignorance of this doctrinal codification by Arab jurists and lawyers. Added to this, a feeling of distrust a manifestation of soft law. It is therefore necessary to consider the ways in which the UNIDROIT Principles to find their place in the law and practice of the Arab countries

The main objective of this thesis is to map present system of business law in China, identify key factors, that formed and determine its present shape and compare theoretic form with reality, so that this thesis may become a basis for further exploring and studying of Chinese system of business law. The thesis is divided into four sections. Topic of the first section are sources of business law, their hierarchy and scope. Second part describes various types of business entities and their legal forms. Third part describes current state of contract law, while the fourth part studies various means of solving commercial disputes. Scope of this thesis does not cover business law in Taiwan and special administrative regions of Hong-Kong and Macau.

This thesis attempts to critically and comparatively analyse the doctrine of exemption/frustration /force majeure under the United Nations Convention on the Contract for International Sale of Goods (CISG) the UNIDRIOT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UNIDROIT) and the English Law. The doctrine of exemption/frustration/force majeure is very important in the area of contract and commercial law, it is a doctrine deeply rooted in fairness and allows a party to be excused from performing an obligation in a contract if at the conclusion of the contract an inhibition beyond the foreseeable control of the party happens to render the performance of the contract impossible. However, it is not easy to effectively streamline this doctrine and properly determine its applications. It has been observed in this thesis that, the doctrines of exemption/frustration /force majeure are not exactly the same; this thesis explores in details severally and jointly the various differences and similarities in the interpretations and applications of these impossibility doctrines. For instance, the open and flexible use of words in the definition of this doctrine under the CISG and the UNIDROIT Principles left much to be desired. Thus, it is one of the succinct arguments of this thesis that couching international law in loose words will work against the uniformity of application of this law, due to the different interpretations national law courts will be subjecting it to. This among other issues retarded the growth and development of the doctrine of exemption and force majeure. Furthermore, English law stance on the doctrine of frustration which can be gleaned from both the Sale of Goods Act of 1979 and the Common law are far from being adequate and need to be updated. This thesis therefore incisively laid bare the applications, interpretations and way forward for the doctrine of exemption/frustration/force majeure under the legal instruments of focus of this work. The thesis also comparatively compares the relationship between the doctrine of frustration/force majeure/exemption and other related doctrines like mistake, termination, avoidance, risk, and hardship. The thesis is concluded with a Draft Model Frustration Clause (DMFC) which is an attempt to rise above the status quo doctrine of frustration in the extant laws and develop a frustration clause that will be able to provide answers to the many flaws that trail these laws.

Les profondes mutations du commerce international, avec en particulier l'émergence de nouvelles puissances économiques et l’accélération de la révolution numérique, nous invitent à revoir les distinctions traditionnelles entre les différents droits de l'arbitrage. Si l'on peut observer un mouvement d'uniformisation des droits dans les pays occidentaux, en particulier avec une convergence des droits de Common Law et des droits continentaux, qu'en est-il dans les pays qualifiés hier d’ « émergents »? Assiste-t-on à ce même phénomène ? Des particularismes ressortent-ils? L'objet de cette thèse sera d'examiner les spécificités de quatre grands pays - la Chine, l’Inde, le Brésil et le Mexique - dont le poids démographique et économique ne cesse de croître dans les échanges internationaux. Dans une démarche comparative, nous nous intéresserons spécifiquement à la convention d'arbitrage, clé de voûte du droit de l’arbitrage, afin d’essayer de comprendre la philosophie et le traitement réservé à ce mode de règlement des différends dans chacun des ces pays. Cela nous conduira à nous interroger sur la place actuelle du droit français de l’arbitrage, longtemps considéré comme avant-gardiste, et sur son influence dans les années à venir
The profound changes in international trade, particularly in light of the emergence of new economic powers and the acceleration of the Digital Revolution, lead us to revisit the traditional distinctions between the different national arbitration laws. While a movement of standardization of national laws has been observed in Western countries, particularly with a tendency of convergence between Common Law and Civil Law jurisdictions, what about the countries that were qualified yesterday as "emerging"? Is the same phenomenon true for the them and Do particularisms emerge? The purpose of this thesis will be to examine the specificities of four major countries - China, India, Brazil and Mexico - whose demographic and economic weight is growing in international trade day by day. Through a comparative approach, we will focus specifically on the arbitration agreement, being the keystone of arbitration law, in order to try to understand the philosophy and treatment reserved to this dispute resolution method in each of these countries. This will inevitably lead to question the current place of French law, long considered as avant-garde, and its influence in the years to come

En droit du commerce international, pacta sunt servanda se manifeste dans la règle de l'intangibilité du contrat. Cette dernière s'y présente de manière singulière. Sous l'influence de la Common law, la créance et les prérogatives contractuelles ne sont protégées qu'en fonction de leur utilité économique. En cas d'inexécution du contrat, la modification de ses stipulations est encouragée lorsqu'elle permet au créancier de minimiser son préjudice. En vue d'une allocation optimale des ressources économiques, le créancier doit parfois privilégier la survie du lien contractuel, à la sanction stricte de ses droits et prérogatives. La règle de l'intangibilité du contrat est ainsi concurrencée par la règle de l'effet utile du contrat. Cette dernière participe à la singularité du principe pacta sunt servanda en droit du commerce international. Le principe transnational pacta sunt servanda n'est pas qu'une représentation " systématique et synthétique " de la force obligatoire du contrat en droit du commerce international. Ce principe de droit transnational tire son autonomie vis-à-vis des droits étatiques des libertés accrues reconnues à l'arbitre international. Le principe transnational pacta sunt servanda invite à rejeter la nullité d'un contrat conforme aux besoins du commerce du international, lorsque celle-ci est commandée par des motifs étatiques particularistes. Cette protection accrue du devoir de respecter la parole donnée n'en fait toutefois pas un principe d'ordre public transnational. Pacta sunt servanda conduit plutôt vers la reconnaissance d'un principe de validité transnationale des contrats en droit du commerce international.

Le droit des contrats internationaux est un champ du droit international concrétisant une relation particulière entre États, acteurs de l’ordre international public, et investisseurs, acteurs de l’ordre international privé, dont les contours et les évolutions ont été déterminés par les mutations de l’ordre économique international. Doctrines et pratiques des professionnels du droit et de la théorie du commerce international ont en effet largement contribué à la structuration de ce champ du droit à la frontière du droit international public et du droit international privé. Le droit international privé, à travers ses règles de conflit de loi, et le principe d’autonomie étudie depuis longtemps la question du choix de la loi. Mais aujourd'hui au sein de cet espace normatif, traversé de pratiques et d’usages juridiques diversifiés un renversement de paradigme semble émerger. En effet, aujourd’hui le droit international n’est plus seulement constitué des règles de droit des Etats et des organisations internationales, c’est le droit choisi par les praticiens du droit international qui participe à la construction de cet espace normatif. L’objet de ce projet de recherche est ainsi d’étudier les choix dans les contrats internationaux, à travers l’étude des contrats extractifs, contrats où par excellence se pose cette problématique. Cette question du choix de la loi est depuis longtemps étudiée en droit international privé, notamment à travers le principe d’autonomie. Cependant, aujourd’hui, d’autres champs du droit doivent être analysés. Le droit des affaires, le droit des investissements, le droit social, par exemple, constituent ce droit transnational qui semble aujourd’hui être un cadre d’analyse plus adapté. Une approche par la pratique, par l’étude des cas, a été suivie afin de mieux comprendre l’articulation entre la stratégie internationale des firmes et les stratégies et pratiques juridiques suivies. Cette approche originale par les sciences juridiques et les sciences de gestion permet également une lecture plus globale et adaptée aux problématiques actuelles du droit des contrats internationaux qui évoluent dans un environnement complexe et mondialisé. Cet angle d'étude des contrats internationaux contribue à une analyse qui prend en compte l'ensemble des parties prenantes d'un contrat, à la lumière du droit positif
International contract law is a field of international law that embodies a particular relationship between States, actors of public international order, and investors, actors of private international order, whose contours and developments have been determined by changes in international economic order. Doctrines and practices of legal professionals and international trade theory have indeed largely contributed to the structuring of this field of law at the border between public international law and private international law. Private international law, through its conflict of law rules and the principle of autonomy, has long studied the question of choice of law. But today, within this normative space, crossed by diverse legal practices and uses, a paradigm reversal seems to emerge. Indeed, today international law is no longer only made up of the rules of law of States and international organizations, it is the law chosen by practitioners of international law that participates in the construction of this normative space. The object of this research project is thus to study the choices in international contracts, through the study of extractive contracts, contracts where par excellence this issue arises. This question of choice of law has long been studied in private international law, notably through the principle of autonomy. However, today other fields of law need to be analyzed. Business law, investment law, social law, for example, constitute this transnational law which seems today to be a more suitable framework for analysis. A practice-based approach, through the study of cases, was followed in order to better understand the articulation between the international strategy of firms and the legal strategies and practices followed. This original approach by legal and management sciences also allows a more global reading and adapted to current issues of international contract law which evolve in a complex and globalized environment. This angle of study of international contracts contributes to an analysis that takes into account all the parties involved in a contract, in the light of positive law

У різних країнах лізинг регулюється по-різному: в одних – спеціальними законами, в інших – лізингові відносини на законодавчому рівні не врегульовані. В Україні на сьогодні маємо різні нормативно-правові акти, які регулюють дане питання. Насамперед, це Цивільний та Господарський кодекси, а також основоположний Закон України «Про фінансовий лізинг», який потребує значних змін та доповнень, зокрема в частині визначення поняття фінансового лізингу, його тлумачення, визначення його складових, питань договірного права тощо.
In the different countries leasing is regulated differently: some - special laws, others - leasing relationship at the legislative level is not resolved. In Ukraine, currently have different regulations governing this issue. This primarily Civil and Commercial Codes and the fundamental law of Ukraine "On Financial Leasing", which takes a lot of changes and amendments, in particular as regards the definition of financial leasing, its interpretation, the definition of its components, contract law and so on.

Force est de constater l'absence dans les textes de loi d'une définition précise de la réparation intégrale et a fortiori de règles d'évaluation des dommages-intérêts compensatoires. La doctrine tente bien de pallier ce vide en décrivant les différents types d'indemnisation, notamment aux États-Unis. Pourtant, la difficulté reste entière lorsque le préjudice existe mais que son estimation est délicate ou incertaine. En effet, ces questions sont considérées uniquement comme des questions de faits ; les juges du fond restent donc souverains, ce qui débouche sur une grande imprévisibilité pour les parties. Réduire l'imprévisibilité judiciaire du dommage passe par le choix et la définition d'un cadre de travail commun. S'appuyant notamment sur les résultats d'une analyse empirique comparative de centaines de cas de jurisprudence, l'étude formalise des prescriptions à l'intention des parties qui souhaitent améliorer leurs chances de succès dans le recouvrement des gains manqués et de la perte de chance. Elle évoque aussi la nécessité d'améliorer la pratique judiciaire dans l'application du droit actuel à la réparation intégrale. Surtout, elle aboutit à une conclusion normative fondamentale qui consisterait à considérer le préjudice économique et financier, les dommages ­intérêts et le calcul du quantum également comme des questions de droit. Dès lors, il relèverait d'une bonne justice que la Cour de cassation préconisa et contrôla l'usage de telle ou telle méthode d'évaluation. Chaque chef de préjudice économique serait ainsi qualifié juridiquement et la notion de réparation intégrale serait élargie pour indemniser plus complètement le préjudice économique difficilement quantifiable.Il ressort enfin que des barèmes référencés d'indemnisation peuvent être construits à partir de l'observation de précédents jugés d'inexécutions contractuelles. L'introduction de ces barèmes pourrait bénéficier aux chercheurs dans leurs débats académiques, aux parties dans la rédaction de leurs contrats, aux conseils dans leurs échanges précontentieux voire aux juges comme outil d'aide à la décision. Si ces barèmes étaient validés et partagés, ils pourraient donner naissance à des modèles d'intelligence artificielle de type machine learning dont la valeur -notamment prédictive -serait sans commune mesure avec ce qu'on en perçoit aujourd'hui
Law statutes and codes lack of a precise definition of the « full compensation » principle, and a fortiori they Jack of rules for assessing compensatory damages. The legal doctrine tries to fil] in the blank by describing the different types of damages awarded, notably in the United States. Yet, the issue remains full when the Joss is certain but its valuation remains complex or uncertain. The assessment of the economic Joss and the calculation methodology for damages are considered to be only matters of facts: trial courts and judges thus retain a sovereign power, resulting in great uncertainty for the parties. Reducing judicial uncertainty requires the choice and creation of a common framework. Based on the results of an empirical law and economics analysis of several hundreds of precedent cases, the dissertation formulates simple and practical suggestions for parties looking to improve their chances of success in recouping lost profits and lost opportunities. It also evidences which improvements of the judicial systems are required in order to actually implement the current right to full compensation. More importantly the research reaches a fundamental nonnative conclusion: economic Joss, compensatory damages and hence, the calculation of the quantum granted should be considered, not as mere matters of facts but also as matters of law. Henceforth, it would be logical that the Cour de cassation ( or the highest court) advises and controls the use of calculation methodology. Each head of damages would thus be legally qualified and the principle of full compensation would be extended in order to better compensate the loss when evaluating its quantum is complex. It finally results that referenced compensatory scales can be practically developed from compiling relevant legal precedents. The introduction of such scales would benefit academics in their debates, parties in the drafting of their contracts and counsels in their pre-trial exchanges. Eventually, judges could use them as tools to assist their rulings. If those scales were to be adopted and shared, they would enable the creation of such artificial intelligence as machine learning which value - notably the predictive value - would far exceed what is perceived today

Ce travail de recherche a pour objectif d'apporter un éclairage et une compréhension sur l'évolution du droit des affaires en Chine et plus particulièrement sur les outils de protection des investissements pour les étrangers dans ce pays. Cet ouvrage analyse les incidents liés à la protection juridique des investissements étrangers ainsi que l'effectivité des voies de recours en cas de différents
The objective of this thesis is to bring insights into the understanding of the evolution of business law in China and in particular on the tools of investment protection used by foreigners in this country. This paper analyses the events related to the protection of foreign investments as well as the efficiency of arbitrative solutions in the case of problems

La seconde moitié du XXème siècle a été marquée par l'avènement de la sociétéde consommation et, corrélativement, par l'apparition d'un droit nouveau dont l'objectif est de protéger les consommateurs : le droit de la consommation. Il se définit par sa finalité comme l'ensemble des règles dont l'objet est de protéger les intérêts des consommateurs et s'applique essentiellement dans les contrats de consommation. Aucun régime général de la sanction de la violation des dispositions consuméristes n'a été organisé par le législateur. Les sanctions prévues sont majoritairement des sanctions pénales, les sanctions civiles sont alors celles du droit commun des contrats.A partir du droit positif, l'étude cherche à construire un régime spécial de la sanction, commun à tous les contrats de consommation. L'étude est orientée vers la recherche de sanctions efficaces, qui permettent de renforcer l'effectivité de la règle de droit et la protection des consommateurs. Elle distingue nécessairement l' analyse de l'efficacité de la fonction réparatrice de la sanction, qui est conditionnée par la prise en compte de la situation de la victime du comportement sanctionné, et l'analyse de l'efficacité de la fonction dissuasive de la sanction qui est conditionnée par la prise en compte de la situation de l'auteur du comportement sanctionné
The second half of the 20th century has been marked by the emergence ofconsumer society and correspondingly by the evolution of a new area of law: consumer law. This field of law can be defined as a body of rules aiming at protecting the interests of consumers and which is essentially applied in the context of consumer contracts. The legislator has not established a general system of sanctions for the violation of consumer law provisions. The sanctions are mostly criminal in nature, while the civil sanctions are those provided for by general contract law.On the basis of the existing rules this thesis aims to establish a specific system ofsanctions common to all consumer contracts. The thesis is governed by the search for adequate sanctions which would increase the effectiveness of the legal rules as well as the effectiveness of the protection of consumers. The effectiveness of the reparative function of the sanctions is analysed separately from the effectiveness of their deterrent function. This distinction is necessary, since the reparative function of sanctions is determined by the situation of the victim of the violation of the rules, whereas the deterrent function of sanctions takes into account the situation of the person responsible for the violation

C’est à la faveur de l’émergence d’une économie de marché, puis récemment de la révolution technologique que le droit de la consommation a connu un développement considérable. Dès lors, la protection du consommateur s’est imposée comme le moyen de rééquilibrer les rapports inégalitaires entre le consommateur, considéré comme partie faible dans une relation contractuelle devenue complexe et le professionnel à qui le rapport de force est favorable. Dans un tel contexte, l’intérêt d’une étude de la protection du consommateur en droit libyen à la lumière du droit français se précise et peut se décliner sous deux axes : d’une part, il est stimulant scientifiquement de comprendre comment un Etat comme la Libye, dont l’ouverture au monde et le développement du secteur privé sont très récents, intègre la protection du consommateur dans son système juridique. D’autre part, le rapprochement avec le droit français présente une plus-value dans la mesure où il s’agit, à travers le droit de la consommation français plus développé, de mesurer le niveau de protection du consommateur en droit libyen. La pertinence de l’usage de l’approche comparative dans le cadre de cette recherche réside dans l’une des fonctions même du droit comparé, à savoir qu’il est un moyen de perfectionnement du droit positif national. Ici, l’hypothèse de départ était que le droit de la consommation en Libye est sous-développé par rapport au droit de la consommation en France. La méthode comparative a donc pour objectif d’aider à une amélioration de la protection du consommateur en droit libyen si éventuellement l’hypothèse de départ était confirmée. Dès lors, nous avons étudié, dans les deux ordres juridiques, la protection du consommateur de la période pré-contractuelle à la période d’après contrat en passant par le moment d’échange des volontés (conclusion proprement dite). Il ressort de cette recherche que le consommateur libyen est moins protégé que le consommateur français. Cela est dû, entre autres, à des facteurs sociopolitiques et économiques, en l’occurrence le faible développement du secteur privé et une faible culture de la justice qui ne permet pas de développer la jurisprudence à l’égard du droit de la consommation. Cette étude a aussi révélé que le législateur libyen est confronté à un nouveau défi, à savoir l’émergence des contrats à distance ; ce qui complexifie davantage la protection du consommateur
Thanks to the emergence of a market economy and more recently of the technological revolution, consumer law has been significantly developed. Therefore, consumer protection was required as the means to rebalance the unequal relations between the consumer, regarded as the weaker party to the complex contractual relation, and the professional for whom the power balance is in favour.In this context, the interest of a study about consumer protection in Libyan law in the light of French law is clearer and can be approached from two angles : on the one hand, it is scientifically challenging to understand how a State like Libya, whose opening up to the world and the private sector development are very recent, integrates consumer protection into its legal system. On the second hand, comparing it with French law provides an added value, because the level of consumer protection in Libyan law has to be measured through French consumer law which is more developed. The comparative approach is relevant in this research as one of the functions of comparative law is to improve the national substantive law.Here, according to the starting hypothesis, consumer law in Libya is underdeveloped compared to French consumer law. So, the comparative approach aims to help improving consumer law in Libya if the starting hypothesis is confirmed. Therefore, we studied consumer protection from the precontractual period to the after contract period including the actual contract conclusion in both legal orders.This research shows that the Libyan consumer is less protected than the French consumer. This is due, amongst others, to socio-political and economic factors, in this case, the low development of the private sector and the low level of the culture of justice which does not enable to develop case-law regarding consumer law. This study has also proved that the Libyan legislator is facing a new challenge, that is, the emergence of distance contracts, which makes consumer protection even more complex

博士
國立臺北大學
法學系
93
Electronic commerce is an emerging and popular topic. Through the development of Internet, the model of traditional business transaction has been changed. There is now comparatively more working opportunities and the development of international trade has been accelerated and truly reached the stage of a global village. Following the continuous innovation on technology, the legal issues conveying the new development on transaction, payment method and transaction structuring also become more complicated. The research on Internet’s legal issue becomes a key point for research in many countries. This thesis originates with the viewpoint of civil law. It provides further research and discussion on the regulations and questionnaires related to the electronic commerce. It focuses especially on the foreseeable problems which may develop in civil contracts related to the electronic commerce. This thesis is divided into nine chapters with content as follows: Chapter 1: A preface. Chapter 2: The types and legal regulations of the electronic commerce. This chapter classifies and explains the variously possible types of electronic commerce. It also organizes the related regulations of international organizations and all major countries Chapter 3: The establishment and validity of the contract for electronic commerce and the acknowledgement of the involving parties. It is targeted to give further explanation on all of the special characteristics involved efficacy. It also discusses the acknowledgement and capacity for actions among involving parties. Chapter 4: The transactions and the related issues of doing business electronically. This chapter essentially discusses the validity on electronically signing a contract, extending an offer, making a representation of inducement on the offering and the overall principal of validity of an electronic transaction. Does an electronic transaction done through electronic mail constitute recognition, and what about the problem with transaction error and transaction revocation? Chapter 5: The validity of electronic evidence on electronic transaction through electronic signature. In addition to the discussion on the strength of electronic evidence on electronic transaction in lawsuit, it also provides explanations on the legal correlation among electronic signature, digital signature and digital authentication. Chapter 6: The electronic contract for commerce and the consumer protection. This chapter essentially discusses the correlation between electronic commerce and consumer protection with particular emphasis on the application of consumer law for digital products. This content also mentions the similarities and dissimilarities between online auction and auction under civil law. Chapter 7: Service providers for the electronic commerce and the related contracts. This chapter divided ISP into three categories of IAP, ICP and ASP. Each category discusses the legislation and with reference to all foreign legislations and civil responsibilities. Chapter 8: The jurisdiction and the legal application for electronic commerce transactions. The application of jurisdiction and legislation to the electronic commerce is also an important issue for discussion. This chapter explores the feasibility issue on applying the traditional jurisdiction over electronic commerce. Chapter 9: Conclusion.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
法律學研究所
100
The commercial letter of confirmation is a conduct often used by commercial traders. By sending this kind of letter, one side of parties can confirm content of prior negotiations with the other side, or can express his intention of changing the content of the concluded contract. The conception of the commercial letter of confirmation wasn''t created by legislators, but was formed by businessmen in commercial trade fields and still persistently be developed nowadays. However, with the increase of multinational commercial trade, using the commercial letter of confirmation also brings some legal problems, which may be valuable for study of theory and practice. For example, can one side of parties conclude a contract by barely sending a commercial letter of confirmation? What is the legal effect of pure silence of addressee? If both sides of parties just append their standard terms on " their " commercial letters of confirmation, which term will gains the upper hand? Obviously, such as these problems are necessary to be in-depth studied. In Germany, the Federal Supreme Court（der Bundesgerichtshof, BGH） had tried to build “ the theory of decisive effect of the commercial letter of confirmation ”. According to it, the commercial letters of confirmation which totally fulfill the conditions given by BGH, will have decisive effect, which means both sides of parties, especially the silent one, may be bounded by the effect of conclusion or alteration of contracts. Besides, BGH has always adopted “ the last shot theory ” to solve the “ conflicting terms ” problem in cases. Similarly, regulations of the UCC of America and international uniform contract law instruments such as CISG, PICC, PECL, DCFR have already showed the trend of broadening recognition of conclusion of contracts, some international uniform contract law instruments have even often made judgments with the key point that whether the content of a commercial letter of confirmation “ materially alters ” or “ significantly deviates ” the original agreements. When talking to the issue of " the content of contract ", oppositely, there are different opinions, including the famous “ knock out rule ”. As we know, there are a lot of businessmen who have undertaken national commercial trade in Taiwan and will inevitably face the above-mentioned problems. As the result, both of law scholars and judges in Taiwan must try to find a new consideration of commercial trade and commercial contract and, most of all, establish a complete theory, which can be the basis of actual resolutions.

no
Singapore commercial contract law has taken an Asian perspective in respect of express terms of good faith in the negotiation of contract. In general, however, it adheres to the English contract law orthodoxy regarding good faith. More specifically, Singapore, like England, does not recognize a general duty or principle of good faith and it is reluctant to imply a duty of good faith into a contract. However, as a hub of international trade and a rising forum for commercial dispute resolution, Singapore will have a stronger need to reconcile the differences in good faith in contract law between the English/Commonwealth and the European-Asian legal traditions. Conventional wisdom and international commercial law instruments in this respect are not as helpful as one would expect for such a need. Instead, to an enlightening but limited extent, the “organizing principle” approach in Bhasin v Hrynew could be useful for setting up a framework for reconciling the differences. This framework could consist of an organising principle of (honouring) reasonable expectations, a duty of honesty, and a duty of fair dealing. The framework realistically concretises good faith into the three components, all of which are essentially objective and ascertainable in specific factual matrix and are well-recognised in both common law and civil law.

碩士
東吳大學
法律學系
104
Although the Governing Council of UNIDROIT promulgated in 1994, amended and adopted the third edition of Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC) in 2004 and 2010, the aforesaid Principles are not legally binding instrument under international agreement. However, the Principles above-mentioned affect many countries while drafting and revising their contract laws, and have been actually applied in daily practice. Growing with an ever-important role, the Principles set forth general rules for international commercial contracts. They shall be applicable when the parties have agreed in their contract as governing principles. These Principles can be used to interpret or supplement uniform law, international or domestic. In the meantime, they can serve as a model for national and international legislators. Further, the said Principles may be employed as course materials in universities and law schools, thereby promoting the teaching of contract law on a truly comparative basis. Referring to United Nation Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), The Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) and UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC), Germany has revised her Law of Obligations. Following the new international trends, Japan has also revised her Law of Obligations. Our contemporary civil law study has made reference to German, Japanese as well as other international commercial contracts instruments. This paper mainly discusses the non-performance part under UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts in contrast to the relevant provisions of our Civil Code. The author hopes to furnish her suggestions towards the development of our civil law. Recent development of the contract law in international law has been towards the abrogation those three systems of impossibility of performance, delay in performance and incomplete performance of obligation. Instead, the core aims to breach of contract or violation of obligations, and such discussions towards remedial relief based on the essentiality and uncontrollable events with regard to imputed grounds, such as the recognition of force majeure.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
法律學研究所
104
From the economic analysis of law perspective, this thesis researched on the main concept of commercial contract design. To make concrete discussion, material adverse change clauses (MAC clauses) in the contract of mergers and acquisitions are discussed as an example. First of all, this thesis reviews essential principles of contract law and economic analysis of law, to draw the distinction between commercial contracts and civil contracts due to bargaining power of parties. Accordingly, this thesis claimed that the basic logic of contract design was to reduce transaction cost and promote transaction efficiency pursued by the parties in question. In the next place, this thesis surveys the existing MAC clauses in mergers and acquisitions in the practice of the United States and Taiwan. It also adopts economic analysis of law perspective to discuss what purpose and consideration were expressed in the manipulation process of MAC clauses. This thesis proved that the core of commercial contracts design is actually based on the pursuit of economic efficiency. That is to say, the major factors of commercial contract design are controlling opportunistic behaviors, arranging risk distribution mechanisms, and striking the balance of ex ante cost and ex post cost in the transaction process. Moreover, after clarifying the nucleus of commercial contract design, this thesis revisits the legal system of Taiwan with the purpose of pointing out that legislators and judicial participants shall immediately solve the problems of the lack of adjusting flexibility in contract law and the possibility of inappropriate method of contract interpretation in Taiwan. To conclude, during the process of designing commercial contracts, one should keep in mind the flexibility and allocate the responsibility of risk control carefully and skillfully. Most important of all, the parties involved in the design of commercial contracts must comprehensively consider ex ante drafting cost and ex post disputes solving cost, in order to make maximum economic efficiency to the contractual parties by consuming minimum transaction cost. In terms of the contract law system in Taiwan, no doubt shall it satisfy the need of contractual parties to pursue transactional efficiency. On the one hand, legislators ought to find and amend current contract law to lessen transaction cost in the market. On the other hand, judicial participants must interpret commercial contract appropriately so as to establish stable foundation for the business market in Taiwan. Simply put, the design of a commercial contract ought to be based on the context of the transaction that the contract is meant to be controlled. No commercial contracts shall be designed without considering how to realize the economic efficiency which the contractual parties hope to achieve.

Despite Brazil’s importance in the world economy and its increasing participation in foreign trade, there is considerable legal uncertainty regarding the law applicable to international commercial contracts involving Brazilian parties because Brazilian judicial courts do not respect parties’ freedom to choose the governing law, thus this determination is only made by a judge, according to Private International Law rules of the forum. Applying these rules, this study demonstrates that there are at least three potential legal regimes: the Brazilian law, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, and a foreign domestic sales law. Making use of the American law as the foreign law, a comparative analysis of these three legal regimes regarding contract formation demonstrates that their approaches are very distinct, and this confirms the legal uncertainty. In order to reduce this problem, three different strategies are proposed to the Brazilian government.

The major problems associated with trade secret law in New Zealand are that it is confused in definition and in jurisdiction. This confusion contributes to the failure of trade secret law in some instances, particularly to protect information created in the emerging biotechnology and computer software industries. This has contributed to alternative forms of protection, notably through copyright for computer programs. From a review of the current law, categories of trade secrets are identified, including sub-patentable and patentable trade secrets. The jurisdictional dispute may be resolved if it is recognised that trade secrets represent a form of property right. To this end, the legal and economic approaches to property rights are synthesised. This synthesis is then extended to create a legal-economic model of the justifications for, and the problems with, the protection of these rights: the intellectual property rights continuum. From this model, it is concluded that some legal protection of trade secrets is justified, provided that equally harmful effects are not created. In particular, sub-patentable trade secrets may warrant greater protection, and patentable trade secrets may be over-protected. One proposal is to punish industrial espionage, although some harmful effects may result. Utility models and laws that protect trade secrets in general are considered and rejected as solutions. Instead, patents of improvement (PI) are proposed which would protect trade secrets that represent an advance on an existing patent. PI would represent a lower standard of inventiveness that is adopted from American biotechnology patent disputes, and so protect sub-patentable trade secrets. The other, higher threshold from the existing English patent law would remain as the patent standard. If a PI were granted to a patent owner, then s/he could practise price discrimination, but if granted to a rival, then competition could result. Either outcome could protect trade secrets, yet mitigate the harmful effects of legal protection. If these proposals were adopted, more information could be produced as well as utilised. Moreover, the growth of the biotechnology and computer software industries in New Zealand could be furthered.