Journal articles on the topic '1730-1900'

ABSTRACTThis article builds upon previous work on the impact of ransoming on processes of captivity, enslavement, and slavery in West Africa. Ransoming is defined as the release of a captive prior to enslavement in exchange for payment. It was a complicated process with no guarantee of success. This article examines the responses of families of captives to the failure of ransom negotiations. The ability to respond to failed ransom negotiations and the type of response chosen was dependent on the political climate and the resources available to those seeking the release of a captive.

Abstract Formerly a synonym for oratory and elocution, "public speaking" after 1900 signaled, instead, a paradigm shift whereby extemporaneous-conversational speechmaking replaced declamation and oratorical composition. This study of more than 200 key titles published between 1730 and 1930 demonstrates that the modern public-speaking book emerged, not as an innovation in whole cloth, but rather from a generation-long process of selectively recombining materials extracted from preceding text genres. As a practical revolution, the new public speaking contributed to democratic, argument-rich public affairs and, as an intellectual movement, furthered the emergence of speech as a separate academic discipline.

Modern crop production is characterized by the introduction of resource-saving methods of processing and cultivation of crops aimed at preserving and increasing soil fertility. The purpose of the research is to determine traction and energy indicators and substantiate the operating modes of a machine-tractor unit based on a K-735 wheeled tractor with a Kuzbass PK 6.1 sowing complex. Based on research, it was found that the pulling force in sowing varies from 19.0 kN to 37.43 kN, the output hook power ranges from 40.11 to 124.26 kW and depends on the speed of the unit, the depth of sowing and the weight of the bunkers. The modes of operation of the unit are justified: at a depth of 5 cm in the second mode, 3 gears at a speed of rotation of the diesel crankshaft 1900 min–1 , after unloading the seeds 50 % transition to the 4th gear of the second mode at a speed of rotation of the diesel crankshaft in the range from 1730 to 1750 min–1 ; at depths of 7 and 9 cm on the second in the 3rd gear mode at a speed of rotation of the diesel crankshaft 1900 min-1 , after unloading the seeds 75 % transition to the 4th gear of the second mode at a speed of rotation of the diesel crankshaft in the range from 1730 to 1750 min–1 .

Este trabajo aborda cómo fueron las familias de la oficialidad de la Armada durante los siglos XVIII y XIX a través de las relaciones de parentesco que estos individuos trazaron a lo largo de sus vidas. Se han analizado extensamente los vínculos familiares que los oficiales plasmaron en la documentación notarial –fundamentalmente testamentos y poderes− por medio de las diferentes fórmulas, mensajes, objetos de las cláusulas y menciones. Aunque es necesario tener en cuenta multitud de factores, tales como los ciclos vitales o las trayectorias de cada una de las familias, el artículo pretende ofrecer un análisis introductorio de las características esenciales de dichas familias y las transformaciones principales que se dieron entre 1730 y 1900.

Abstract A catalog containing an unprecedented amount of historical data in central Mexico, covering almost six centuries (1450–1900), is used. This is a catalog of agricultural disasters that includes events associated with hydrometeorological phenomena, or hazards, whose effects were mainly felt in the agricultural sector, such as droughts. An analysis of the historical series of droughts in central Mexico for the period of 1450–1900 is performed. Periods of frequent drought centered at the years 1483, 1533, 1571, 1601, 1650, 1691, 1730, 1783, 1818, and 1860 have been identified. In particular, droughts in Mexico City and northwest Mexico that were identified through poor tree-ring growth are included in the frequent drought periods obtained in this work. Moreover, it was found that droughts occurred in El Niño years mainly for events of very strong and strong strengths, at a significant level. Also, most droughts lasted for 1 or 2 yr. Last, by analyzing the periodicities of the drought time series it was found that those that are the most conspicuous are the quasi-bidecadal frequencies of 18.9 and 21 yr.

We present a network of seven ring-width chronologies of eastern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) from the Niagara Escarpment in southern Ontario, Canada. Using principal component regression, a 350-year June-July precipitation reconstruction (SOR) is developed for the region. Prior to the 20th century, the SOR series shows reasonable coherence, particularly at the decadal scale, with an independent tree-ring-based reconstruction of the Palmer drought severity index (PDSI) for roughly the same region. A weakening of the tree-growth – climate relationship in recent decades results in a regression model explaining 21% of the variance in the original climate series when the recent data are used for calibration. We therefore compromise with a model, calibrated for the period 1900–1960, which explains 33% of the variance. The model, while not terribly strong, does pass verification tests, indicating some degree of predictive skill. The longest chronology in our network, the 2787-year Flowerpot Island (FLOW) chronology, also exhibits common variability with the PDSI reconstruction, particularly on decadal and longer time scales and was used to infer hydroclimatic conditions back to AD 610. The combined information of the SOR, PDSI, and FLOW series suggests that dry conditions existed for the periods 1700–1725, 1750–1800, and 1840–1900, and wet conditions for the periods 1675–1700, 1730–1750, and 1810–1840. Over longer time scales, the FLOW chronology shows that summer precipitation was particularly variable during the 7th, 9th, 13th, and 16th centuries.

ABSTRACTThis work examines the creation and development of the Monte Pío Militar, a permanent public pension system that was established for the widows and other relatives of deceased naval officers who had been in the Spanish Navy. This system was not a mutualist experiment, but rather constitutes an innovative example of an institutional protective organization that was based on objective principles and supported by an impersonal agent: the state. The article is divided into three parts. The first section studies the formal organization of the Monte Pío Militar between 1761, when the system was instituted, and 1900, when the welfare state truly began to take shape in Spain. The second part focuses on the rudimentary protection system that the navy had operated during the previous period (c. 1730–61) and the first steps of the Monte Pío Militar (1761–1800); this section is particularly interesting, for it examines how the previous system was superseded by new measures, criteria, and values. The third part examines both how the pension system was applied and its impact on the families that benefited from it during the nineteenth century. This will illustrate how the families soon internalized the idea that pensions were a reflection of the state’s duty to protect them, while the legal principles behind the system and the bureaucratic protocol built around it were progressively consolidated.

The seasonal activity patterns and habitat usage of platypuses were examined in Lake Lea, a sub-alpine lake system in north western Tasmania. Activity data were collected by radio tracking individuals for one 24 hour period (in two 12 hour blocks) using a portable radio-receiver and 3-element Yagi antenna. In addition, the location of other individuals was recorded periodically during the 24 hour period. Information collected so far for ten individuals during late winter and mid spring will be presented. Preliminary analysis suggests that a high proportion of the population may be diurnally active. Out of five adult platypuses tracked during late winter, three were predominantly diurnally active and only two were nocturnal. Day-active individuals emerged from burrows between 0530 and 0700 and returned before 1930, thus foraging for at least 13.5 hours per day. Nocturnal individuals emerged between 1730 and 1900, foraged for approximately 12.5 hours and returned between 0600 and 0700. Mean dive times of three day-active individuals were between 29 and 34 seconds, with an intervening surface period of between 12 and 20 seconds. Maximum foraging area of three individuals were between 14 and 30 hectares (95% isopleth, Kernel analysis).

[First paragraph]"Om werk van jullie te hebben": Plantageleven in Suriname, 1730-1750. RUDI OTTO BEELDSNIJDER. Utrecht: Vakgroep Culturele Antropologie - Bronnen voor de Studie van Afro-Surinaamse Samenlevingen, 1994. xii + 351 pp. (Paper NLG 35.00)Surinaams contrast: Roofbouw en overleven in een Caraibische plantagekolonie 1750-1863. ALEX VAN STIPRIAAN. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1995. xiii + 494 pp. (Paper NLG 60.00)Strijders voor het Lam: Leven en werk van Herrnhutter broeders en zusters in Suriname, 1735-1900. MARIA LENDERS. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996. xii + 451 pp. (Paper NLG 65.00)Fifty Years Later: Antislavery, Capitalism and Modernity in the Dutch Orbit. GERT OOSTINDIE (ed.). Leiden: KITLV Press, 1995; Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996. viii + 272 pp. (Paper NLG 45.00, US$ 22.50, Cloth US$ 45.00)The publication of the books under review is evidence of a growing scholarly interest in the history of Dutch activities in the Atlantic. Three of them are doctoral dissertations on Suriname history; the fourth contains the published proceedings of a conference held in 1993 that focused on the abolition of slavery in the Dutch colonies. Three were published by the Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology (KITLV), which exhibits an increasing interest in publishing scholarly books about Dutch overseas history.

Abstract. A 54.95-MHz coherent backscatter radar, an ionosonde and the magnetometer located at Trivandrum in India (8.5°N, 77°E, 0.5°N dip angle) recorded large-amplitude ionospheric fluctuations and magnetic field fluctuations associated with a Pc5 micropulsation event, which occurred during an intense magnetic storm on 24 March 1991 (Ap=161). Simultaneous 100-nT-level fluctuations are also observed in the H-component at Brorfelde, Denmark (55.6°N gm) and at Narsarsuaq, Greenland (70.6°N gm). Our study of the above observations shows that the E-W electric field fluctuations in the E- and F-regions and the magnetic field fluctuations at Thumba are dominated by a near-sinusoidal oscillation of 10 min during 1730-1900 IST (1200-1330 UT), the amplitude of the electric field oscillation in the equatorial electrojet (EEJ) is 0.1-0.25 mV m-1 and it increases with height, while it is about 1.0 mV m-1 in the F-region, the ground-level H-component oscillation can be accounted for by the ionospheric current oscillation generated by the observed electric field oscillation in the EEJ and the H-component oscillations at Trivandrum and Brorfelde are in phase with each other. The observations are interpreted in terms of a compressional cavity mode resonance in the inner magnetosphere and the associated ionospheric electric field penetrating from high latitudes to the magnetic equator.

Arctic environments may respond very sensitively to ongoing global change, as observed during the past decades for Arctic vegetation. Only little is known about the broad-scale impacts of early and mid 20th-century industrialization and climate change on remote Arctic environments. Palynological analyses of Greenland ice cores may provide invaluable insights into the long-term vegetation, fire, and pollution dynamics in the Arctic region. We present the first palynological record from a Central Greenland ice core (Summit Eurocore ’89, 72°35’N, 37°38’W; the location of Greenland Ice Core Project GRIP) that provides novel high-resolution microfossil data on Arctic environments spanning AD 1730–1989. Our data suggest an expansion of birch woodlands after AD 1850 that was abruptly interrupted at the onset of the 20th century despite favorable climatic conditions. We therefore attribute this Betula woodland decline during the 20th century to anthropogenic activities such as sheep herding and wood collection in the sub-Arctic. First signs of coal burning activities around AD 1900 coincide with the onset of Arctic coal mining. The use of coal and fire activity increased steadily until AD 1989 resulting in microscopic-size pollution of the ice sheet. We conclude that human impact during the 20th century strongly affected (sub)-Arctic environments. Moreover, ecosystems have changed through the spread of adventive plant species (e.g. Ranunculus acris, Rumex) and the destruction of sparse native woodlands. We show for the first time that optical palynology allows paleoecological reconstructions in extremely remote sites >500 km from potential sources, if adequate methods are used.

The Yi-jing易經(Canon of Changes), or Zhou yi周易(All-Encompassing Cyclical Changes of the Zhou [era]), is “the book of books” of Chinese culture, which is also claimed to be the primary source of binary numeration, first described in the West by Leibniz. He was always interested in China, familiar with the binary code of tri and hexagrams (gua) of the Yi-jing and acknowledged its mythical creator, the ancestor emperor Fuxi, as the discoverer of binary arithmetic, and himself – as the one who found it again after four thousand years. At present, historical data do not allow us making an accurate conclusion about the dependence or independence of this outstanding discovery in Europe from the Chinese prototype. The time of the penetration of the initial information about the Yi-jing into Europe is still hidden by a veil of secrecy. The lack of a message about it in the book of Marco Polo is one of its mysteries. At the same time in the Mediterranean area traces of acquaintance with the Yi-jing studies are visible in such cultural phenomena as astrology and alchemy, Kabbalah and the teachings of Ramon Llull, sextine and hexachord. The beginning of the European study of the Yi-jing was laid by Jesuit missionaries who arrived in China at theend of the 16th century. Among them, by the end of the 17 th century, a whole trend of “Yi-jingists” or “figuralists” was formed. They saw Yi-jing as the Chinese Bible, embodying the original Divine Revelation in the form of the kabbalistic “figures” of the gua and being an expression of the common, sacred and antediluvian “hieroglyphic science” of the ancient world, that is, “Metaphysics of numbers, or general scientific method”, “containing all other knowledge”. Apparentlythe first information in Russia about the Yi-jing was published by the first Russiansinologist, German historian and philologist-polyglot G. (Th.) S. Bayer in the two-volume Museum Sinicum (Petersburg, 1730) in Latin. In Russian the primary in -formation about Yi-jing became available to the reader half a century later owing to the coryphaeus of Russian sinology of the 18th century Aleksei L. Leontiev. In 1782 he published an illustrated and commented translation of a fragment from Yi-jing (named Convenient Base) as an appendix to his translation of the Manchu text of the Statutes of the Great Qing (大清會典Dai-Qing hui-dian). Leontiev mentioned the French abbot who visited St. Petersburg in 1769 as the initiator of his appeal to the Yi-jing, but did not indicate his name. Petr E. Skachkov (1892–1964) agreed with Vsevolod S. Kolokolov (1896–1979) that this abbot was the famous French Jesuit missionary and versatile scientist Antoine Gaubil (1689–1759). However, he died ten years earlier. Most likely the interlocutor of Leontiev was a well-known theologian and economist-physiocrat, French abbot Nicolas Baudeau (1730–1792), who held confidential negotiations with Catherine IIin 1769 in St. Petersburg in connection with the situation in Poland. The secrecy of this mission on the eve of the first partition of Poland fully explains the concealment of his name in 1782 when he was still alive and preparing the second partition of Poland. Apparently, a look at the Yi-jing of the French enlighteners184 and physiocrats, expressed by F. Quesnay (1694–1774) and reported by Baudeauto Leontiev prompted him to link the ancient canon with Statutes of the Great Qing. Vasilii P. Vasiliev (1818–1900) expressed a number of original thoughts about the Yi-jing, which may have influenced the creation of his graphic system of Chinese characters and Mendeleev periodic table. Yulian K. Shchutsky (1897–1938), the first Russian researcher who specially studied the Yi-jing and wrote an extensive monograph about it, strangely ignored the statements of his domestic predecessors, but his innovative approach anticipated the neo-mystic Jungian tendency in Western interpretations of the Canon in the 20 th century. Due to the psychologization and aestheticization of the Yi-jing sanctified by world authorities in this field, after the Second World War this neo-mysticism penetrated the mass Western culture which repeated the initial success prepared by figuralists three centuries earlier on a new level and larger scale.

AbstractThis study evaluated the effects of supplementation of rumen‐protected methionine (RPM) on body thermoregulation and conception rate of Nelore cows exposed to high temperature–humidity index (THI). On −31 days before the artificial insemination protocol, 562 lactating, multiparous cows were assigned to receive (MG) or not (CG) RPM supplementation (3 g/cow mixed into 100 g of mineral supplement). Both groups remained in tropical pastures and received supplementation for 77 days. A subset of cows (n = 142) remained with an intravaginal thermometer collecting intravaginal temperature (IT). The respective minimum, average, and maximum environmental THI were 72.8, 78.0, and 83.3. Effects of treatment × hour of the day were detected (P < 0.0001) for IT. From 1330 to 1730 h and 1830 to 1900 h, IT was higher (P < 0.05) for CG versus MG cows when exposed to moderate and high THI. The supplementation with RPM did not affect conception rate (CG = 64.4% vs. MG = 58.2%; P > 0.05). In conclusion, 3 g of RPM supplementation lowered internal body temperature and possibly altered critical THI threshold in Nelore cows with no impact on reproduction.

Abstract This study was conducted to evaluate whether cooled floor pads combined with chilled drinking water could alleviate negative impacts of heat stress on lactating sows. Thirty sows (Landrace × Yorkshire, Parity = 1 to 6) were housed in individual farrowing stalls in two rooms with temperatures being controlled at 29.4°C (0700–1900 hours) and 23.9°C (1900–0700 hours). Sows in one room (Cool), but not in the other room (Control) were provided cooled floor pads (21–22°C) and chilled drinking water (13–15°C). Behavior of sows (15 sows/treatment) was video recorded during farrowing, and days 1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 after farrowing. Videos were viewed continuously to register the birth time of each piglet, from which total farrowing duration and birth intervals were calculated. The number of drinking bouts and the duration of each drinking bout were registered for each sow through viewing videos continuously for 2 h (1530–1730 hours) each video-recording day. Postures (lying laterally, lying ventrally, sitting, and standing) were recorded by scanning video recordings at 5-min intervals for 24 h each video-recording day, and time budget for each posture was calculated. Rectal temperature and respiration rate were measured for all sows the day before and after farrowing, and then once weekly. Sow and litter performance was recorded. Data were analyzed using the Glimmix procedure of SAS. The cooling treatment did not affect sow behavior or litter performance. Sows in the Cool room had lower rectal temperature (P = 0.03) and lower respiration rate (P &lt; 0.001), consumed more feed (P = 0.03), tended to have reduced weight loss (P = 0.07), and backfat loss (P = 0.07) during lactation than sows in the Control room. As lactation progressed, sows increased drinking frequency (P &lt; 0.001) and time spent lying ventrally (P &lt; 0.0001), standing (P &lt; 0.001), and sitting (P &lt; 0.0001), and decreased time spent lying laterally (P &lt; 0.0001) in both Cool and Control rooms. While cooled floor pads combined with chilled drinking water did not affect sow behavior, they did alleviate heat stress partially, as indicated by decreased rectal temperature, respiration rate, weight, and backfat loss, and increased feed intake in lactating sows.

Detrital zircon grains in the ∼1740–1750 Ma Vishnu Schist and similar rock units in northwestern Arizona consist of up to 30% grains dated by U-Pb isotopic analysis at 2470–2490 Ma. These zircon grains are distributed over ∼40,000 km2 and define an age peak at 2480.0 ± 27.3 Ma (2SE). These grains have yielded unusually consistent 207Pb/206Pb dates, with generally smaller analytical uncertainty and greater concordance to ideal U-Pb evolution than grains of other ages. A weighted mean age of 2480 ± 0.9 Ma (2SE) for this zircon population reflects consistent analytical results and high analytical precision but not the accuracy of the age. The source of these zircons has not been identified. To better characterize the unidentified source, we analyzed 45 of these grains for trace and rare-earth elements by laser-ablation mass spectrometry and scanned 16 grains with an electron microprobe to identify mineral inclusions. Mass spectrometer determinations of Sc/Yb and Nb/Sc support derivation from an oceanic-island igneous source. Electron microprobe scans revealed quartz in 5 of 16 grains, indicating a felsic source. The low variability in 207Pb/206Pb dates and a generally linear relationship between U and Th support zircon derivation from a single igneous unit or closely related set of units without xenocrystic zircons. A literature search for other zircon populations with similar age and U/Th ratios identified ∼2480 Ma zircons in a Mesoproterozoic(?) metapsammite and conglomerate in southwestern Montana. This sandstone was deposited near the margin of the Wyoming craton and contains almost entirely 2400–3600 Ma zircons, unlike zircon grains in Vishnu Schist which include a large population of 1730–1900 Ma zircons. From this relationship we infer that the 2480 Ma zircons in both areas were derived from a source in the Wyoming craton. We conclude that the 2480 Ma Vishnu zircons were derived from a felsic batholith that formed above and from hotspot magma related to the ∼2450–2480 Ma Matachewan Large Igneous Province, that this batholith formed by mixing between a mantle-derived hotspot magma and assimilated Archean continental crust, and that the source rock was emplaced during initial rifting between the Wyoming craton and the Superior province.

IntroductionIn the year 2000, a group of likeminded individuals got together and convened the first annual World Barista Championship in Monte Carlo. With twelve competitors from around the globe, each competitor was judged by seven judges: one head judge who oversaw the process, two technical judges who assessed technical skills, and four sensory judges who evaluated the taste and appearance of the espresso drinks. Competitors had fifteen minutes to serve four espresso coffees, four cappuccino coffees, and four “signature” drinks that they had devised using one shot of espresso and other ingredients of their choice, but no alcohol. The competitors were also assessed on their overall barista skills, their creativity, and their ability to perform under pressure and impress the judges with their knowledge of coffee. This competition has grown to the extent that eleven years later, in 2011, 54 countries held national barista championships with the winner from each country competing for the highly coveted position of World Barista Champion. That year, Alejandro Mendez from El Salvador became the first world champion from a coffee producing nation. Champion baristas are more likely to come from coffee consuming countries than they are from coffee producing countries as countries that produce coffee seldom have a culture of espresso coffee consumption. While Ireland is not a coffee-producing nation, the Irish are the highest per capita consumers of tea in the world (Mac Con Iomaire, “Ireland”). Despite this, in 2008, Stephen Morrissey from Ireland overcame 50 other national champions to become the 2008 World Barista Champion (see, http://vimeo.com/2254130). Another Irish national champion, Colin Harmon, came fourth in this competition in both 2009 and 2010. This paper discusses the history and development of coffee and coffee houses in Dublin from the 17th century, charting how coffee culture in Dublin appeared, evolved, and stagnated before re-emerging at the beginning of the 21st century, with a remarkable win in the World Barista Championships. The historical links between coffeehouses and media—ranging from print media to electronic and social media—are discussed. In this, the coffee house acts as an informal public gathering space, what urban sociologist Ray Oldenburg calls a “third place,” neither work nor home. These “third places” provide anchors for community life and facilitate and foster broader, more creative interaction (Oldenburg). This paper will also show how competition from other “third places” such as clubs, hotels, restaurants, and bars have affected the vibrancy of coffee houses. Early Coffee Houses The first coffee house was established in Constantinople in 1554 (Tannahill 252; Huetz de Lemps 387). The first English coffee houses opened in Oxford in 1650 and in London in 1652. Coffee houses multiplied thereafter but, in 1676, when some London coffee houses became hotbeds for political protest, the city prosecutor decided to close them. The ban was soon lifted and between 1680 and 1730 Londoners discovered the pleasure of drinking coffee (Huetz de Lemps 388), although these coffee houses sold a number of hot drinks including tea and chocolate as well as coffee.The first French coffee houses opened in Marseille in 1671 and in Paris the following year. Coffee houses proliferated during the 18th century: by 1720 there were 380 public cafés in Paris and by the end of the century there were 600 (Huetz de Lemps 387). Café Procope opened in Paris in 1674 and, in the 18th century, became a literary salon with regular patrons: Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Condorcet (Huetz de Lemps 387; Pitte 472). In England, coffee houses developed into exclusive clubs such as Crockford’s and the Reform, whilst elsewhere in Europe they evolved into what we identify as cafés, similar to the tea shops that would open in England in the late 19th century (Tannahill 252-53). Tea quickly displaced coffee in popularity in British coffee houses (Taylor 142). Pettigrew suggests two reasons why Great Britain became a tea-drinking nation while most of the rest of Europe took to coffee (48). The first was the power of the East India Company, chartered by Elizabeth I in 1600, which controlled the world’s biggest tea monopoly and promoted the beverage enthusiastically. The second was the difficulty England had in securing coffee from the Levant while at war with France at the end of the seventeenth century and again during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13). Tea also became the dominant beverage in Ireland and over a period of time became the staple beverage of the whole country. In 1835, Samuel Bewley and his son Charles dared to break the monopoly of The East India Company by importing over 2,000 chests of tea directly from Canton, China, to Ireland. His family would later become synonymous with the importation of coffee and with opening cafés in Ireland (see, Farmar for full history of the Bewley's and their activities). Ireland remains the highest per-capita consumer of tea in the world. Coffee houses have long been linked with social and political change (Kennedy, Politicks; Pincus). The notion that these new non-alcoholic drinks were responsible for the Enlightenment because people could now gather socially without getting drunk is rejected by Wheaton as frivolous, since there had always been alternatives to strong drink, and European civilisation had achieved much in the previous centuries (91). She comments additionally that cafés, as gathering places for dissenters, took over the role that taverns had long played. Pennell and Vickery support this argument adding that by offering a choice of drinks, and often sweets, at a fixed price and in a more civilized setting than most taverns provided, coffee houses and cafés were part of the rise of the modern restaurant. It is believed that, by 1700, the commercial provision of food and drink constituted the second largest occupational sector in London. Travellers’ accounts are full of descriptions of London taverns, pie shops, coffee, bun and chop houses, breakfast huts, and food hawkers (Pennell; Vickery). Dublin Coffee Houses and Later incarnations The earliest reference to coffee houses in Dublin is to the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85). Public dining or drinking establishments listed in the 1738 Dublin Directory include taverns, eating houses, chop houses, coffee houses, and one chocolate house in Fownes Court run by Peter Bardin (Hardiman and Kennedy 157). During the second half of the 17th century, Dublin’s merchant classes transferred allegiance from taverns to the newly fashionable coffee houses as places to conduct business. By 1698, the fashion had spread to country towns with coffee houses found in Cork, Limerick, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Wexford, and Galway, and slightly later in Belfast and Waterford in the 18th century. Maxwell lists some of Dublin’s leading coffee houses and taverns, noting their clientele: There were Lucas’s Coffee House, on Cork Hill (the scene of many duels), frequented by fashionable young men; the Phoenix, in Werburgh Street, where political dinners were held; Dick’s Coffee House, in Skinner’s Row, much patronized by literary men, for it was over a bookseller’s; the Eagle, in Eustace Street, where meetings of the Volunteers were held; the Old Sot’s Hole, near Essex Bridge, famous for its beefsteaks and ale; the Eagle Tavern, on Cork Hill, which was demolished at the same time as Lucas’s to make room for the Royal Exchange; and many others. (76) Many of the early taverns were situated around the Winetavern Street, Cook Street, and Fishamble Street area. (see Fig. 1) Taverns, and later coffee houses, became meeting places for gentlemen and centres for debate and the exchange of ideas. In 1706, Francis Dickson published the Flying Post newspaper at the Four Courts coffee house in Winetavern Street. The Bear Tavern (1725) and the Black Lyon (1735), where a Masonic Lodge assembled every Wednesday, were also located on this street (Gilbert v.1 160). Dick’s Coffee house was established in the late 17th century by bookseller and newspaper proprietor Richard Pue, and remained open until 1780 when the building was demolished. In 1740, Dick’s customers were described thus: Ye citizens, gentlemen, lawyers and squires,who summer and winter surround our great fires,ye quidnuncs! who frequently come into Pue’s,To live upon politicks, coffee, and news. (Gilbert v.1 174) There has long been an association between coffeehouses and publishing books, pamphlets and particularly newspapers. Other Dublin publishers and newspapermen who owned coffee houses included Richard Norris and Thomas Bacon. Until the 1850s, newspapers were burdened with a number of taxes: on the newsprint, a stamp duty, and on each advertisement. By 1865, these taxes had virtually disappeared, resulting in the appearance of 30 new newspapers in Ireland, 24 of them in Dublin. Most people read from copies which were available free of charge in taverns, clubs, and coffee houses (MacGiolla Phadraig). Coffee houses also kept copies of international newspapers. On 4 May 1706, Francis Dickson notes in the Dublin Intelligence that he held the Paris and London Gazettes, Leyden Gazette and Slip, the Paris and Hague Lettres à la Main, Daily Courant, Post-man, Flying Post, Post-script and Manuscripts in his coffeehouse in Winetavern Street (Kennedy, “Dublin”). Henry Berry’s analysis of shop signs in Dublin identifies 24 different coffee houses in Dublin, with the main clusters in Essex Street near the Custom’s House (Cocoa Tree, Bacon’s, Dempster’s, Dublin, Merchant’s, Norris’s, and Walsh’s) Cork Hill (Lucas’s, St Lawrence’s, and Solyman’s) Skinners’ Row (Bow’s’, Darby’s, and Dick’s) Christ Church Yard (Four Courts, and London) College Green (Jack’s, and Parliament) and Crampton Court (Exchange, and Little Dublin). (see Figure 1, below, for these clusters and the locations of other Dublin coffee houses.) The earliest to be referenced is the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85), with Solyman’s (1691), Bow’s (1692), and Patt’s on High Street (1699), all mentioned in print before the 18th century. The name of one, the Cocoa Tree, suggests that chocolate was also served in this coffee house. More evidence of the variety of beverages sold in coffee houses comes from Gilbert who notes that in 1730, one Dublin poet wrote of George Carterwright’s wife at The Custom House Coffee House on Essex Street: Her coffee’s fresh and fresh her tea,Sweet her cream, ptizan, and whea,her drams, of ev’ry sort, we findboth good and pleasant, in their kind. (v. 2 161) Figure 1: Map of Dublin indicating Coffee House clusters 1 = Sackville St.; 2 = Winetavern St.; 3 = Essex St.; 4 = Cork Hill; 5 = Skinner's Row; 6 = College Green.; 7 = Christ Church Yard; 8 = Crampton Court.; 9 = Cook St.; 10 = High St.; 11 = Eustace St.; 12 = Werburgh St.; 13 = Fishamble St.; 14 = Westmorland St.; 15 = South Great George's St.; 16 = Grafton St.; 17 = Kildare St.; 18 = Dame St.; 19 = Anglesea Row; 20 = Foster Place; 21 = Poolbeg St.; 22 = Fleet St.; 23 = Burgh Quay.A = Cafe de Paris, Lincoln Place; B = Red Bank Restaurant, D'Olier St.; C = Morrison's Hotel, Nassau St.; D = Shelbourne Hotel, St. Stephen's Green; E = Jury's Hotel, Dame St. Some coffee houses transformed into the gentlemen’s clubs that appeared in London, Paris and Dublin in the 17th century. These clubs originally met in coffee houses, then taverns, until later proprietary clubs became fashionable. Dublin anticipated London in club fashions with members of the Kildare Street Club (1782) and the Sackville Street Club (1794) owning the premises of their clubhouse, thus dispensing with the proprietor. The first London club to be owned by the members seems to be Arthur’s, founded in 1811 (McDowell 4) and this practice became widespread throughout the 19th century in both London and Dublin. The origin of one of Dublin’s most famous clubs, Daly’s Club, was a chocolate house opened by Patrick Daly in c.1762–65 in premises at 2–3 Dame Street (Brooke). It prospered sufficiently to commission its own granite-faced building on College Green between Anglesea Street and Foster Place which opened in 1789 (Liddy 51). Daly’s Club, “where half the land of Ireland has changed hands”, was renowned for the gambling that took place there (Montgomery 39). Daly’s sumptuous palace catered very well (and discreetly) for honourable Members of Parliament and rich “bucks” alike (Craig 222). The changing political and social landscape following the Act of Union led to Daly’s slow demise and its eventual closure in 1823 (Liddy 51). Coincidentally, the first Starbucks in Ireland opened in 2005 in the same location. Once gentlemen’s clubs had designated buildings where members could eat, drink, socialise, and stay overnight, taverns and coffee houses faced competition from the best Dublin hotels which also had coffee rooms “in which gentlemen could read papers, write letters, take coffee and wine in the evening—an exiguous substitute for a club” (McDowell 17). There were at least 15 establishments in Dublin city claiming to be hotels by 1789 (Corr 1) and their numbers grew in the 19th century, an expansion which was particularly influenced by the growth of railways. By 1790, Dublin’s public houses (“pubs”) outnumbered its coffee houses with Dublin boasting 1,300 (Rooney 132). Names like the Goose and Gridiron, Harp and Crown, Horseshoe and Magpie, and Hen and Chickens—fashionable during the 17th and 18th centuries in Ireland—hung on decorative signs for those who could not read. Throughout the 20th century, the public house provided the dominant “third place” in Irish society, and the drink of choice for itd predominantly male customers was a frothy pint of Guinness. Newspapers were available in public houses and many newspapermen had their own favourite hostelries such as Mulligan’s of Poolbeg Street; The Pearl, and The Palace on Fleet Street; and The White Horse Inn on Burgh Quay. Any coffee served in these establishments prior to the arrival of the new coffee culture in the 21st century was, however, of the powdered instant variety. Hotels / Restaurants with Coffee Rooms From the mid-19th century, the public dining landscape of Dublin changed in line with London and other large cities in the United Kingdom. Restaurants did appear gradually in the United Kingdom and research suggests that one possible reason for this growth from the 1860s onwards was the Refreshment Houses and Wine Licences Act (1860). The object of this act was to “reunite the business of eating and drinking”, thereby encouraging public sobriety (Mac Con Iomaire, “Emergence” v.2 95). Advertisements for Dublin restaurants appeared in The Irish Times from the 1860s. Thom’s Directory includes listings for Dining Rooms from the 1870s and Refreshment Rooms are listed from the 1880s. This pattern continued until 1909, when Thom’s Directory first includes a listing for “Restaurants and Tea Rooms”. Some of the establishments that advertised separate coffee rooms include Dublin’s first French restaurant, the Café de Paris, The Red Bank Restaurant, Morrison’s Hotel, Shelbourne Hotel, and Jury’s Hotel (see Fig. 1). The pattern of separate ladies’ coffee rooms emerged in Dublin and London during the latter half of the 19th century and mixed sex dining only became popular around the last decade of the 19th century, partly infuenced by Cesar Ritz and Auguste Escoffier (Mac Con Iomaire, “Public Dining”). Irish Cafés: From Bewley’s to Starbucks A number of cafés appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, most notably Robert Roberts and Bewley’s, both of which were owned by Quaker families. Ernest Bewley took over the running of the Bewley’s importation business in the 1890s and opened a number of Oriental Cafés; South Great Georges Street (1894), Westmoreland Street (1896), and what became the landmark Bewley’s Oriental Café in Grafton Street (1927). Drawing influence from the grand cafés of Paris and Vienna, oriental tearooms, and Egyptian architecture (inspired by the discovery in 1922 of Tutankhamen’s Tomb), the Grafton Street business brought a touch of the exotic into the newly formed Irish Free State. Bewley’s cafés became the haunt of many of Ireland’s leading literary figures, including Samuel Becket, Sean O’Casey, and James Joyce who mentioned the café in his book, Dubliners. A full history of Bewley’s is available (Farmar). It is important to note, however, that pots of tea were sold in equal measure to mugs of coffee in Bewley’s. The cafés changed over time from waitress- to self-service and a failure to adapt to changing fashions led to the business being sold, with only the flagship café in Grafton Street remaining open in a revised capacity. It was not until the beginning of the 21st century that a new wave of coffee house culture swept Ireland. This was based around speciality coffee beverages such as espressos, cappuccinos, lattés, macchiatos, and frappuccinnos. This new phenomenon coincided with the unprecedented growth in the Irish economy, during which Ireland became known as the “Celtic Tiger” (Murphy 3). One aspect of this period was a building boom and a subsequent growth in apartment living in the Dublin city centre. The American sitcom Friends and its fictional coffee house, “Central Perk,” may also have helped popularise the use of coffee houses as “third spaces” (Oldenberg) among young apartment dwellers in Dublin. This was also the era of the “dotcom boom” when many young entrepreneurs, software designers, webmasters, and stock market investors were using coffee houses as meeting places for business and also as ad hoc office spaces. This trend is very similar to the situation in the 17th and early 18th centuries where coffeehouses became known as sites for business dealings. Various theories explaining the growth of the new café culture have circulated, with reasons ranging from a growth in Eastern European migrants, anti-smoking legislation, returning sophisticated Irish emigrants, and increased affluence (Fenton). Dublin pubs, facing competition from the new coffee culture, began installing espresso coffee machines made by companies such as Gaggia to attract customers more interested in a good latté than a lager and it is within this context that Irish baristas gained such success in the World Barista competition. In 2001 the Georges Street branch of Bewley’s was taken over by a chain called Café, Bar, Deli specialising in serving good food at reasonable prices. Many ex-Bewley’s staff members subsequently opened their own businesses, roasting coffee and running cafés. Irish-owned coffee chains such as Java Republic, Insomnia, and O’Brien’s Sandwich Bars continued to thrive despite the competition from coffee chains Starbucks and Costa Café. Indeed, so successful was the handmade Irish sandwich and coffee business that, before the economic downturn affected its business, Irish franchise O’Brien’s operated in over 18 countries. The Café, Bar, Deli group had also begun to franchise its operations in 2008 when it too became a victim of the global economic downturn. With the growth of the Internet, many newspapers have experienced falling sales of their printed format and rising uptake of their electronic versions. Most Dublin coffee houses today provide wireless Internet connections so their customers can read not only the local newspapers online, but also others from all over the globe, similar to Francis Dickenson’s coffee house in Winetavern Street in the early 18th century. Dublin has become Europe’s Silicon Valley, housing the European headquarters for companies such as Google, Yahoo, Ebay, Paypal, and Facebook. There are currently plans to provide free wireless connectivity throughout Dublin’s city centre in order to promote e-commerce, however, some coffee houses shut off the wireless Internet in their establishments at certain times of the week in order to promote more social interaction to ensure that these “third places” remain “great good places” at the heart of the community (Oldenburg). Conclusion Ireland is not a country that is normally associated with a coffee culture but coffee houses have been part of the fabric of that country since they emerged in Dublin in the 17th century. These Dublin coffee houses prospered in the 18th century, and survived strong competition from clubs and hotels in the 19th century, and from restaurant and public houses into the 20th century. In 2008, when Stephen Morrissey won the coveted title of World Barista Champion, Ireland’s place as a coffee consuming country was re-established. 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(Thomas Fuchs, Leipzig) Mariotte, Jean-Yves, Philipp der Großmütige von Hessen (1504 – 1567). Fürstlicher Reformator und Landgraf, übers. v. Sabine Albrecht (Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Hessen, 24; Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte des Landgrafen Philipp des Großmütigen, 10), Marburg 2018, Historische Kommission für Hessen, 301 S. / Abb., € 28,00. (Thomas Fuchs, Leipzig) Doll, Eberhard, Der Theologe und Schriftsteller Friedrich Dedekind (1524/25 – 1598). Eine Biographie. Mit einem Beitrag von Britta-Juliane Kruse zu Dedekinds geistlichen Spielen und der Erstedition der „Hochtzeit zu Cana in Galilea“ (Wolfenbütteler Forschungen, 145), Wiesbaden 2018, Harrassowitz in Kommission, 623 S. / Abb., € 92,00. (Julia Zech, Sarstedt) Bullinger, Heinrich, Tigurinerchronik, 3 Teilbde., hrsg. v. Hans U. Bächtold (Werke. Vierte Abteilung: Historische Schriften, 1), Zürich 2018, Theologischer Verlag Zürich, XXVII u. 1388 S. (Teilbde. 1 u. 2); V u. 425 S. / Abb. (Teilbd. 3), € 450,00. (Volker Leppin, Tübingen) Francisco de Vitoria, De iustitia / Über die Gerechtigkeit, Teil 1 u. 2, hrsg., eingel. u. ins Deutsche übers. v. Joachim Stüben, mit Einleitungen v. Thomas Duve (Teil 1) bzw. Tilman Repgen (Teil 2) (Politische Philosophie und Rechtstheorie des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, Reihe I: Texte, 3 bzw. 4), Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt 2013 bzw. 2017, Frommann-Holzboog, CXII u. 191 S. bzw. CIX u. 355 S., € 168,00 bzw. € 188,00. (Nils Jansen, Münster) Der Portulan-Atlas des Battista Agnese. Das Kasseler Prachtexemplar von 1542, hrsg., eingel. u. komm. v. Ingrid Baumgärtner, Darmstadt 2017, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 144 S. / Abb., € 99,95. (Christoph Mauntel, Tübingen) Brevaglieri, Sabina / Matthias Schnettger (Hrsg.), Transferprozesse zwischen dem Alten Reich und Italien im 17. Jahrhundert. Wissenskonfigurationen – Akteure – Netzwerke (Mainzer Historische Kulturwissenschaften, 29), Bielefeld 2018, transcript, 341 S. / Abb., € 39,99. (Christiane Liermann, Como) Asmussen, Tina, Scientia Kircheriana. Die Fabrikation von Wissen bei Athanasius Kircher (Kulturgeschichten, 2), Affalterbach 2016, Didymos-Verlag, 220 S. / Abb., € 39,00. (Mona Garloff, Stuttgart / Wien) Schlegelmilch, Sabine, Ärztliche Praxis und sozialer Raum im 17. Jahrhundert. Johannes Magirus (1615 – 1697), Wien / Köln / Weimar 2018, Böhlau, 352 S. / Abb., € 50,00. (Pierre Pfütsch, Stuttgart) Félicité, Indravati, Das Königreich Frankreich und die norddeutschen Hansestädte und Herzogtümer (1650 – 1730). Diplomatie zwischen ungleichen Partnern, übers. aus dem Französischen v. Markus Hiltl (Quellen und Darstellungen zur hansischen Geschichte. Neue Folge, 75), Köln / Weimar / Wien 2017, Böhlau, 439 S., € 60,00. (Guido Braun, Mulhouse) Renault, Rachel, La permanence de l’extraordinaire. Fiscalité, pouvoirs et monde social en Allemagne aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Histoire moderne, 57), Paris 2017, Éditions de la Sorbonne, 389 S. / Abb., € 25,00. (Claire Gantet, Fribourg) Godsey, William D., The Sinews of Habsburg Power. Lower Austria in a Fiscal-Military State 1650 – 1820, Oxford 2018, Oxford University Press, XX u. 460 S. / Abb., £ 90,00. (Simon Karstens, Trier) Riotte, Andrea, Diese so oft beseufzte Parität. Biberach 1649 – 1825: Politik – Konfession – Alltag (Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für geschichtliche Landeskunde in Baden-Württemberg. Reihe B: Forschungen, 213), Stuttgart 2017, Kohlhammer, LII u. 779 S., € 64,00. (Stephanie Armer, Nürnberg) Müller, Andreas, Die Ritterschaft im Herzogtum Westfalen 1651 – 1803. Aufschwörung, innere Struktur und Prosopographie (Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Westfalen. Neue Folge, 34), Münster 2017, Aschendorff, 744 S. / Abb., € 69,00. (Nicolas Rügge, Hannover) Lange, Johan, Die Gefahren der akademischen Freiheit. Ratgeberliteratur für Studenten im Zeitalter der Aufklärung (1670 – 1820) (Beihefte der Francia, 84), Ostfildern 2017, Thorbecke, 339 S., € 45,00. 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(Georg Eckert, Wuppertal) Ducheyne, Steffen (Hrsg.), Reassessing the Radical Enlightenment, London / New York 2017, Routledge, XII u. 318 S., £ 32,99. (Bettina Dietz, Hongkong) Lehner, Ulrich (Hrsg.), Women, Enlightenment and Catholicism. A Transnational Biographical History, London / New York 2018, Routledge, XI u. 236 S. / Abb., £ 100,00. (Elisabeth Fischer, Hamburg) Möller, Horst / Claus Scharf / Wassili Dudarew / Maja Lawrinowitsch (Hrsg.), Deutschland – Russland. Stationen gemeinsamer Geschichte, Orte der Erinnerung, Bd. 1: Das 18. Jahrhundert, Berlin / Boston 2018, de Gruyter Oldenbourg, 410 S. / Abb., € 29,95. (Martina Winkler, Kiel) Bittner, Anja, Eine königliche Mission. Der französisch-jakobitische Invasionsversuch von 1708 im europäischen Kontext (Schriften des Frühneuzeitzentrums Potsdam, 6), Göttingen 2017, V&amp;R unipress, 277 S., € 45,00. (Torsten Riotte, Frankfurt a.M.) Schmidt-Voges, Inken / Ana Crespo Solana (Hrsg.), New Worlds? 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