Journal articles on the topic '家庭支持'

近代以来，大量潮汕人迫于生计背井离乡远赴暹罗谋生，往往在稍有积蓄后便汇款回乡以便改善家乡亲人的生活条件。这些用于赡养家人的汇款类别众多，功能不一：基本物质生活支出、与家乡习俗有关的支出，以及缓解家庭债务状况的支出等。其中，用于满足基本物质生活的支出主要包括日常所需的柴米油盐、修建房屋、购置土地、购买日用品、医药费、教育费用等；与家乡习俗有关的支出主要包括给长辈祝寿、过年的利市、婚礼费用、祭祀费用、葬礼费用，以及民俗活动的费用；用于偿还债务的支出则既包括华侨本身因出洋谋生所欠下的债务，也包括家中因各种原因欠下的费用。总的来看，这些华侨寄回家乡的赡家性汇款覆盖了家庭生活中许多方面的需求。可以说，华侨汇款回乡的目的之一，就是要在各方面为家庭提供财力支持以维持家庭的正常运转。

The number of divorce cases in Hong Kong is soaring in recent years and the stepfamily is an emerging family structure. This exploratory study is aimed at examining difficulties of parenting in stepfamilies through interviews with stepmothers, social workers and teachers. Reports of these stepmothers reveal that they feel overloaded in the stepfamilies and that their spouses do not give them enough support. They complain that their in-laws and relatives create stress rather than offer help in child management. The findings indicated that there are difficulties in communication between the couples, problems between stepmother-stepchild, and in-law relationships. It is suggested that social workers and teachers should cooperate to deal with cultural stereotyping of stepfamily and change negative social attitudes towards members of stepfamilies. Efforts should also be made by these professionals to identify stepmother-stepchild relationship problems with greater sensitivity, and regularity. 香港近年离婚个案数字飚升，再婚家庭成逐渐涌现的家庭架构。这个研究目的是透过访问继母、社工和教师检视再婚家庭的亲职问题。被访继母感到家务繁重、配偶支持不足，在管教子女方面，她们的翁姑及姻亲没有给予援助反而给她们加添压力。资料显示再婚家庭内的夫妇沟通出现困难，继母和继子女及翁姑姻亲关系亦有问题。社工和教师应携手处理文化上将再婚家庭典型化的问题，改变社会人士对这类家庭的负面态度，醒觉地识别继母和继子女关系的问题予以适切介入。

新型冠状病毒肺炎（COVID-19）正给全世界造成难以想象的伤害与代价。病毒传播的减缓需要隔离、封锁和关闭商业活动，但此举对全球经济与贸易活动产生严重影响，预计2020年全球经济将急剧萎缩3%，相较2008年金融危机更甚。实质性、有针对性的财政、货币和金融市场措施，支持受影响的家庭和企业，在整个关闭期间维持经济关系，对于大流行减弱和遏制措施解除后，活动能够逐步实现正常化至关重要。假设2020年下半年大流行消退，管制可以逐步解除，在政策支持的推动下，随着经济活动正常化，预计2021年全球经济将增长5.8%。

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese.Wheelchair fencing took root in Hong Kong in the early 1980s. Within a short span of 20 years, Hong Kong wheelchair athletes had worked themselves to world-class standards. In the Sydney 2000 Paralympics, the Hong Kong wheelchair-fencing team captured 4 gold, 2 silver, and 2 bronze medals. These were the best results ever achieved. In order to understand this phenomenon, perceptions of possible factors associated with this were explored. These factors include: Perceived Positive Outcomes, Organizational Support and Family Support.八十年代初開始，輪椅劍擊運動已於香港紮根發展起來。短短二十年間，香港輪椅劍擊運動員已攀升至國際級的水平。於2000年悉尼傷殘奧運會中，香港輪椅劍撃隊更創出史無前例之四金、二銀、二銅的佳績。為了解此現象，本文將探討各個可能之誘因，包括：正面結果之認知、機構組織的支持以及家庭的支持。

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.家庭醫療儲蓄帳戶的概念自提出以來，引起了國內外同仁的廣泛關注，學者們也都紛紛就自己的理解發表獨特看法。這一新概念引起中國生命倫理學術界的共鳴，根源性是因為它與中國的家庭倫理思想和家本位的價值觀念相契合。家庭醫療儲蓄帳戶的意義和積極作用是毋容置疑的，而有一點卻讓研究者駐足深思：家庭醫療儲蓄帳戶的家庭範圍該如何去界定？這個問題不僅僅是理論界定那麼簡單，它更涉及到家庭醫療儲蓄帳戶的可行性和可操作性。筆者在2011 年12 月份舉辦的“醫療儲蓄帳戶、深化醫改及儒家生命倫理”國際學術會議時曾試圖從社會學的角度進行分析，但是沒有文化背景與倫理理論的支持，終覺失去了根基。而傳統倫理學是我們應用倫理學去釐定問題的觀念背景， 也是我們分析問題的主要工具和解決問題的核心價值依據。鑒於此本文轉向中國傳統的主流倫理學去尋找答案。儒家倫理學作為一種傳統倫理學，也必然在一定程度上為我們醫療儲蓄帳戶的建構提供一種觀念背景、分析工具和價值選擇。筆者首先論述了家庭的重要性，同時探討了家庭範圍界定的複雜性，然後轉而向儒家倫理學思想尋求觀念、價值和倫理的依據。本文以家庭的血緣關係和婚姻關係為主線，以儒家家庭倫理為依據，將家庭醫療儲蓄帳戶中家庭的範圍界定從倫理的角度操作化。這將有利於挖掘儒家生命倫理的潛在價值，為解決當代醫療改革問題提供依據，使傳統的主流倫理價值融入現代的生活中，去解決現實中存在的問題，同時這也是儒家生命倫理當代建構的一個方面。The notion of family health savings accounts has attracted wide attention from academic circles, both domestic and international. Many Chinese scholars understand the importance of this notion and support the establishment of family health savings accounts in Chinese society, because it fits very well with Confucian family ethics and the family-oriented values that are vibrant in Chinese society. However, to pursue fully the significance and function of the family in operating appropriate health savings accounts, we must explore the question of how the family should be defined.The problem is not only in offering a theoretical definition, but also related to the feasibility and operability of family health savings accounts. However, we cannot begin our inquiry from nowhere. We must rely on the traditional ethical resources that are still operating in Chinese society to develop a conceptual background and value basis for analyzing the problems we face in attempting to define a suitable notion of the family in Chinese society. Accordingly, this paper turns to Chinese traditional mainstream ethics, namely Confucian ethics, to identify the intellectual and moral resources to provide a conceptual background, analysis tools and value choice. The authors first discuss the importance of the family in the Confucian tradition and explore the complexity in defining the scope of the family. The paper then draws on particular Confucian ethical ideas and values to seek proper solutions. Specifically, based on the Confucian central commitments, we draw on both blood relationships and marriage relationships to consider the nature and scope of the family in the Confucian tradition. We thus form the main line of our argument to establish Confucian family ethics as the basis for defining the suitable scope of the family for adequate family health savings accounts in contemporary Chinese society. Basically, we conclude that nuclear families should be basic family institutions for health care in general and health savings accounts in particular, while adult children must be allowed, indeed encouraged, to supplement their elderly parents’ health savings accounts. This will be conducive to using the potential value of Confucian family-based and family-oriented ethics to provide the motivation to solve the difficult problem of health care reform in contemporary Chinese society.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 286 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese.家庭是社會-生物學的實在，有關如何適當地表述這種實在的爭論劇烈，處於文化戰爭之中心。本體-形上家庭觀認為，家庭是有規範性的社會實在，父母子女具有給定的身份角色，應當尊敬祖先，支持後代。這種家庭觀受傳統宗教（如基督教和儒教）所推崇。自由主義家庭觀則認為，家庭不過是其成員的創造，應以平等自由的觀念為主導，因而各種類型的家庭均無不可。這兩種不同的家庭觀對於生命倫理的重大問題，及其相關公共政策蘊涵不同的處理方式，關涉人類生活的未來。The family is a socio-biological reality. Humans form socio-sexual pairs, which are often also reproductive units. How to characterize these social entities is a matter of considerable dispute, placing the family at the heart of cultural, social, and political disputes regarding the nature of appropriate law and public policy. Competing views of the family have important implications for healthcare policy and bioethics. On the one hand, there is an ontological-metaphysical account of the family, which appreciates the family as a ormative social reality that, as far as possible, should be realized by particular families. This account brings with it pre-existing roles for husbands and wives, fathers, mothers, and children. This view of the family tends to be multi-generational, looking back with respect and support to previous generations, while looking forward with love and concern to succeeding generations. This metaphysical-ontological view of the family is traditionally endorsed by Confucians and Christians. Because it regards the family as a normative socio-biological unit, it supports the autonomy and integrity of the family, treating members of the family somewhat as a state treats its citizens. This view of the family endorses family-based consent and policies of confidentiality in preference toindividually oriented ones. It also favors forms of healthcare financing, such as family-oriented health savings accounts, that increase both the financial and the social capital of the family. This approach to the family, which is inclined toward authoritarian and authoritative parenting, tends to produce children who are better able to shoulder their future roles as adults. Finally, this view of the family favors the begetting of children. The traditional view of the family is currently under critical pressure from libertarian/liberal construals of the family, which regard the family as the creation of its members and/or as guided by overriding concerns for individual liberty and equality. This view is at peace with reproduction outside of wedlock, with limited family responsibility and autonomy that undermines status obligations to past generations, and to the production and nurturing of future generations. Non-traditional forms of family, including homosexual families, are accepted, if not affirmed. The libertarian/liberal construal of the family endorses individual, not family consent, for medical treatment. It also favors individually directed policies regarding confidentiality, and forms of financing that support the interests of individuals over those of families. Because of the account’s endorsement of individual freedom and/or individual liberty, it requires that adolescents in many if not most circumstances should be allowed to make their own healthcare decisions, even in the face of mounting evidence that adolescents do not usually have the capacity of decision-makers who have come of age. The libertarian/liberal account of the family is at best neutral to the begetting of children. The differences between these two approaches to the family bear not only on healthcare policy and bioethics, but also on the long-term financial and social stability of society. Quite different futures are at stake.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 62 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.從儒家倫理的視角解讀中國新實施的《人體器官移植條例》，以第8 條中“共同表示同意”為著力點，認為，儒家的家庭倫理不僅深刻地影響者中國人的思維方式和行為方式，而且至今被人們認為是構建家庭倫理的最根本原則，有著廣泛的社會基礎和現實根據。分析了儒家倫理支持器官捐獻的理據，結合案例指出：家庭的知情同意並不違背個人的知情同意；應當在儒家的家庭倫理的基礎上探討這一條例的相關問題，從而幫助完善和實施這一條例，使我國有關人體器官移植和屍體捐獻的立法更加完備，為推動器官移植技術的發展建立更為有效的法律保障機制。並提出在在條例實施過程中還有五個相關問題需要澄清和解決。Organ donation is the gift of an organ to help someone else who needs a transplant. Hundreds of people’s lives are saved each year by organ transplants. Yet the question remains: Who should give the priority in terms of donation procedures - the individual who feels a strong, personal commitment to offer his/her organ or the legal next-of-kin, i.e., the priority order of the family members? This has been greatly debated bioethical issue in China in recent years. Rather than emphasizing the right of individuals to decide what will happen after they die, or removing the burden of making a decision about organ donation from families dealing with the traumatic death of a loved one, the policy of family consent indicates the signif icant role of family in making the decision. That is to say, the consent, or lack of objection, of those closest to the patient is always sought before organs can be donated. The family involvement could avoid discomfort with the process on the one hand, but also cause conf licts when there is a disagreement between the donor and family members on the other.This paper focuses its discussion on the context and impacts of the“ Rules regarding Organ Transplant” implemented in China since 2007. Then, it turns to traditional Confucian ethics to talk about the meaning of life and Confucian concept of family to show that Confucianism would support the idea of organ transplant. To prove the claim, the paper offers two recent examples of organ donation. Organ transplant should be advocated but the rules should be tighten in order to prevent unqualified doctors and profithungry hospitals from abusing patients and organ donors.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 301 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.西方倫理學界長期爭訟的墮胎問題的三個主要不同觀點，即所謂支持生命之保守主義、支持選擇之自由主義，與支持早期墮胎但反對晚期墮胎之折中主義。雖然三者似是各不相容的論點，但實有一共同的基本觀念，即三者同樣以母胎雙方乃是各自獨立的權利主體。本文批判此一假設並不切合母胎的真實情況。本文採用母胎乃一種非一非二之內在關係，不能以權利分析的方法來解決雙方之衝突。而孕母既是一道德行動者，此一關係當納入道德社群之內作準確的說明，方能得出較切合我們道德經驗的結論。本文通過儒家之家庭倫理關係說明此一內在關係的特色，即以相互之義務為主，見出作為道德行動者之孕母，對胎兒實有一不可逃的保護愛護之義務，不能以個人意願或身體權利進行墮胎。本文進而依儒家之取向，說明在不同情況下而懷孕，孕母所具有的墮胎理據和合理的解決方式。Abortion is a perennial problem in the West. This essay shows that although the three major Western approaches to this issue – pro-life conservativism, pro-choice liberalism and the third way view that supports early but disallows late abortions – sound quite incompatible with each other, they nevertheless share a fundamental idea. They take the maternal-fetal relation as a relation between two unrelated right-holders, the pregnant woman and the fetus. This assumption can be criticized as not appropriate to the reality of the maternal-fetal relation. In this essay, I adapt the not-one-and-not-two relationship model of the pregnant woman and the fetus proposed by others, and take their proper relationship as an internal relationship. I argue that we cannot solve the conflict in abortion by the claim of rights of the two parties. Furthermore, as the pregnant woman is a moral agent, this relation should be considered within the conception of a moral community to arrive at a conclusion that reflects our moral experience.I employ the Confucian conception of a family ethical relation to analyze and explain this internal relationship and its characteristics. The most important feature is that within such an intimate family relationship, the obligation of members to each other is primordial. In other words, the pregnant woman as a moral agent has the inescapable obligation to protect the fetus. She cannot claim a right to abortion by autonomy or the right to bodily integrity. Then I go further to explain how this Confucian conception of family relationships could give the proper reasons and solutions for various types of pregnancy to determine whether it is morally acceptable for abortion in such cases.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 1125 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese. This study examines the parental concerns in facilitating their children's physical activity participation in Hong Kong. By adopting a qualitative approach, 22 parents (10 fathers and 12 mothers), randomly chosen from in a larger study examining 802 (aged 9 to 16) children’s physical activity engagement, were invited for a semi-structured interview. It is believed that these parents could represent the typicality of Hong Kong parents in increasing our understanding of the study's focus. Interview data were analyzed by using an open coding system to identify meaningful pieces of information within the comprehensive text segment (Tesch, 1990). Three themes emerged from the interview data and results in relation to Confucianism showed that parental long working hours, safety issues and over emphasize in children's academic pursuits were found to be their major concerns in facilitating children's further engagement in physical activities. Specifically, fathers and mothers were found to differ in their safety concerns for their children's physical activity involvement. Future interventions aiming at solving the suggested parental concerns could increase children's physical activity participation. 採用質化研究之方法，本研究旨在探討二十二名香港家長於促進學童參與體育活動的考慮因素。研究發現考慮因素包括：家長的工作時間、家長對學童參與體育活動的安全性及家長過份重視學業成績。研究結果建議，為要進一步促進學童參與體育活動，必須透過有效解決家長對學童於參予體育活動的考慮因素。(一)加強家長對帶有危險性的運動的知識 (二)政府及學校團體應增加對家庭運動的支持 (三)透過工作坊，讓家長了解學業與運動並存對學童身心發展的重要性。

摘要汉语是世界上使用者最多的语言，世界约五分之一的人口使用汉语，其中包括 13 亿中国人。在美国，汉语是仅次于英语和西班牙语的第三大语言。随着中国崛起，汉语以及汉语社区随之凸显。世纪之交见证了汉语这个一直在美国被忽视的 “不常教” 语言上升为对美国国家安全和繁荣至为关键的语言。学汉语，不再仅仅是华人移民家庭的事情，而成为美国主流议程的一个焦点问题。因此，汉语获得了前所未有的机构支持。在大学以及从幼儿园到高中的全日制公立学校，汉语正随着各类项目和招生的迅速增长而成为一个不断扩展的领域。有史以来，汉语首次拥有了像西班牙语、法语、德语等传统欧洲语言在美国长期具有的地位，有望提升为 “普遍教授” 的语言。

There are striking regional variations in agricultural transformation throughout China. Findings from the economically advanced areas show that government intervention in such areas likely results in the rise of “dependent farmers” 依附农 who are embedded in the existing administrative system and whose management approach and its consequences defy the conventional wisdom on agricultural capitalism. In the case of suburban Shanghai, the coming of sojourning farmers and the resultant changes in agriculture have become “problematic” under the current policies of agricultural governance, hence their removal from local agricultural production and the rise of “local farmers and family farms” in their stead. Despite the façade of modern agriculture and autonomous management, the family farm operates essentially in an “administrative” mode. The local government plays a decisive role in farmers’ choice of production and returns through its whole package of agricultural management systems, thus turning the market-oriented managerial farmers into dependents of the administrative system. The major problem with the new method in agricultural management, therefore, lies in the high cost of agricultural management and the government’s subsequent subsidies for agriculture to insure its survival, hence the formation of the dual dependence of farmland contractors and actual operators upon the agricultural administrative system and the emergence of a “profit-sharing order.” On the basis of this, the article further elaborates on problems with the farmland system in the advanced areas. 中国农业的转型具有区域差异的特征,发达地区的经验表明政府干预可能形成嵌入行政体系的“依附农”,其经营方式和后果不同于通常所界定的农业资本主义。以沪郊农村为例,在农业治理要求下,沪郊外来农民及自发的农业变迁被“问题化”,随之被地方政府排除出农业生产领域,“本地农民-家庭农场”取而代之。家庭农场虽然有现代农业及自主经营的外在形式,但其内在运作机制是一套“行政化”的农业经营模式。地方政府通过一整套农业经营制度安排支配着经营者选择、生产标准和收益空间,将面向市场的自主经营者转变为面向行政体系的依附经营者。新农业经营方式的主要问题是农业经营成本被人为推高,迫使政府以农业补贴维持农业再生产,进而形成土地承包者和实际经营者共同依附农业行政体系获得丰厚收益的“分利秩序”。在这一基础上,本文还对发达地区所显示的农地制度问题进行了初步的反思。

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese對於那些即將死於艾滋病的人來說，在自殺協助可以得到的地方，如美國西海岸的同性戀社區和荷蘭，我們必須考察醫生和朋友（包括情人、配偶、家庭成員、宗教顧問、支持團體的成員，以及其他熟人）在協助一個艾滋病患者決定和行使自殺的過程中所起的不同作用。本文作出一個中心假定：在自殺協助可以獲得的地方，盡可能地保護和加強選擇的合理性是他人的道德義務。在關於艾滋病中自殺的理性選擇中，可以識別出四種成分－－不管它是贊成自殺的選擇還是反對自殺的選擇。艾滋病患者可能自問的問題可以表述如下：（1）“自殺是我想考慮的選擇嗎？”（2）“我應當保留治愈的機會嗎？”（3）“我應如何確定自殺的時間？”（4）“我將給他人的幸福和利益以何種份量？”儘管醫生經常作出與（1） 相關的斷言，但他們恰當地涉及的只是（3）；儘管朋友和親密的伙伴經常提供給病人與（3） 相關的趣聞軼事，但他們主要涉及的是（1）。簡言之，醫生和病人經常干預艾滋病患者就自殺所作出的選擇的錯誤部分。DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 16 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.由於新冠病毒的特性和難以防诸，新冠肺炎病毒很快成為全球性的流行病。而在此疫情中，受到感染和死亡的地區與人數急升，不但造成全球性的恐慌，同時產生許多心理、生活和文化上的嚴重問題。本文從倫理與文化，特別是儒家的精神，檢討我們與此病毒共存時，如何調整我們的生活與價值，建立生命共同體的觀念，以減輕或免除由此嚴峻疫情所受到的個人與社會的創傷和後遺症。本文分析了在地球村的緊密關係之下，我們必須保持有效的防疫工作才可以開封和進行經濟生產、物品流通，否則會在目前和日後不斷發生重覆的社區感染。人類必須圑結互助、共同承擔和接受各種不便，互讓互該、助人助己，才能夠平安渡過此一巨大災難。公共衛生的防疫工作是一涉及個人自由與公共安全的嚴重的道德兩難的課題。在防疫上，我們的個人行動實涉及他人的生命安全與權益，我們必須放棄以個人自由權利為優先的觀點，採取在生活共同體中的仁愛與對他人的苦難所具有的同情共感的自我要求，以共同義務與關懷為主，這實是一「為己為人」的雙重義務，在疫情流行中，更需要發揮「老吾老以及人之老，幼吾幼以及人之幼」之仁愛精神；在工作上必謹守敬慎原則，超前部署防疫工作，防範醫療體崩潰，在疫情的政策要公開、透明、問責、方可望全民共同努力，共渡難關，實現「養生送死無憾」的人生願望。在疫情中，家人的互相照護不但是生活上也是情感上的最重要的支持和解慰，社會和政府也必須提供必要的生活用品和醫療資源的支助，以及截斷政治干涉，讓專家們進行公開的宣導工作、病情教育、回應疑難等，使社會、家庭和個人都得到 支援和共識。病毒的傷害無國界，是我們的共同敵人，防疫的工作也無國界，人類必須有跨國家和跨民族的一體同仁的意識，實現互愛互助，不但救助社群中的脆弱者，也要救助落後的國家地區的人們。我們要領取這次教訓，建立真確的疫情訊息分享的平台，建立全球的病毒研究的規範、合符嚴格要求的病毒研究室，拒絕利用病毒研究為生化與戰爭的工具。在疫情中可以推進世界和平，最後可以從病毒了解生命，在疫情中發揚倫理與文化的價值。The special properties of the new Covid-19 virus make it difficult to control, and it very quickly became a pandemic. The numbers of infected and deaths have increased so fast that it has incited a global panic and caused serious worldwide psychological, day-to-day, and cultural problems. This paper adopts a Confucian perspective to analyze the problems of living with the virus and to explore how to adapt our values and way of living to mitigate or eliminate personal and social traumatic experiences during this serious time. In this paper, I point out that as we live in a close-knit global village, we need an effective policy to keep the pandemic at bay before we can remove inter-city and international barriers to the production of materials and the flow of economic products. Otherwise, we may—and in fact have had—continuous repeated infections. People must develop global solidarity based on interpersonal and intersocial love to share our responsibilities and burdens, and to help ourselves as well as others in this terrifying pandemic.Public health pandemic prevention is a job involving a moral dilemma between personal rights and public safety. Because our preventative actions involve the lives of others, we must abandon prioritizing our personal rights and adopt the principles of benevolence and empathy toward others, taking our common responsibility and care toward others as our main basis of action. This principle also applies to us: benevolence needs to be extended from our family members to everyone else. We have to put precautionary principles into action in our prevention, publicity, transparency, and accountability efforts to overcome the pandemic.Family members are essential, as they provide both physical and emotional support during the pandemic. Society and governments have to provide the means to live as well as medical support, and political interference must be curbed so that medical professionals can take the lead on public interactions, education, and interviews to enable individuals, families, and society to build a consensus on the issues and policies of prevention. Our common enemy is the virus, which assaults human health indiscriminately. We need to help our people as well as those in other countries, especially society’s most vulnerable. We must learn from this calamity and build a platform to share information, establish norms regulating virus studies, enact rigorous regulations for safety in virus research laboratories, and reject using research results for chemical warfare. We hope this pandemic can bring about world peace as we learn to better our lives and further our ethical and cultural values.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 29 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.本文從儒家倫理學與西方效益論、美務論、德行論等三種倫理學理論中，抽繹出自我保存、自我發展、自由意志、能力卓越、關係和諧等五項倫理判準，用以考量複製人的倫理問題。基本上，本文主張「自我保存」是支持複製人的最有力論證，雖然此一論證仍有其缺陷。若以自我保存作為唯一的論據，仍有所不足，但它仍然是一個最低要求（minimum requirement）的論證。若就發展而言，可分就多樣化和性質優化兩種發展來考量。複製人基本上是一相反多樣化、差異化的研究方案，不過它仍可因為保存瀕臨滅亡的家庭、種族等而間接有助於多樣化。至於性質優化則需經由自由意志的努力方能成為道德的。此外，自由意志、卓越化和和諧化等判準看來，複製人仍存在看許多倫理問題，將在本文中一一分析。The new ethical situation created by new discoveries in bio-engineering needs the establishment of ethical criteria in order to judge the morality or immorality of a specific act in, for example, human cloning. But, in Chinese ethical tradition, especially in the Confucian one, much attention has been paid to normalize sexual behavior and no ethical consideration was done on reproduction outside human sexuality. Even this is the case, the general ethical principles established by Confucianism and other ethical traditions are still valid when applied to the newly emerging technological ethical issues. Therefore, in this paper, I would first derive from Confucian ethics and Western utilitarian ethics, obligation ethics and virtue ethics, five ethical criteria, restructured in a hierarchical order, for judging the ethical issues of human cloning. These criteria are: the criterion of conservation, the criterion of development, the criterion of free will, the criterion of excellence, the criterion of harmony.Basically, the author of this paper sustain the position that only the criterion of conservation gives us the most supportive argument for doing human cloning, even if this argument is still defective. This means that we can clone a member of family or race in order to conserve it from total perishing or extermination. The criterion of conservation, articulated in Modern Western philosophy and also in Chinese culture, if not morally perfect in itself, serves the technical act of human cloning as the minimum requirement.The criterion of development could be considered in two ways: differential variability and qualitative betterment. Considered from the side of differential variability, the technique of human cloning could be considered as a project of anti-differentiation or anti-variation. Still it could contribute to development only through conservation, of the otherwise perishing races or families for example. As to the qualitative betterment, it should be always achieved through volitional effort and not merely through biological genetic engineering.All human action should be mediated by free will in order to become moral. This should be taken into account also in the human cloning experimentation. But this does not mean, if supported by conservation argument and motivated by altruistic reasons, human cloning cannot be performed without the consent of the future cloning, unable to give consent because of inexistence for the time being. In this case, cloning could be ethically done, taking into account the moral example of donation of organs of the dead in accident, donation agreed by his/her parents rather than by the accident-victim. But this reasoning does not apply in the case of cloning motivated by commercial interest. But even if this kind of experimentation could be morally accepted, there is still a complementary condition: that there is no pre-visible danger, pain or discomfort caused by the experimentation.Up from the criterion of free will, we enter into the domain properly human and moral. It is on this level, and also on the levels of arguments from excellence and harmony, that we find most of the ethical difficulties of human cloning. For example, in the case of criterion of excellence, all moral excellence are morally valuable when resulted from the decision of human free will and volitional effort. No one could be morally legitimate to conduct human cloning by reason of producing a human being with better human qualities. All human qualities are social and historically determined. One quality considered as good in one time could become bad in another. The biological experimentation conducted under the pretext of producing better human race could be just a sign of tyranny, as in the case of Hitler.As I see it, many actual arguments against human cloning are based upon a social interpretation of the criterion of harmony. For example, that human cloning might be subversive to actual human sexual relationship, parenthood and family system. In my view,although ethical relationship is surely to be disturbed by human cloning, still this is not a sufficient argument against doing it. Because, for example, the argument of conservation could be more urgent and stronger. For me the most important consideration here is the interest of the child. It is of higher interest for the child that he/she be born with the love and care of his parents rather than becoming an object of human technological adventure.Argument of conservation, being supportive of human cloning, could be realized and concretized through an ethical committee authorized by relevant laws to decide in which case and under what condition a particular case of human cloning could be interpreted as suitable for the criterion of conservation. But this enters the domain of legal institution and exceeds our ethical concern in this paper.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 56 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.作為一種法律學說，知情同意在西方社會已經存在多年，並且得到長足的發展。這一學說來源於《紐倫堡法典》。知情同意不僅僅是“法律文件”，也不是醫患“共同決策"，它是具有豐當倫理內涵的一個概念，是一個人實際理解並且真正在沒有他人控制下有意地批准和同意專業人員做某事。中國具有其獨特的文化傳統背景和經濟發展水平，西方國家基於自主的和權利的理論、信念以及方法在中國基於義務的和強調集體的傳統文化中尚缺乏一定的根基。中國文化傳統上的倫理決策是基於義務而不是基於權�的。這種根深蒂岡的傳統所肯定的是社會或者整體的利益，容易忽視的是個人應享有的權利。在中國文化傳統中，家庭和社區具有很強的凝聚力，家庭或社區協助和支持下的知情同意往往建立在更加充分的理解、思考基礎之上。這種知情同意獲得的方式很有價值：更加精緻，更加體現了尊重人的倫理學原則。但是需要注意的是，這種協助不能完全超越自我決定性。另外，社區的“允許”並不等同於個人的“同意”，而且社區的允許也不應該取代個人的同意。另外，目前在中國，臨床藥理試驗，倫理審查委員會（IRBs）制度化，合理的補償與不正當的引誘的區別，基因研究中的知情同意問題以及利益衝突等很多現實問題都需要引起倫理學的關注，並進行大量的研究工作。In Western societies, the idea of informed consent as a legal account has long been there and developed significantly. This idea originated from the "uremberg Code". In fact, informed consent is neither a mere "legal document" nor a "common decision" made by the physician and the patient. It is a concept rich in moral content. It is about how an individual perceives and intentionally (without being controlled by others) agrees and allows professionals to carry out certain actions on him/her.China has a unique traditional cultural background and economic development level. Due to the emphasis on responsibility and collectiveness in Chinese cultural traditions, introducing the Western theory, beliefs, and practice based upon individual autonomy and rights to Chinese society does not have solid foundation. According to Chinese cultural traditions, people consider responsibility instead of rights during making ethical decisions. These deeply-rooted traditions assure the interests of the whole and tend to neglect the rights of the individual. Chinese families and communities have a very strong sense of cohesiveness. With the assistance and support of the family or community, the thinking and understanding of informed consent can be established on a more adequate and solid foundation. This kind of way to get informed consent is very valuable: it is more accurate and can also fulfills the ethical principle of respect. However, the assistance of the family or community should not override individual's autonomy in making decisions. Moreover, community "permission" is not equal to individual "consent". Indeed, it should not replace individual "consent".Contemporary China faces many practical problems, such as clinical medicine testing, establishing Institutional Review Broads (IRBs), differences between reasonable compensation and improper reward, conflict of interests in genetic research as well as the practice of informed consent. They demand ethical attention and a large amount of careful research.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 13 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.複製人實質上就是複製活過或仍活著的人的基因組合。本文嘗試就下列五方面探討體胞核移植法在人類身上的應用所引起的社會倫理問題。（一）基因等同：兩個人是否可以共有同一基因組合？（二）基因歷史：複製者的基因並非是一個新的、獨特的基因組合。這基因曾有的（即被複製者的）歷史對複製者是否有負面影響？（三）基因傳遞方式：無性生殖方式的基因傳遞對複製者是否有負面影響？（四）基因複製風險：複製帶給複製者什麼風險？（五）基因複製權：基因複製權衍生出什麼倫理問題？對全面支持複製科技在人類的應用的論者來說，複製只是另類生殖方法，提供人多一個生殖途徑的選擇。複製對他人並無傷害，對社會沒有負面影響。既或有任何傷害或影響，也都是可以接受的。因此，在一般的情況下，複製人科技不應該遭受社會的禁止。本文的討論顯示這是過度樂觀的看法。以「基因複製產生身分混淆」的反對說法固然不成立。然而，基因通往的歷史，無性生殖的方式，複製初階的風險，以及棘手的基因複製法律問題及由此再衍生的倫理問題等，這些對複製孩子，人倫關係，家庭結構及社會穩定所可能造成的負面衝擊和嚴重傷害是不容忽視的。複製人科技即使可行，也應該在極嚴格的監管下進行。更重要的是，複製人的社會倫理震撼是國際社會的共同關注。因此，複製人的支持者必須對國際社會的深切關注與廣泛責難提供強而有力的證據與回應。在國際社會對複製人仍有極大疑慮時即勿促容許複製人的出現，肯定是極不負責任的做法。To clone or not to clone? Having successfully cloned animals, should we clone human beings or should we ban human cloning? This paper explores some ethical concerns brought on by the possibility of human cloning. The cloning specifically referred to here is the asexual reproduction of a human by somatic cell nuclear transfer.Five concerns are discussed. The first is genetic equivalence and identity. The second is genetic history and individual autonomy. The third is asexual reproduction. The fourth is experimentation risks. The fifth is cloning rights.Genetic-Cloning not Person-CloningOne main objection to human cloning arises from equating genetic reproduction with person reproduction. Because the clone derives his genes from the cloned, it is feared that cloning will make carbon copies of people. Although genetic reproduction will produce clones that resemble the cloned biologically, the two are different persons just as monozygotic twins are. External factors such as the environment, experiences and culture also shape a person. Human cloning will not call back the dead nor immortalise the living. It is in fact genetic cloning but never person cloning. It is not achievement cloning nor virtue cloning. The objection is based on genetic reductionism.Genes with a HistoryHuman cloning is sometimes equated with producing monozygotic twins. However the two are not the same because of the significant age difference between the clone and its cloned. Although identical twins share the same genes, their development is an unknown and full of possibilities as is the case for all newborn. Their future is open because their genetic make-up is, practically speaking, unique. However, in the case of the clone, its genes have a known history. The pre-existence of the genes will assert itself on the clone in one way or another. In the first place, the clone's corning into existence was not 'spontaneous' nor 'open' as in newborn by birth. It cannot claim as other humans can: "I am me." The clone is created in the image of the cloned and inevitably lives in its shadow. Its identity is being infringed upon by the history of its genes.The pre-existence of the genes also constitutes a violation of the privacy of the clone. Because the cloned has lived before it, the secrets of the clone's genes are opened for all to see. The clone of Stephen Hawking would thus lose its genetic confidentially if he had cloned himself at the age of twenty before knowing his genetic problem. His clone will be what he is twenty years later.The pre-existence of the genes also renders possible their commodification or commercialisation.Asexual ReproductionIn nature's way, the inception of a new life occurs in the embrace and sexual union of man and woman, which is the culmination of the love between them. The new life is conceived and born out of an I-Thou relationship of love and commitment. The clone in an asexual reproduction is a product of technology rather than a gift within personal union. It is deprived of its right to having a biological father and a biological mother.Moreover, cloning also assaults the traditional concept of parenthood and radically threatens the stability of family.Cloning RisksThe high failure rate in cloning Dolly indicates clearly the much higher risks involved in human cloning. Malformed embryos will be produced and destroyed under current practice.Malformed embryos have been inadequately justified by the proponents of human cloning on three grounds: that there are always unavoidable experimentation failures, that there are also risks in normal pregnancies and that the embryos have no moral rights before coming into existence. These justifications are found to be wanting. Moreover, to many who advocate respect for Iife, including the life of embryos, it is morally wrong to destroy embryos.Furthermore there is the risk of malformed clones even though its can be reduced by the destruction of malformed embryos. The defects number of cloning are not fully known until years later or even a generation later. In the early stage of cloning development the clones remain objects of experiment throughout their entire lives. They have to live always under the threat of some possible adverse effect of cloning. This is morally unacceptable.Cloning RightsThe issue of cloning rights can be complicated. Who has the right to cloning? Do parents have the right to clone a child? Will they only be able to exercise the right jointly or can they do so seperately? What happens when they are divorced? Will they forfeit this right when the child comes of age? Who owns the frozen embryo cloned earlier? Will the parents' right be an infringement on the person's right? Can they stop her from cloning herself? Can one clone more than a dozen of oneself? Does the right to clone entail patent right? Is the right to clone transferable or tradable?It has often been assumed that the decision of cloning is entirely the parents' as the clone before coming into existence has no moral status. However in the case of cloning a child, is it necessary to have the consent of the child even though she is a minor? Are the parents guardians or pirates of her genome?To Clone or Not to CloneOne must also bear in mind that the concept of reproductive right used by the proponents is very much a western concept and is at best a negative right which should not be placed above the right of the clone.The answer to the question "To clone or not to clone?" is not a straight forward one. Human cloning will pose challenges in the realms of technology, law, society, morality, philosophy and religion. The most pressing question is not whether there is a case that can be justified for human cloning. It is rather whether our society has enough moral wisdom, courage and strength to guide the development and application of advancing science and technology including the possibility of human cloning. Before we can come to grips with the issues facing us, we should proceed with great care.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 22 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

摘要 改革开放以来，浙江金村农民在市场经济中迅速崛起并发生深刻的阶层分化。物质消费档次和闲暇圈子成为人们阶层、身份、品位和面子的表达符号，并进一步演化为“二次分化”的隐蔽机制。在青年家庭中，由消费期待与支付能力之间的张力引发的地位焦虑，经由代际关系分散转移到父代家庭。为了支持子代家庭的体面维持和地位改善，父代家庭自愿地进行自我闲暇剥削，金村从事卖菜、帮工、念经的中老年妇女就是这一群体的代表，与中上层家庭构成的有闲阶层相对应，金村出现了一个无闲阶层。村落社会中的经济生活分层经由消费竞争机制、代际支持机制和闲暇圈子机制生产出文化交往分层，进一步将同一村落的村民区隔开来。

Abstract Chinese agriculture has undergone a quiet transformation in the past fifteen years. The “old agriculture” of grain, cotton, and oil crops has seen a tremendous rise in uses of machinery (and also farm chemicals) to save labor. At the same time, the capital and labor dual-intensifying “new agriculture” of higher-value products—vegetables, fruit, meat, poultry, fish—has expanded greatly. These changes have been accompanied by substantial declines in the number of people working in agriculture. Together, the changes add up to a high degree of “capitalization” (i.e., increased capital inputs per unit labor) in Chinese agriculture. This article presents detailed quantitative evidence for these commonly neglected changes. Contrary to conventional assumptions, the capitalization has been powered principally by peasant household investments, more than state or capitalist firm investments. This fact points to the need to rely more on peasant initiative in the future, by providing greater state guidance and support for peasant family farm-based endeavors, rather than strongly favoring “dragon head” enterprises as in the past decade. (This article is in English.) 摘要 过去15年间，中国农业经历了悄然但巨大的变化。“旧农业”（粮食、棉花、油料作物）大量使用机械及农药以节约劳动。与此同时，资本与劳动双密集的“新农业”（主要是高产值的蔬菜、水果、肉、禽、鱼）有着极大的发展。这些变化是伴随农业就业人员数的持续下降而来的。结果是中国农业显著的“资本化”（亦即，单位劳动力资本投入的增加）。对于这些普遍被忽视的事实，本文将给出详细的量化证据。 与通常的假设不同，中国农业资本化主要是由农户投资推动的，其总量比国家和农业企业公司的投资还要大。这一事实的重要意义在于，未来中国农业的发展，需更注重和依赖农户的能动作用。国家需对农民家庭的经营行为给予更大的服务和扶持，不应像过去十年间那样，一味将政策支持倾斜于“龙头企业”。

随着现代医学技术的高速发展，单一性别的女性护理队伍格局也随之改变，男护士逐渐登上了护理岗位的舞台。男护士面临着很多障碍，因为对中国的人民群众来说，“男护士”还是一个崭新的词汇，因为传统观念的影响、社会舆论的压力以及家庭因素，导致男护士很难长期从事护理岗位，更不会把护理职业作为人生的职业规划目标。如果医院缺乏对男护士的长期培养以及优化晋升机制，护理管理者的管理能力低下，男护士的职业发展得不到支持，会导致其对职业的怠慢，也会导致严重的离职倾向。因此，如何更好地发挥男护士的力量，是对临床护理管理者提出的新的挑战。论文论述了男护士职业发展方向及规划，对男护士的管理进行了探讨，以期为推动男护士的发展提供依据。