Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „Women – history – early works to 1800“

Marriage and the English Reformation. By Eric Josef Carlson. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. Pp. ix+276. ISBN 0-631-16864-8. £45.00Gender, sex and subordination in England, 1550–1800. By Anthony Fletcher. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995. Pp. xxii+442. ISBN 0-300-06531-0. £19.95.Domestic dangers: women, words, and sex in early modern London. By Laura Gowing. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. Pp. 301. ISBN 0-19-820517-1. £35.00.The prospect before her: a history of women in western Europe, Volume one, 1500–1800. By Olwen Hufton. London: HarperCollins, 1995. Pp. xiv+654. ISBN 0-00255120-9. £25.00.Sex and subjection: attitudes to women in early modern society. By Margaret R. Sommerville. London: Edward Arnold, 1995. Pp. 287. ISBN 0-340-64574-1. £14.99.

Ann Radcliffe’s novels were extremely popular in early nineteenth-century Russia. Publication of her work in Russian translation propelled the so-called gothic wave of 1800-10. Yet, many of the works Radcliffe was known for in Russia were not written by her; rather, they were works by others that were attributed to Radcliffe. This article traces the publication and translation histories of Radcliffiana on the Russian book market of 1800-20. Building on JoEllen DeLucia’s concept of a “corporate Radcliffe” in the anglophone world, this article proposes a Russian corporate Radcliffe. Identifying, classifying, and analysing the provenance of Russian corporate Radcliffe works reveals insight into the transnational circulation of texts and the role of copyright law within it, the nature of the early nineteenth-century Russian book market, the rise of popular reading and advertising in Russia, and the gendered nature of critical discourse at this time. The Russian corporate Radcliffe assures the legacy and influence of Radcliffe in later Russian literature and culture, although a Radcliffe that represents much more than just the English author. Exploring the Russian corporate Radcliffe expands our understanding of early nineteenth-century Russian literary history through specific case studies that demonstrate the significant role played by both women writers and translation, an aspect of this history that is often overlooked.

Abstract At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, along with myriad other foundational changes taking place in China, attitudes to the role and significance of women and animals were also changing. This evolution is apparent in the artistic realm where both had featured in imperial-era Chinese art for centuries and continued to appear in the new Republic after 1911. This article examines animals and their paired depiction with women within one genre of art – the Baimei tu (One hundred beauties) – as it evolved from the late 1800s until the end of the 1910s. An examination of the works of leading commercial artists of this form reveals the importance of animals in the creation of a gendered modernity for China’s Republic – one that established a clear hierarchy of men over women. This article argues that the species-ist othering of animals was integral to the othering of women in the early Republican world of commercial art. It contributes to the literature on human-animal studies that shows the links between species-ism and sexism through the identical processes of variously othering animals and women. Identifying animals and women as special and different, reinforces a species hierarchy that places humans above other animals and a sex hierarchy that places men above women.

RÉSUMÉLe principal objectif de cet article est d’encourager une approche plus large, supraconfessionnelle, du mariage et de la famille à l’époque moderne. La conjugalité a été “désacralisée” par les réformateurs protestants du 16e siècle. Martin Luther, parmi d’autres, a refusé le statut de sacrement au mariage, tout en valorisant celui-ci comme une arme contre le péché. En réaction, le concile de Trente a réaffirmé avec force que le mariage est bien un des sept sacrements chrétiens. Mais, promouvant la supériorité du célibat, l’Église catholique n’a jamais beaucoup insisté sur les vertus de la vie et de la piété familiales avant le 19e siècle. En parallèle, les historiens décèlent des signes de “sacralisation” de la famille protestante à partir du 16e siècle. Leurs conclusions doivent être relativisées à la lumière de recherches plus récentes et plus critiques, centrées sur les rapports et les représentations de genre. Elles peuvent néanmoins inspirer une étude élargie et comparative, inexistante dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, des réalités et des perceptions de la famille chrétienne au-delà des frontières confessionnelles.MOTS-CLÉ: Époque Moderne, mariage, famille, protestantisme, Concile de TrenteABSTRACTThe main purpose of this paper is to encourage a broader supra-confessional approach to the history of marriage and the family in the Early Modern era. Wedlock was “desacralized” by the Protestant reformers of the 16th century. Martin Luther, among others, denied the sacramental status of marriage but valued it as a weapon against sin. In reaction, the Council of Trent reinforced marriage as one of the seven sacraments. But the Catholic Church, which promoted the superiority of celibacy, did little to defend the virtues of family life and piety before the 19th century. In parallel, historians have identified signs of a “sacralization” of the Protestant family since the 16th century. These findings must be relativized in the light of newer and more critical studies on gender relations and representations. But they can still inspire a broader comparative study, non-existent in traditional confessional historiography, of the realities and perceptions of the Christian family beyond denominational borders.KEY WORDS: Early Modern Christianity, marriage, family, Protestantism, Council of Trent BIBLIOGRAPHIEAdair, R., Courtship, Illegitimacy and Marriage in Early Modern England, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1996.Beaulande-Barraud, V., “Sexualité, mariage et procréation. Discours et pratiques dans l’Église médiévale (XIIIe-XVe siècles)”, dans Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24, Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2017, pp. 19-29.Bels, P., Le mariage des protestants français jusqu’en 1685. 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Essays in Honour of Steven Ozment, St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2005.Forster, M. R., “Domestic Devotions and Family Piety in German Catholicism”, inForster, M. R., Kaplan, B. J., (coords.), Piety and Family in Early Modern Europe. Essays in Honour of Steven Ozment, St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2005, pp. 97-114.François W., & Soen, V. (coords.), The Council of Trent: Reform and Controversy in Europe and Beyond, 1545-1700, Göttingen, Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2018.Gautier, S., “Mariages de pasteurs dans le Saint-Empire luthérien: de la question de l’union des corps à la formation d’un corps pastoral ‘exemplaire et plaisant à Dieu’”, dans Christin, O., & Krumenacker, Y., (coords.), Les protestants à l’époque moderne. Une approche anthropologique, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, pp. 505-517.Gautier, S., “Identité, éloge et image de soi dans les sermons funéraires des foyers pastoraux luthériens aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles”, Europa moderna. Revue d’histoire et d’iconologie, n. 3 (2012), pp. 54-71.Goody, J., The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe, Cambridge, 1983; L’évolution de la famille et du mariage en Europe, Paris, Armand Colin, 1985/2012.Hacker, P., Faith in Luther. Martin Luther and the Origin of Anthropocentric Religion, Emmaus Academic, 2017.Harrington, J. F., Reordering Marriage and Society in Reformation Germany, Cambridge, 1995.Hendrix, S. H., & Karant-Nunn, S. C., (coords.), Masculinity in the Reformation Era, Kirksville, Truman State University Press, 2008.Hendrix, S. H., “Christianizing Domestic Relations: Women and Marriage in Johann Freder’s Dialogus dem Ehestand zu ehren”, Sixteenth Century Journal, 23 (1992), pp. 251-266.Ingram, M., Church Courts. Sex and Marriage in England 1570-1640, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987.Jacobsen, G., “Women, Marriage and magisterial Reformation: the case of Malmø”, in Sessions, K. C., & Bebb, P. N., (coords.), Pietas et Societas: New Trends in Reformation Social History, Kirksville, Sixteenth Century Journal Press, 1985, pp. 57-78.Jedin, H., Crise et dénouement du concile de Trente, Paris, Desclée, 1965.Jelsma, A., “‘What Men and Women are meant for’: on marriage and family at the time of the Reformation”, in Jelsma, A., Frontiers of the Reformation. Dissidence and Orthodoxy in Sixteenth Century Europe, Ashgate, 1998, Routledge, 2016, EPUB, chapter 8.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “Une oeuvre de chair: l’acte sexuel en tant que liberté chrétienne dans la vie et la pensée de Martin Luther”, dans Christin, O., &Krumenacker, Y., (coords.), Les protestants à l’époque moderne. Une approche anthropologique, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, pp. 467-485.Karant-Nunn, S. C., The Reformation of Feeling: Shaping the Religious Emotions in Early Modern Germany, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “The emergence of the pastoral family in the German Reformation: the parsonage as a site of socio-religious change”, in Dixon, C. S., & Schorn-Schütte, L., (coords.), The Protestant Clergy of Early Modern Europe, Basingstoke, Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003, pp. 79-99.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “Reformation Society, Women and the Family”, in Pettegree, A., (coord.), The Reformation World, London/New York, Routledge, 2000, pp. 433-460.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “Marriage, Defenses of”, in Hillerbrand, H. J., (coord.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, vol. 2, p. 24.Kingdon, R., Adultery and Divorce in Calvin’s Geneva, Harvard University Press, 1995.Krumenacker, Y., “Protestantisme: le mariage n’est plus un sacrement”, dans Mariages, catalogue d’exposition, Archives municipales de Lyon, Lyon, Olivétan, 2017.Le concile de Trente, 2e partie (1551-1563), vol. XI de l’Histoire des conciles oecuméniques, Paris, (Éditions de l’Orante, 1981), Fayard, 2005, pp. 441-455.Les Decrets et Canons touchant le mariage, publiez en la huictiesme session du Concile de Trente, souz nostre sainct pere le Pape Pie quatriesme de ce nom, l’unziesme iour de novembre, 1563, Paris, 1564.Luther, M., “Sermon sur l’état conjugal”, dans OEuvres, I, Paris, Gallimard/La Pléiade, 1999, pp. 231-240.Luther, M., “Du mariage”, dans Prélude sur la captivité babylonienne de l’Église (1520), dans OEuvres, vol. I, édition publiée sous la direction de M. Lienhard et M. Arnold, Paris, Gallimard/La Pléiade, 1999, pp. 791-805.Luther, M., De la vie conjugale, dans OEuvres, I, Paris, Gallimard/La Pléiade, 1999, pp. 1147-1179.Mentzer, R., “La place et le rôle des femmes dans les Églises réformées”, Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 113 (2001), pp. 119-132.Morgan, E. S., The Puritan Family. Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England, (1944), New York, Harper, 1966.O’Reggio, T., “Martin Luther on Marriage and Family”, 2012, Faculty Publications, Paper 20, Andrews University, http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/church-history-pubs/20. (consulté le 15 décembre 2018).Ozment, S., When Fathers Ruled. Family Life in Reformation Europe, Studies in Cultural History, Harvard University Press, 1983.Reynolds, P. L., How Marriage became One of the Sacrements. The Sacramental Theology of Marriage from the Medieval Origins to the Council of Trent, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2016/2018.Roper, L., Martin Luther. 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A Comparative Study, 1550-1600, Kirksville, Sixteenth Century Journal Press, 1984.Seidel Menchi, S., (coord.), Marriage in Europe 1400-1800, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2016.Stone, L., The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800, New York, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1977.Strauss, G., Luther’s House of Learning, Baltimore/London, 1978.Thomas, R., “Éduquer au mariage par l’image dans les Provinces-Unies du XVIIe siècle: les livres illustrés de Jacob Cats”, Les Cahiers du Larhra, dossier sur Images et Histoire, 2012, pp. 113-144.Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24,Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2017.Walch, A., La spiritualité conjugale dans le catholicisme français, XVIe-XXe siècle, Paris, Le Cerf, 2002.Watt, J. R., The Making of Modern Marriage: Matrimonial Control and the Rise of Sentiment in Neuchâtel, Ithaca, 1992.Weis, M., “La ‘Sainte Famille’ inexistante? Le mariage selon le concile de Trente (1563) et à l’époque des Réformes”, dans Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24, Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université deBruxelles, 2017, pp. 31-40.Westphal, S., Schmidt-Voges, I., & Baumann, A., (coords.), Venus und Vulcanus. Ehe und ihre Konflikte in der Frühen Neuzeit, München, Oldenbourg Verlag, 2011.Wiesner, M. E., Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge, 1993.Wiesner, M. E., “Studies of Women, the Family and Gender”, in Maltby, W. S., (coord.), Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research, Saint Louis, 1992, pp. 181-196.Wiesner-Hanks, M. E., “Women”, in Hillerbrand, H. J., (coord.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, vol. 4, pp. 290-298.Williams, G. H., The Radical Reformation, (1962), 3e ed., Truman State University Press, 2000, pp. 755-798Wunder, H., “He is the Sun. She is the Moon”: Women in Early Modern Germany, Harvard University Press, 1998.Yates, W., “The Protestant View of Marriage”, Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 22 (1985), pp. 41-54.

This article discusses the reception of Kepler’s work in the earliest interpretations of the history of astronomy, which appeared in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The focus is not on the reception of Kepler’s work among astronomers themselves but instead on its significance for the history of science as seen by early historians of mathematics and astronomy. The first section discusses the evaluation of Kepler in the so-called “Prefatory Histories” of astronomy that appeared in various astronomical works during the seventeenth century. In these, Kepler was considered mainly to be the person who brought the work of Tycho Brahe to completion, rather than an original astronomer. The second section is devoted to the evaluation of Kepler in interpretations of the history of astronomy that appeared in the eighteenth century (often as part of the history of mathematics). In these works, Kepler is regarded as a genius who deserves tremendous credit for the advancement of the human spirit. Both sections also devote attention to Copernicus and Tycho Brahe because this facilitates the explanation of how Kepler’s contribution was judged. By studying the reception of Johannes Kepler’s work, we may gain greater insight into the transition from a cyclical perception of the history of science to the progressive model.

Swedish Literature as World Literature in the Nineteenth Century. Top Selling Novels by Women Writers So far, Swedish literary history has been the construction of a nation’s cultural heritage based on certain authorships. This most certainly was the case when the history of the Swedish nineteenth-century novel was written. In textbooks, the important writers before Strindberg and Lagerlöf are Carl Jonas Love Almqvist and Viktor Rydberg. Sometimes a couple of female novelists are included, such as Fredrika Bremer and Emilie Flygare-Carlén. The actual circulation of Swedish novels in translation shows another picture. While Bremer and Flygare-Carlén, together with Marie Sophie Schwartz, were very popular novelists in both Europe and the United States, Almqvist’s and Rydberg’s novels reached very few readers outside of Scandinavia. This article aims to examine the export of Swedish novels in the nineteenth century. Statistics based on the SWED database, constructed in connection to the research project Swedish Women Writers on Export in the Nineteenth Century, is used to describe the distribution of Swedish novels across borders and their translation into different target languages. Similarities and dissimilarities in distribution and reception will be discussed, as well as some of the reasons behind these differences. The number of translated titles, as well as the transcultural circulation of the three most translated and top-selling novelists, Bremer, Flygare-Carlén and Schwartz, are compared to the circulation of Almqvist’s and Rydberg’s translated works. Based on these comparisons, it becomes obvious that if the history of Swedish literature were written from a transcultural perspective based on the contemporary audience’s choice of literary works and writers, it would look very different from the nation-based literary history of today. For example, Almqvist and Rydberg would be edged out by female novelists such as Bremer,Flygare-Carlén, and Schwartz.

In essence, this article will focus on the subject classical Malay fiqh works 1600-1800. Classical Malay fiqh works are Malay intellectual works produced by Malay Muslim scholars in various topics of Islamic law including worship (ibadah), commercial transaction law (muamalah), family law (munakahat) and others. This fiqh Malay work played an important role in Malay society at the beginning of Islamic development in the Malay world. It is a means of communication, scientific knowledge or developmental science. The premise of this article analyzes the writing of fiqh works that developed in the early days of the great intellectual nature of the Malay world. There are features of fiqh writing in the year 1600 and it is different from the features of fiqh writing in 1700 and 1800. The discussion of this writing includes the difference between the writing text and the style of writing fiqh and being reviewed from various scopes, items and writing features. The method of analysis used is the method of historiography or historicalism which examines the development of an idea. Facts obtained will be thoroughly screened using the Malay induction history approach. Research shows that the earliest classic Malay fiqh writing has its own identity and superiority and is a Malay intellectual work.

Contemporary bereaved parents who usually lack prior experience with the death of an infant or young child also lack understanding of how parents reacted in previous centuries when a child died. This article reviews social science writing on parental bereavement in Anglo-American history, concluding that parents as early as the early seventeenth century have left records of their grief. Cultural understanding and customs surrounding death have changed, and around 1800 women began to leave records of their grief in letters and diaries. Emotional expressiveness following infant death was greatest during the nineteenth century, but decreased toward the end of the century and became taboo in the twentieth. Compared to men's, expressions of grief by women and writings directed toward women have been more expressive of emotion. Relatively little has been written about parental bereavement in the early and mid-twentieth century.

Social historians have demonstrated that although men comprised the majority of teachers in North Carolina schools and academies during the early national period, women predominated by the end of the nineteenth century. This study concludes that among the music teachers who taught in academies and venture schools, women gained a majority decades earlier. In an effort to understand some of the underlying social processes that contributed to this shift, the following discussion analyzes the changing proportion of men and women in a sample of 65 music teachers, tracks the tuition they charged in a free market, and compares this to the tuition charged by teachers of Latin and Greek. The shift to women among music teachers in North Carolina presents an intriguing case, because it does not fit well with some earlier theoretical models of feminization among nineteenth-century teachers. The data suggest that women came to predominate among music teachers because a changing market for music instruction in venture schools and academies triggered a process of occupational abandonment and succession.

AbstractThis paper investigates comparison as a fundamental practice within the early life sciences. Four episodes are selected that show how comparing species works in the early 19th century and how it builds bridges between scientific and literary culture: comparing living organisms in pre-Darwinian natural history (Lacépède, Treviranus), comparing species distribution in actualistic geology (Lyell), comparing organs in comparative anatomy (Müller), and – last but not least – comparing social classes in new literary genres such as sketch, ‘Paris physiology’, or travel feuilleton.

In our universities, many places have names after great scholars of all times. For example, in our region,we find: Place Montesquieu, Auditorium Erasmus, Justus Lipsius Straat, etc. A small minority of places are named after women. This is true in any country. Now, more and more universities adopt the following political statement: increasing the visibility of women in the public domain is one of the possible levers to promote equality between women and men. To help administrators of European Universities in this task, we provide here a list ofwomen who were either professors at a university or member of an science academy before the year 1800. These women from the past started to blaze the trail, and it is to them that we must look for inspiration. This list is an updated version of the appendix to our paper David de la Croix, Mara Vitale, Women in European academia before 1800 — religion, marriage, and human capital, European Review of Economic History, 2023;, heac023, https://doi.org/10.1093/ereh/heac023

After some decades of historical debate about the early modern Atlantic, it has become a truism that the Atlantic may better be understood as a world of connections rather than as a collection of isolated national sub-empires. Likewise, it is commonly accepted that the study of this interconnected Atlantic world should be interdisciplinary, going beyond traditional economic and political history to include the study of the circulation of people and cultures. This view was espoused and expanded upon in the issue of Itinerario on the nature of Atlantic history published thirteen years ago—the same issue in which Pieter Emmer and Wim Klooster famously asserted that there was no Dutch Atlantic empire. Since this controversial article appeared, there has been a resurgence of interest among scholars about the role of the Dutch in the Atlantic. With Atlantic history continuing to occupy a prominent place in Anglo-American university history departments, it seems high time to appraise the output of this resurgence of interest with an historiographical essay reviewing the major works and trends in the study of the Dutch in the Atlantic.

Abstract This article discusses a number of scholarly trends that fall under the rubric of global history, with particular regard for those that address the early modern period (c.1400–1800). It stresses the rubric’s lack of coherence from both a methodological and ideological perspective. Most importantly, it revisits longstanding debates about the intersection of microanalysis and global history by assessing landmark works by Italian microhistorians, scholars of the so-called great divergence, and historians of climate and the environment. In so doing, it also asks how recent contributions build on insights that classic studies had already yielded – at least on the margins of the profession – beginning in the 1970s.

New evidence from Flanders and the Netherlands demonstrates that age heaping was gradually diminishing in large parts of the Low Countries during the sixteenth century, that (unexpectedly) almost no gender gap was apparent in the change (women even outperforming men at times), and that differences between town and countryside were small. These findings suggest an early rise in numeracy (or at least a “number sense”) in both urban and rural areas, linked to demographic change and commercial development. Between 1600 and 1800, Flanders, in particular, seems to have lost its strong distinctiveness in this regard.

The numbers of women writers of the early modern Spain currently identified have risen to over five hundred, with their writings catalogued and systematized by the Spanish data base Biblioteca de Escritoras Españolas (BIESES). The data base’s findings demonstrate the kinds of genres women writers selected, and includes archival documents, correspondence, and other kinds of documentation that reveal much more biographical information than previously obtained. What has yet to be studied more in depth, however, is the social status of the writers, as social origins were a crucial means of identifying one’s self, both from a psychological perspective as well as within society. This article examines the social stratification of writers to weigh their contributions, and arrives at the conclusion that while non-noble women tended to dedicate their time to writing literary works, whether poems, theater, or prose fiction; the few women of the titled nobility who wrote instead authored non-literary works such as correspondence and treatises that allowed them to participate significantly in political crises of the time.

Apart from a few outstanding people from before 1850, British women of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who published work in the chemical sciences have not received much attention so far. The university-trained women who, from about 1880 onwards, authored or co-authored an increasing number of original research contributions have been largely ignored, and their names are for the most part omitted from biographical reference works and science histories. There are several works describing the changes and developments in university-level education for women during this period, but these are not specially concerned with science education or with the careers of individuals.

AbstractNineteenth and early twentieth-century criticism oftentimes tended to lump literary works on the topic of women from the middle ages and early modern times as either essentially misogynist or feminist. Moral-didactic works that often fluctuated between antifeminist and profeminist opinion were often categorized as misogynist, akin to works such as Boccaccio's Corbaccio. This is the case of Francesc Eiximenis' Catalan literature, written for the most part in València. The authors of this study analyzed Eiximenis' views on women, for the most part taken from biblical, patristic, scholastic, and canonical sources, and found within his writings various contradictions. In this study, Eiximenis emerges as one who readily cited antifeminist literature, but who also defended women, whom he views as weaker than men, but equally if not more capable of being devout, performing good works, and most importantly, worthy of salvation.

This work is devoted to a very little-studied topic of the Virginia Slave Conspiracy led by Gabriel and is the first study of this issue in Russian historiography. The present article analyzes in detail the causes and prerequisites of the failed uprising of 1800. At the same time, the author relies on the published materials of the trial and the works of leading Western researchers. The first part is devoted directly to the history of studying this issue. Using historical-genetic and retrospective methods, the author traces the influence of foreign policy, domestic political, social, economic, demographic, socio-cultural factors on the formation of a socially explosive situation in Virginia by 1800, and also identifies a number of subjective reasons and prerequisites for a slave conspiracy, such as: motives of personal revenge and banal miscalculations of the authorities who did not take proper measures. At the same time, the main emphasis is on comparing approaches and substantiating the complex of causes and prerequisites in Western historiography. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that in the case of Gabriel's conspiracy, it is not just about a failed uprising, but about the emergence in Virginia of the late XVIII – early XIX centuries of a real revolutionary situation, the formation of which was facilitated by a combination of interrelated factors. The results of the research conducted in this article can be used in research and teaching activities related to the study of American history and the history of the African-American people (Black History).

Abstract In this paper, we are going to demonstrate that the writings of Russian travelers of the early 19th century laid the foundation of a discourse of Slavism. The travelers stopped perceiving the Balkans as part of the Near East and began considering them as ‘Ours’. This allowed the Russians to assert their identity within the boundaries of the European community while simultaneously separating themselves from the Roman-Germanic “West”. We examined four different types of descriptions of the Balkans by Russian travelers of the 1800–1830s. The authors’ approaches to these narratives were either orientalist or Slavic in nature. Works written in the framework of Orientalism are often characterized by the view of the Balkans as the land of the past, and travels perceived the Balkans as the antithesis of Russia, which they saw as being part of the West. Discourse of Slavism was fundamentally different from Orientalism. Firstly, it replaced the East-West binary relationship with a West-Russia-East triptych. Secondly, it sought to equate Russia and the Slavs. The travelers of the 3rd group were the first to discover a way to reconcile with the “backwards” past within the West-Russia-East triptych. Fourthly, Venelin verbalized a new paradigm in Russia’s description of the Balkans. He was the first to consider Russia as the center of the Slavic world, as opposed to the wild European periphery.

The article examines two works by Frances Burney: her debut novel Evelina (1778) and one of her later plays The Woman-Hater (1800–1802) as appropriations of and returns to the tropes present in William Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale (1623). The investigations explore Burney's particular interest in the roles allotted to women within familial sociability at the turn of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries while the adaptive strategies employed by her are scrutinised to highlight their potential of questioning the existing social paradigms and power structures. The conclusions show that the literary dialogue into which Burney entered with earlier authors both reflected and prompted social change occurring at the time of the production of the novel and the play.

Beamish Murdoch (1800–76) was a young man when the first of the four volumes of hisEpitome of the Laws of Nova-Scotiarolled off Joseph Howe's press at Halifax in the spring of 1832. He was an old man when the first installment of his three-volumeHistory of Nova-Scotia, or Acadieappeared under James Barnes's imprint in the spring of 1865. These two works have received surprisingly disparate attention in the century since Murdoch's death. Today it is Murdoch the historian who is well known: No treatment of nineteenth-century Canadian historiography would omit reference to hisHistory. Murdoch's contributions to literary and political life, as editor of theAcadian Magazineand member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1826 to 1830, have also attracted attention. Murdoch the lawyer and legal treatise-writer, by contrast, is virtually unknown in both professional and legal academic circles, even in his home province. Until recently the Epitome has attracted virtually no scholarly attention of any kind.

Three vernacular religious biographies were written by women about other women around the year 1300: Agnes of Harcourt's FrancienVie d'Isabelle de France(ca. 1283), Felipa of Porcelet's ProvençalVida de la benaurada sancta Doucelina(begun ca. 1297), and Marguerite of Oingt's Franco-ProvençalVia seiti Biatrix virgina de Ornaciu(between 1303 and 1310). Although a limited number of similar texts had been composed in Latin dating back to the early Middle Ages, and a few twelfth-century women such as Clemence of Barking had refashioned existing Latin lives of early female martyr-saints into Anglo-Norman verse, the works of Agnes, Felipa, and Marguerite are the first extant vernacular biographies to have been written by European women about other contemporary women. Just as strikingly, after the three examples studied here, few if any analogous works appeared until the later fifteenth century, with most writing by women about other religious women in the intervening period instead being found in “Sister Books” and convent chronicles.

About seven years ago the journalItinerarioissued a special volume on theAncien Régimein India and Indonesia that carried the papers presented at the third Cambridge-Leiden-Delhi-Yogyakarta conference. The aim of the conference was a comparative one in which state-formation, trading net-works and socio-political aspects of Islam were the major topics. Thumbing through the pages of this issue (while preparing this essay) I had the impression that the results of the conference went beyond its initial comparative goals. Directly or indirectly, several papers stressed that during the early-modern phase India and Indonesia were still part of a cultural continuum that was only gradually broken up by the ongoing process of European expansion during the nineteenth century. It appeared that even after the earlier course of so-called ‘Indianisation’ – a designation that unjustly conveys an Indian ‘otherness’ – India and the Archipelago shared many characteristics, especially in terms of their political and religious orientation. More importantly, these shared traits were shaped by highly mobile groups of traders, pilgrims and courtiers who criss-crossed the Bay of Bengal, traversing both the lands above and below the winds.

Women’s rights and fate have always been a significant issue. In the article, the author reviews the gender issues in human history and analyzes the literary theoretical and historical aspects of the problem of women in Kazakh society of the early 20th century with the help of Kazakh intellectuals’ works which were written to solve the problems of women, and literary works and journalistic articles of that time. The Kazakh people valued the role of women, therefore, paid a lot of attention on the upbringing, behavior of a girl and planned her general life. There were times when a Kazakh woman rode a horse, fought the enemy and ruled the country wisely. But over time, the issue of women in Kazakh society has become more complicated. At the beginning of the 20th century, Alash intellectuals, who understood the importance of gender issues in Kazakh society, wrote special articles and works of art to influence people’s consciousness. It was disseminated to the public through the media. The first novel in Kazakh literature was dedicated to the issue of women. Women’s civil rights and their place in society began to find a positive solution in the early 20th century with the intervention of Alash activists. In the research article we analyzed M. Dulatuly’s «Bakytsyz Zhamal» (Poor Zhamal), Zh. Aimauytov’s «Akbilek» novels, also M. Auezov, M. Zhumabayev, N. Kulzhanova’s journalistic articles. In this article, the author examines the origins of the struggle for women’s equality in the early 20th century, and the specific actions of Kazakh intellectuals to protect women’s civil rights. The study is based on historical data and literary and journalistic works. The results of the hard struggle is proven by the works written in that period.

The article focuses on the study of the dogmatic works of Heinrich Klee (1800–1840) in relation to his criticism and reception of contemporary philosophical systems. The dogmatic theology of Heinrich Klee is a little-studied page in the history of Catholic religious thought in the first half of the 19th century, yet for his contemporaries Klee was a significant thinker, and his theology was the subject of active discussion. The works of Klee are known to have been criticized more than once in connection with the possible borrowing of philosophical ideas in his dogmatic theology. This criticism, however, was taken for granted, without being corroborated by any specific study of his texts – a fault the present article seeks to amend. The article attempts to fit the theology of Heinrich Klee into a philosophical context and analyze the philosophical principles in his theology. In the conclusions of the article, we highlight the tendencies and features of the use of philosophical concepts characteristic for Klee and emphasize the breadth and variety of philosophical trends he was debating. The article uses specific examples to demonstrate that, while openly criticizing such сelebrities as Hegel, Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Klee not only embraced their philosophical language but also borrowed their foundational ideas. In the article, it was demonstrated with specific examples that, openly criticizing such authors as Hegel, Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher, he perceives not only the philosophical language of these authors, but also borrows their system-forming ideas. At the same time, his theological thought moved within the strict framework of the Catholic concept of the objectivity of divine Revelation and the authority of the Church. The article sheds light not only on some of the philosophical and theological positions of a particular theologian of the early 19th century, but also on the discussion about the degree of philosophical foundation of theological constructions in the modern era as a whole.

This article is devoted to the different roles played by women in the seventeenth-century Spanish army. As the issue of the presence of women in pre-industrial armies has not received much attention among researchers, the problem is still presented according to stereotypes shaped by nineteenth-century historiography and the early works of military historians. In their light, women in the armies of the early modern era assumed at best the role of servants, laundresses, cooks or offered sexual services. More recent works by historians of social military history, however, shed a completely different light on the issue, showing them not only as actively participating in army life, but also as taking up arms or seeking help for themselves and their soldiers’ orphans after the war. In this article, I will present the three roles of women that emerge from the sources – woman in armed combat, widow and mother – for the seventeenth-century Spanish army.

Outrageous women, outrageous god. Women in the first two generations of Christianity. By Ross Saunders. Pp. x+182. Alexandria, NSW: E. J. Dwyer, 1996. $10 (paper). 0 85574 278 XMontanism. Gender, authority and the new prophecy. By Christine Trevett. Pp. xiv+299. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. £37.50. 0 521 41182 3God's Englishwomen. Seventeenth-century radical sectarian writing and feminist criticism. By Hilary Hinds. Pp. vii+264. Manchester–New York: Manchester University Press, 1996. £35 (cloth), £14.99 (paper). 0 7190 4886 9; 0 7190 4887 7Women and religion in medieval and Renaissance Italy. Edited by Daniel Bornstein and Roberto Rusconi, translated by Margery J. Schneider. (Women in Culture and Society.) Pp. x+334 incl. 11 figs. Chicago–London: The University of Chicago Press, 1996. (first publ. as Mistiche e devote nell'Italia tardomedievale, Liguori Editore, 1992). £39.95 ($50) (cloth), £13.50 ($16.95) (paper). 0 226 06637 1; 0 226 06639 8The virgin and the bride. Idealized womanhood in late antiquity. By Kate Cooper. Pp. xii+180. Cambridge, Mass.–London: Harvard University Press, 1996. £24.95. 0 674 93949 2St Augustine on marriage and sexuality. Edited by Elizabeth A. Clark. (Selections from the Fathers of the Church, 1.) Pp. xi+112. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1996. £23.95 (cloth), £11.50 (paper). 0 8132 0866 1; 0 8132 0867 XGender, sex and subordination in England, 1500–1800. By Anthony Fletcher. Pp. xxii+442+40 plates. New Haven–London: Yale University Press, 1995. £25. 0 300 06531 0Empress and handmaid. On nature and gender in the cult of the Virgin Mary. By Sarah Jane Boss. Pp. x+253+9 plates. London–New York: Cassell, 2000. £45 (cloth), £19.99 (paper). 0 304 33926 1; 0 304 70781 3‘You have stept out of your place’. A history of women and religion in America. By Susan Hill Lindley. Pp. xi+500. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1996. $35. 0 664 22081 9The position of women within Christianity might well be described as paradoxical. The range of practices in the early Church with regard to women, leadership and ministry indicates that this was the case from the beginning, and the legacy of conflicting biblical texts about the role of women – Galatians. iii. 28 versus 1 Corinthians xi. 3 and Ephesians v. 22–3 for example – has, perhaps, made that paradoxical position inevitable ever since. It might be argued, then, that the history of Christianity illustrates the working out of that paradox, as women have sought to rediscover or remain true to what they have seen as a strand of radically egalitarian origins for Christianity which has been subsumed by the dominant patriarchal structure and ideology of the Church. The tension of this paradox has been played out when women have struggled to act upon that thread of egalitarianism and yet remain within Churches that have been (and, it could be argued, remain) ‘patriarchally’ structured.

AbstractThe texts written for the instruction of women in ancient China are some of the earliest examples of didactic sources aimed at a female readership to be produced anywhere in the world. The oldest surviving texts in the transmitted tradition date to the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). However, in 2010, Peking University acquired a cache of manuscripts written on bamboo, one of which, the Jiaonü (Instructions to women), predates these Han dynasty admonitions texts by several centuries. This paper provides a full translation of this important text, a discussion of the historical and cultural context in which it was produced, and examines its relationship with the later similar works in the transmitted tradition. The Jiaonü throws new light on the way in which women were educated in appropriate gender roles in ancient China.

The works of literary masters often encapsulate history and anthropology of their times. Of several doyens of colonial writers in Bengal, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyaya is well known for mirroring the position of women and also drawing some strong sketches of women reflecting social issues as well as inequality and injustice meted out to them at that period of Bengal’s history. His empathetic concern for women and his keen insight into their minds has often been commented on and appreciated. This paper is concerned with his inter-subjective relationship with the questions of class and caste and how, he as a male member of upper caste and from a genteel background dealt with his innate caste and class concerns in constructing his women characters representing various strata of society.

Western historical scholarship has taught us much about Southeast Asia in the period between 1800 and 1940. This was a time when the insistent, intensifying and transforming influence of Dutch colonial society and its culture became widespread in Bali and more broadly in the archipelago. Much too has been written about the analytical framework of European histories of these times. In this essay I discuss Balinese paintings from this same period which shed light on how painters and their works spoke to their viewers both about how the Balinese knew, imagined, thought and felt about the world in which they lived and about the visual representation and communication of these ideas, imaginings and feelings through the medium of narrative paintings. In this paper I hope to draw attention to a number of historiographical issues concerning the reception of the ideas, imaginings and feelings conveyed in paintings. In particular I shall have some remarks to make about the role of philology in this regard.

AbstractThis article investigates developments in labour policies and social norms on gender and work from a colonial perspective. It aims to analyse the extent to which state policies and societal norms influenced gendered labour relations in the Netherlands and its colony, the Netherlands Indies (present-day Indonesia). In order to investigate the influence of the state on gender and household labour relations in the Dutch empire, this paper compares as well as connects social interventions related to work and welfare in the Netherlands and the Netherlands Indies from the early nineteenth century up until World War II. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, work was seen as a means to morally discipline the poor, both in the Netherlands and the Netherlands Indies. Parallel initiatives were taken by Johannes van den Bosch, who, in 1815, established “peat colonies” in the Netherlands, aiming to transform the urban poor into industrious agrarian workers, and in 1830 introduced the Cultivation System in the Netherlands Indies, likewise to increase the industriousness of Javanese peasants. While norms were similar, the scope of changing labour relations was much vaster in the colony than in the metropole.During the nineteenth century, ideals and practices of the male breadwinner started to pervade Dutch households, and children’s and women’s labour laws were enacted. Although in practice many Dutch working-class women and children continued to work, their official numbers dropped significantly. In contrast to the metropole, the official number of working (married) women in the colony was very high, and rising over the period. Protection for women and children was introduced very late in the Netherlands Indies and only under intense pressure from the international community. Not only did Dutch politicians consider it “natural” for Indonesian women and children to work, their assumptions regarding inherent differences between Indonesian and Dutch women served to justify the protection of the latter: a fine example of what Ann Stoler and Frederick Cooper have called a “grammar of difference”.

AbstractThe printed Protestant missionary engagement with Chinese views of the role and proper conduct of women in society was more complex and ambiguous than scholars have often assumed. Publications targeted at women readers occupied an important place among Protestant missionary periodicals, books, and other printed materials in Chinese during the late Qing. Most publications for women and girls were elementary doctrinal works, catechisms, and devotional texts designed to introduce early readers to Christian belief, and light reading (fictional tracts and biographies) for women's spiritual edification, but there were some more elaborate works as well. After an overview of mission publications for women, this article focuses on two complex texts, one a compendium of practical knowledge and moral guidance for the Chinese Protestant "new woman," Jiaxue jizhen (The Christian home in China) (1897; revised 1909), and the other, a Protestant reworking from 1902 of the Qing dynasty didactic compilation Nü sishu (Women's four books). Together, these two texts give us a more multifaceted picture of how missionaries engaged with Chinese society and the role of women therein.

The Year 1600 Witnessed A significant though little-noted event in Italian cultural history: the publication of the first substantial full-length works by Italian women writers arguing the case for women's moral and intellectual equality with men. The writers in question were two Venetians, Lucrezia Marinella and Modesta Pozzo (Moderata Fonte); their works, respectively, a polemical treatise, La nobilta et I'eccellenza delle donne, and a dialogue, Il merito delle donne. These texts, long neglected, have recently begun to attract a certain amount of critical attention: particularly Fonte's Merito, far the more accessible of the two and a work, as is now being recognized, of considerable literary merit.

This paper reviews a monograph by the Swedish Germanist Elisabeth Waghall Nivre, “Women and Family Life in Early Modern German Literature”. The monograph is published by Camdan House, edited by James Hardin, 2004. ISBN: 1-57113-197-3. My interest in the monograph stems from its unique area of research: the representation of gender roles in sixteenth-century German-language fiction. Despite the popularity of gender studies and the extensive corpus of works on the history of gender, there are few scholarly works in this particular area. A glance at E. Nivre's monograph allows to argue that although the monograph was published almost twenty years ago, its main observations and conclusions are still relevant today.

This paper discusses the evolution of women's portrayal in art, from objectified figures in early history to empowered subjects in modern times. Initially, women were depicted through the male gaze, embodying idealized beauty or fulfilling societal roles. During the Renaissance, this trend continued with artists like Raffaello Santi, who focused on physical beauty but often overlooked real-life women's experiences. The paper then highlights a shift to representing everyday women, as seen in works like Jean Franois Millet's "The Gleaners," yet these portrayals still echoed traditional gender norms. The narrative progresses with the emergence of female artists challenging these conventional depictions. Figures like Kathe Kollwitz and Sylvia Sleigh reversed the male gaze, empowering women as active subjects in art. The paper concludes by emphasizing the transformation in art from objectifying women to portraying them as autonomous and influential, mirroring societal shifts in gender roles and perceptions.

The article attempts to highlight the stages and directions of the development of western (primarily, English-, French- and German-speaking) historiography on the example of the most significant monographs and articles devoted to women who performed church ministry in the Early Church: in particular, deaconesses, widows and virgins. The article shows the main problems in connection with which these topics have been studied, starting from the XVII century up to the present time, for example, in the context of the New Testament, the history of non-Chalcedonian Churches, etc. – both from the academic and gender positions of many authors. In Western fundamental theological and historical works, the ministry of women in the Early Church is considered in sufficient detail, but its study turned out to be closely related to current church issues: from «the Inner mission» and changes in the status of women in the Church in Modern times up to the revival of the order of deaconesses and female ordinations in protestant denominations in the XX century. The active interest of researchers, and especially women authors, to this problem will be closely connected with the general transformation («feminization») of Western society, in which women have begun to play a more significant role in all spheres of life.

Portia dell'Anguillara Cesi and Margherita della Somaglia Peretti were both wealthy heiresses in late sixteenth-century Rome, and each was the patron of a fine altarpiece for the Capuchin church of San Bonaventura. Although women were widely recognized as patrons in the period, the patronage of these two paintings, which show the Virgin, saints, and the portrait of a young boy, has always been assigned to their husbands, Paolo Emilio Cesi and Michele Peretti, because the works have been related to the patrilinear, agnatic image of the early modern family, i.e., fathers and sons. Instead, the works express a bilinear, cognatic image of the family, indicating legal, economic, and affective ties between mothers and sons. Portia dell'Anguillara's will of 1587 further elucidates aspects of the bilinear family structure.

When early Islamic jurists outlined the marriage law, they codified a gendered model of conjugal rights and duties that privileged men over women. A similar development also took place regarding sexual rights as women’s pleasure and sexual gratification became secondary to those of men. Specialists in this period of Islamic history have argued that the gender ideologies prevalent in the early Abbasid society, which enabled an androcentric definition of Islam, should be seen as the primary cause for the inequality within the Islamic marriage system. This paper aims to show that Abbasid gender ideologies, contrary to popular descriptions, were not homogenous. Two major trends in understanding female sexuality during the early Abbasid period will be discussed. The first, androcentric trend that focused primarily on male sexual gratification was in conflict with a more women-friendly attitude; the latter was advocated in a number of literary genres, including medical handbooks, popular stories, educational and ethics literature. These works accentuated the importance of female sexual health and favoured female pleasure as a necessary element for mutual sexual satisfaction and marital happiness. The paper illustrates that some aspects from this more women-friendly approach to sexuality were adopted in later legal opinions that sought to correct the most visible cases of inequality in the social institution of marriage.

Purpose - to analyze the clinical course of pregnancy, childbirth and the condition of newborns in women with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the anamnesis after pre-pregnancy training before assisted reproduction technology (ART) cycles. Materials and methods. A clinical analysis of pregnancy, childbirth and newborns in 100 pregnant women after ART, with a history of STIs. This women were randomly divided into two groups: Group I (main) - 50 pregnant women subject to pre-pregnancy training, obstetric and perinatal support and delivery according to our developed medical and organizational algorithms, prognostic methods and treatment and prevention schemes; Group II - 50 pregnant women who received conventional prognostic and treatment and prevention measures. The Group III (control) was included 50 practically healthy pregnant women with a successful reproductive history and uncomplicated course of this pregnancy. Statistical processing of research results was performed using standard programs Microsoft Excel 5.0 and Statistica 8.0. Results. The main complication in pregnant women of group I was placental dysfunction, which due to our proposed pre-pregnancy training and management of pregnancy, was reduced from 38.0% in the Group II to 22.0% in women of the Group I (p<0.05), the structure of which was dominated by compensated (72.7%) and subcompensated (27.3%) and no decompensated forms, recurrence of STIs (the Group I - 6.0% and the Group II - 16.0%, p<0.05) and colpitis (the Group I - 16.0% and the Group II - 26.0%, p<0.05). In addition, it is important to reduce the level of preeclampsia (the Group I - 6.0% and the Group II - 10%). In addition, gestational anemia (48.0%) was quite common in the Group II, the level of which we managed to reduce to 24.0% (p<0.05). The analysis of the clinical course of childbirth showed a significant reduction in all complications of childbirth: premature birth (the Group I - 12.0% and the Group II - 26.0%, p<0,05); premature rupture of fetal membranes (the Group I - 12.0% and the Group II - 36.0%, p<0.05); fetal distress (the Group I - 8.0% and the Group II - 20.0%, p<0.05) and obstetric bleeding (the Group I - 10.0% and the Group II - 18.0%), which is associated with severe decrease of the main complications of the gestational period). Condition of newborns after childbirth: in the Group I in 86.07% of cases the condition of children was satisfactory, 13.59% of children were born with signs of asphyxia (mild and moderate), and the overall level of children born with asphyxia decreased 2.5 times. The rate of fetal developmental delay decreased from 14.4% in the Group II to 3.03% in the Group I. Comprehensive dynamic monitoring and pathogenetic therapy were effective for the onset of pregnancy by ART and a favorable pregnancy outcome in 81.0% of women; reduction of reproductive losses by 4.4 times and perinatal mortality by 8.5 times. Conclusions. Early diagnosis, prevention and treatment of infectious diseases in women before pregnancy, pre-pregnancy preparation and planning of pregnancy in women with a history of STIs, effectively restores reproductive function, reduce the frequency of complications of gestation, severity (frequency and duration of relapses) infectious process during pregnancy, prevent severe forms of neonatal infection, reduce perinatal morbidity and mortality. The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The research protocol was approved by the Local Ethics Committee of the institution mentioned in the work. Informed consent of women was obtained for the study. No conflict of interests was declared by the author. Key words: sexually transmitted infections, pre-pregnancy training, pregnancy, obstetric and perinatal complications.

Tadeusz Czacki was one of the key figures who participated in the great scholarly discussions about the history, sources of development, and the position of Roman law in old Polish law. The discussion initiated by Czacki and Jan Wincenty Bandtkie in the early years of the nineteenth century lasted for many decades. Its consequences are still present today in modern Polish legal history scholarship. Although Czacki was an author of several legal treatises, most of his pivotal concepts regarding the above-mentioned issues were presented by him in his opus magnum, i.e. O litewskich i polskich prawach, published for the very first time in 1800. Czacki is well known as a self-educated scholar who referred to numerous works, both Polish and foreign. However, the objective of this article is to analyse Czacki’s knowledge and the use of English sources. During the Enlightenment, some Polish intellectuals became fascinated by English culture, politics, and the legal system. The impact of English law, however, has never been analysed in the context of Czacki’s work. The purpose of this article is to fill that gap.

In this study the author examines the main stages and social characteristics of the women&apos;s rights movement in republican Iran, which has generated an active controversy between the authorities and the society over the last three decades. This polemic disagreement was triggered by the legal status of the Iranian woman enshrined in the Constitution. Human rights activists with significant religious and social status, insisting on the right of Muslim women to be represented in the highest echelons of state power, were the first to join the debate. At the turn of the 1990s and 2000s, this initiative was taken up by secular activists advocating civil and individual rights for Iranian women. All have made extensive use of a specialised, women-oriented press and, since the early 2000s, the Internet and social media, as well as NPOs/NGOs existing in different regions of the country, in their struggle. Acting along the same lines of the women&apos;s rights movement, secular and religious activists represent autonomous segments of civil society. The content of the print and electronic media, television programmes and literary works, used for the first time as a source for the study, forms the basis of the research.

This study explores the historical influence of women in ancient Turkestan, emphasizing their contributions to the development of science and education during the Timurid dynasty. Historically, intellectual women like Uvaisi Nodirabegim facilitated knowledge exchange and education among women, setting a foundation for future societal advancements. Despite societal constraints, these women produced significant works that have left a lasting impact on cultural and educational development. The research aims to bridge the knowledge gap concerning the role of women in early scientific development in Turkestan, specifically during a period when female educational involvement was typically undocumented and undervalued. Utilizing historical analysis and literature review methods, the study investigates various accounts of women scholars and educators from Islamic history, highlighting their contributions and the societal recognition of their efforts. Findings reveal that women like Jahan-otin Uvaisiy not only engaged in educational activities but also contributed to literature and cultural enrichment, challenging the traditional roles assigned to them. This study underscores the critical role of women in fostering educational and cultural growth in ancient Turkestan, suggesting that their contributions have been pivotal yet underrecognized in historical narratives. The implications of this research highlight the necessity of acknowledging and integrating the historical contributions of women into the broader scope of educational and cultural history, advocating for a reevaluation of historical narratives to include these influential figures. Keywords: Women, Society, Education, Science, Intellect.

Abstract This paper explores the theme of the horse- and camel-riding lute player appearing in Chinese art and texts as early as the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). Such works reflect the expansion of trade with Central Asian peoples in late Han, when texts first mention the introduction of lutes by steppe peoples who themselves played them on horseback. Many subsequent texts, poems, and works of art, particularly during the Tang dynasty (618-907), expand on this idea, highlighting not only the instrument’s steppe origins and association with non-Han men but also elite Han women, particularly those sent to the border regions as diplomatic brides. Drawing primarily on Tang writings and works of art, this paper examines issues of gender, social status, ethnicity and the complex meanings of the lute-playing, camel-riding theme and its depiction in art.

A major problem for the student of a relatively new discipline or sub-discipline is the construction of a framework within which to operate. In the case of the economic, social and legal position of women in the Middle Ages the only clear thing is that the lines are slowly being redrawn, although more perhaps with respect to the central Middle Ages than to the earlier period. In fact, despite the paucity of evidence there has always been a surprising degree of agreement about the early Middle Ages. A wide range of authors from Lina Eckenstein to Eileen Power, Lady Stenton and Suzanne Wemple have regarded the period, from roughly the sixth to the ninth centuries, as one of ‘rough equality’ (to use Stenton's words) between men and women in general, and as a period of veneration, even elevation, of female religious. As for the later period, there is a much wider range of opinion, much of it conflicting. Speaking of the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, Brian Tierney and Sidney Painter, in a popular general work, conclude that: ‘Evidence of the general improvement in the status of women is fairly extensive.’ The elevation of marriage to sacrament status in the twelfth century is undoubtedly seen by some as part of this process: ‘C'est dans la réforme du mariage qu'il faut chercher les germes les plus vigoureux de l'amélioration dont bénéficie la condition féminine à partir du XIIe siècle, même si cette amélioration n'est ni continue ni générate.’ By contrast, other works suggest that an earlier golden age for women came to an end in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as an even more male-dominated feudal society reached its zenith in terms of order and definition.

The article is a review of the works of Russian historians studying the events of the Italian and Swiss campaigns of A. V. Suvorov in the military-anthropological context. Among the numerous works on the campaign of 1799, the topic of the everyday life of soldiers is revealed only by individual authors, relying on a number of personal sources published as early as the 19th century. Other aspects of the life of Suvorov soldiers during campaigns: relations with the local population and with military personnel of other contingents, attitudes towards assigned military tasks, illnesses, women — all these topics, if they were touched upon by Russian authors, were only in passing.

This article analyzes the activity of the Art Nouveau artists of the late XIX &ndash; early XX centuries, and the reception of their works. The subject of this research is the works of both female and male artists, and their interinfluence. The article touches upon the topic of genders in art, difficulties of promoting the &ldquo;female perspective&rdquo; in the period of Art Nouveau. The article employs the comparative-historical, involving scientific materials on culturology, philosophy and art history; sociocultural approach towards historical events in the establishment of Art Nouveau. The relevance of this topic is substantiated by heightened interest to studying the phenomenon of Art Nouveau and the role of women in its formation. The novelty of this research consists in attempt to determine the specificity of female principle in Art Nouveau style, both as an artistic image that holds the leading place therein, and in the image of women artists who tried to implement their vision of female image in the art object. The conclusion is made that despite the shift in the worldview orientations and artistic paradigms of this period, women artists were experiencing major difficulties. The formation of the Art Nouveau style vividly manifested the features of the &ldquo;new woman&rdquo; in the works of women artists, emphasizing their uniqueness and artistic peculiarities. It is determined that the comprehension of multifacetedness of Art Nouveau style was greatly affected by women artists, whose works are still relevant today.

Abstract Early life histories were written with little consideration of the native community as audience. Today's life histories make their way back to the native communities where they are sold to locals and tourists, absorbed into the school or community library, and even read. Publication of two life histories of Native American women invites reflection on how these books have been "read" in their native communities and their impact on their narrators and on native-initiated life-history research in these same communities. These works also raise the issue of whether anthropologist authors can write life histories for a culturally diverse audience or whether we must present life stories differently to the multiple audiences our works now address. (Life history interviewing and editing; issues of cultural representation; cross-cultural communication)