Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Weeds South Australia“

Olives (Olea europaea ssp. europaea), dispersed from 19th century orchards in the Adelaide area, have become established in remnant bushland as a major environmental weed. Recent expansion of the Australian olive industry has resulted in the widespread planting of olive orchards in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Western Australia, Queensland and parts of Tasmania. This paper reviews the literature on the activity of vertebrate (principally avian) olive predators and their potential as vectors for spreading this plant into Australian remnant bushland. The effects of feralisation on the olive plant, which enhances its capacity for dispersal as a weed, place wider areas of south-eastern Australia at risk. A number of approaches for the control of olives as woody weeds are addressed. Proponents of new agricultural crops have moral and environmental obligations to assess the weed potential of these crops.

Mixed farming systems have traditionally incorporated subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) and lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) as key components of the pasture phase across south-eastern Australia. However, poor adaptation of subterranean clover to acidic soils, insufficient and inconsistent rainfall, high input costs, soil acidification and the emergence of herbicide-resistant weeds have reduced efficacy of some traditional clover species in recent years. To overcome these challenges, numerous novel pasture species have been selectively improved and released for establishment in Australia. Despite their suitability to Australian climate and soils, limited knowledge exists regarding their weed-suppressive ability in relation to establishment and regeneration. Field trials were therefore conducted over 3 years in New South Wales to evaluate the suppressive potential of selected pasture legume species and cultivars as monocultures and in mixed stands against dominant annual pasture weeds. Pasture and weed biomass varied significantly between pasture species when sown as monocultures, but mixtures of several species did not differ with regard to establishment and subsequent weed infestation. Arrowleaf clover (T. vesiculosum Savi.) and biserrula (Biserrula pelecinus L.) cv. Casbah showed improved stand establishment, with higher biomass and reduced weed infestation compared with other pasture species. Generally, weed suppression was positively correlated with pasture biomass; however, yellow serradella (Ornithopus compressus L.) cv. Santorini exhibited greater weed suppression than other pasture legumes while producing lower biomass, thereby suggesting a mechanism other than competition for resources affecting weed-suppressive ability. Over the period 2015–17, arrowleaf clover and biserrula cv. Casbah were generally the most consistent annual pasture legumes with respect to yearly regeneration and suppression of annual pasture weed species.

AbstractThe potential distribution of the South African weevil, Perapion antiquum (Gyllenhal), a biological control agent for the weeds Emex spp., was deter mined by the computer program CLIMEX, using its native distribution, phenology and abundance together with development parameters. The predicted distribution included parts of Hawaii where the weevil successfully controlled Emex australis and E. spinosa. In Australia, sites of past unsuccessful releases have climates that this analysis indicates are unsuitable for the insect. The most favourable regions for establishment of the weevil are near the coast in the southern half of Australia, but most of these do not overlap with regions where Emex spp. are a problem. In western Cape Province, South Africa, E. australis plants are abundant and the weevil attacks the plant after seeds have formed. In Hawaii, a fortuitous combination of climatic conditions favours the weevil during the period after seed germination, and this may be the key to its control of the weed. Sites with climatic conditions similar to successful control sites in Hawaii are not found in Australia. It was concluded that P. antiquum will be of limited use as a biological control agent in Australia even in areas suitable for its establishment.

It is often assumed that saline coastal wetlands experience environmental conditions so severe that they are largely immune to invasion by exotic plant species. The belief is implicit in many older reviews of threats to mangroves and coastal saltmarshes, where a limited range of vascular plant taxa, often focussing on *Spartina, (throughout the paper an asterisk denotes an introduced (exotic) species as per Carr 2012) have been invoked as the major species of concern. Even though the weed flora of southern Australia is derived largely from agriculture and horticulture, neither of which includes many species tolerant of waterlogged, variably saline environments, a recent assessment of Victorian saline coastal wetlands indicated that exotic plants were the third-most pervasive threat, after land ‘reclamation’ and grazing. Tall wheat grass, *Lophopyrum ponticum (Podp.) A.Love., is one of the most severe and widely distributed weeds of saline coastal wetlands in south-eastern Australia. It is promoted by the agricultural extension arm of the Victorian government as a salt-tolerant pasture grass; however, its broad ecological amplitude and robust life form make it a most serious invader of upper saltmarsh in Victoria. We assessed the effectiveness of different control measures, including slashing and herbicides, for the management of *L. ponticum infestations (and their side effects on saltmarsh communities) in the Western Port region of Victoria. A nominally monocot-specific herbicide widely used to control *Spartina, Fluazifop-P, was ineffective in controlling *L. ponticum. The broad-spectrum systemic herbicide glyphosate was more effective in controlling *L. ponticum, but had undesirable impacts on native plant species. Controlling weeds in coastal wetlands using available herbicides for use near coastal waterways would seem to remain problematic.

Crop rows oriented at a right angle to sunlight direction (i.e., east–west within the winter cropping system in Western Australia) may suppress weed growth through greater shading of weeds in the interrow spaces. This was investigated in the districts of Merredin and Beverley, Western Australian (latitudes of 31° and 32°S) from 2002 to 2005 (four trials). Winter grain crops (wheat, barley, canola, lupines, and field peas) were sown in an east–west or north–south orientation. Within wheat and barley crops oriented east–west, weed biomass (averaged throughout all trials) was reduced by 51 and 37%, and grain yield increased by 24 and 26% (compared with crops oriented north–south). This reduction in weed biomass and increase in crop yield likely resulted from the increased light (photosynthetically active radiation) interception by crops oriented east–west (i.e., light interception by the crop canopy as opposed to the weed canopy was 28 and 18% greater in wheat and barley crops oriented east–west, compared with north–south crops). There was no consistent effect of crop row orientation in the canola, field pea, and lupine crops. It appears that manipulation of crop row orientation in wheat and barley is a useful weed-control technique that has few negative effects on the farming system (i.e., does not cost anything to implement and is more environmentally friendly than chemical weed control).

The variation in field pea grain yield and competitiveness with annual ryegrass due to crop density, row spacing and cultivar was determined to enable farmers to better manage weeds with cultural control tactics. Crop density varied with seeding rate, cultivar, row spacing and year. Higher seeding rates were required to reach equivalent plant densities in cv. Dinkum (short, semi-leafless) compared with cv. Dundale (tall, conventional-leaf), and at 36 cm compared with 18 cm row spacing. Field pea grain yield was reduced more at low crop densities, in Dinkum, at 36 cm row spacing, and in the presence of weeds. Percentage yield losses from weed competition were similar in both cultivars (about 70–80%) at a low density of 10 plants/m2 in 2 seasons. At higher crop densities Dinkum had a larger loss than Dundale (i.e. at 30 plants/m2 losses were 60 and 35%, respectively, compared with 50 and 5% at 60 plants/m2). Seasonal variation influenced the effect of crop density on yield loss from weeds. The percentage yield loss from weeds in 1993 ranged from about 90 to 40% at plant densities of 10 to 40 plants/m2, in contrast to 1995 when 40% yield loss occurred at all these densities. Ryegrass dry weight was reduced with increasing field pea density in both years, and in the tall more than the short cultivar in 1 year. Maintaining recommended field pea seeding rates has considerable financial benefits in both weed-free (around $100/ha) and weed-affected crops (to $400/ha). In weedy situations, integrating cultural practices such as higher seeding rates and choice of cultivar that enhance crop competitiveness will improve weed management in south-eastern Australia.

In dryland cotton cropping systems, the main weeds and effectiveness of management practices were identified, and the economic impact of weeds was estimated using information collected in a postal and a field survey of Southern Queensland and northern New South Wales. Forty-eight completed questionnaires were returned, and 32 paddocks were monitored in early and late summer for weed species and density. The main problem weeds were bladder ketmia (Hibiscus trionum), common sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus), barnyard grasses (Echinochloa spp.), liverseed grass (Urochloa panicoides) and black bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus), but the relative importance of these differed with crops, fallows and crop rotations. The weed flora was diverse with 54 genera identified in the field survey. Control of weed growth in rotational crops and fallows depended largely on herbicides, particularly glyphosate in fallow and atrazine in sorghum, although effective control was not consistently achieved. Weed control in dryland cotton involved numerous combinations of selective herbicides, several non-selective herbicides, inter-row cultivation and some manual chipping. Despite this, residual weeds were found at 38–59% of initial densities in about 3-quarters of the survey paddocks. The on-farm financial costs of weeds ranged from $148 to 224/ha.year depending on the rotation, resulting in an estimated annual economic cost of $19.6 million. The approach of managing weed populations across the whole cropping system needs wider adoption to reduce the weed pressure in dryland cotton and the economic impact of weeds in the long term. Strategies that optimise herbicide performance and minimise return of weed seed to the soil are needed. Data from the surveys provide direction for research to improve weed management in this cropping system. The economic framework provides a valuable measure of evaluating likely future returns from technologies or weed management improvements.

Field surveys were conducted on 319 sites of the Western Australian grain belt in 2006 to determine the occurrence and distribution of summer fallow weed species. Sites were located across five growing season regions (north, north central, central, south central, and south) and three annual rainfall zones (high, medium, and low). A total of 51 species (or species groups) from 18 families were identified, with the large majority of species (35%) belonging to the Poaceae family. The most prevalent species found, being present at more than 10% of all sites, were wheat, “melons” (weedy watermelon and paddymelon), rigid ryegrass, capeweed, clover, mintweed, wild radish, fleabane, windmill grass, and rolypoly. Correspondence analysis revealed that the north, central, and southern regions of the grain belt could be predominately segregated according to dominant weed species occurrence; however, no segregation by rainfall zone was apparent. This study has given an overview of summer fallow weed occurrence in the Western Australian grain belt and highlights those weed species that are common and yet lack sufficient research into their ecology and management.

Glyphosate-tolerant (GT) cotton offers a multitude of benefits such as broad-spectrum and cost-effective weed control, simple weed management, and reduced impact on the environment. However, high adoption rates of GT cotton have led to overreliance on glyphosate in weed management and have decreased the use of other herbicide options and non-chemical weed-management strategies, possibly leading to the emergence of many resistant weeds. Previous surveys in 2006 and 2011 in the cotton-growing regions of New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland, Australia, indicated changes in weed populations over the period and increased prevalence of several weeds. These two surveys indicated increased dominance of Conyza bonariensis, Echinochloa colona, and Chloris virgata in these regions. Periodic weed surveys are necessary to assess weed population dynamics and shifts due to overreliance on glyphosate for weed management. A survey was carried out in the cotton-growing regions of NSW and Queensland in 2014–15, covering 135 fields. Survey results indicated the emergence of volunteer GT cotton as the most common weed present across all of the cotton-growing regions, occurring in 85% of fields, followed by E. colona (67% of fields surveyed), and C. bonariensis and Sonchus oleraceus, which were present in 51% of fields. The most prevalent grass weed after E. colona was C. virgata (37%). Broadleaf weeds Ipomoea lonchophylla and Amaranthus mitchellii were present in 40% and 37% of fields, respectively. Regional-level analysis indicated greater prevalence of Sesbania cannabina and Parthenium hysterophorus in Emerald region of Queensland. Lolium rigidum was present in the Griffith and Warren area of NSW during summer, even though it is a winter weed. The results of this study indicate integration of diversified weed-management options and inclusion of both non-chemical and chemical options because many major weeds observed in this study are tolerant to glyphosate and have already evolved resistance to glyphosate.

Pittosporum undulatum Vent. (Sweet Pittosporum) is a densely foliaged tall shrub or small tree, native to the wet forests of south east Australia, This species now functions as a serious environmental weed in a range of habitats in Australia and on other continents and islands throughout the temperate, sub-tropical and tropical zones. This study investigated some of the ecological causes and consequences of P. undulatum invasion across a range of habitat types in south east Australia. Key aspects of P. undulatum biology and ecology investigated in the current study include; patterns of morphological variation across the range of habitats occupied (as a measure of the species’ plasticity), dispersal ecology and seed germinability, population structure and spatial pattern, community relationships and the ecological impacts of invasion. Phenotypic plasticity is considerable in P. undulatum. No clear patterns of geographic variation emerged from a study of leaf morphological attributes across the current range of this species on mainland south east Australia. The pattern of morphological variation is particularly complex in Victoria, where the invasion of this species is most advanced. The species’ adaptability to a range of environments and environmental conditions will likely promote further range expansion. The abundant winter fruit crop produced by functionally female P. undulatum plants attracts a suite of generalist opportunistic frugivores, which feed on P. undulatum fruits and seeds at various stages of fruit dehiscence, thereby enhancing dispersal opportunities for this species. P. undulatum seed collected from natural and invasive populations, at two stages of fruit maturity and from the scats and pellets of dispersal agents, displayed high germinability. European Blackbirds and Pied Currawongs are implicated as the main avian dispersal agents of P undulatum in south east Australia. The broader ecological implications of developing relationships between invasive fleshy-fruited bird-dispersed plant species and adaptive frugivores are likely to be considerable. The distribution of P. undulatutn seedlings was significantly negatively correlated with adult conspecifics and significantly positively correlated with trees and shrubs of other genera. This pattern reflects the importance of both firugivorous dispersal agents and the species’ germination and establishment requirements, in shaping the contagious distribution pattern typical of this species. These analyses suggest that recruitment opportunities for conspecific seedlings are limited beneath the canopy of adult conspecifics. Densities of P. undulatum were on average, 2.7 times higher in invaded populations, compared to the natural populations sampled. A male-bias was evident in all populations and no relationships between reproductive activity and the density of seedlings and juveniles were evident. Invading populations of P. undulatum impose substantial changes on ecosystem-level properties and functions. Mean species richness and cover-abundance declined notably once P. undulatum cover-abundance exceeded 20% at the invaded sites and 60% at the natural sites sampled. The natural communities sampled displayed comparatively greater resilience to the competitive effects of P. undulatum, but community attributes were affected at high densities and cover-abundance of this species. The cover-abundance of herbs and grasses declined most substantially with increasing P. undulatum at invaded sites, whereas, at the natural sites sampled, the species’ structural analogues appeared to be most affected by increasing P. undulatum cover-abundance. This study has demonstrated that the ecological consequences of P. undulatum population expansion are substantial and contribute to changes in the composition and successional trajectory of affected communities. These processes ultimately lead to the loss and simplification of biodiversity values and the homogenisation of affected habitats. P. undulatum has the potential to emerge as one of south east Australia's most serious environmental weed species.

[Truncated abstract] Annual grasses have colonised a diverse range of environments in southern Australia. The “Silvergrasses” of the genus Vulpia are excellent examples being widely distributed, are prevalent weeds of agriculture and have had a long history to naturalise on the continent. Research was undertaken on Vulpia populations to identify if naturalising species have reproductive traits that provide propagules with the best chances of success. Furthermore, research aimed at investigating if these traits vary between species and their populations and how this variability related to the environment. A herbarium and field study was undertaken to establish what Vulpia species occur in SW Australia and to investigate environmental factors affecting their distribution. 169 herbaria specimens was examined and a botanical field survey of 189 sites was carried out in September 1998. Four species occur in the region: V. fasciculata, V. muralis, V. bromoides and two variants of V. myuros (V. myuros var. megalura and V. myuros var. myuros). V. bromoides and V. myuros were introduced early into the region while V. fasciculata and V. muralis more recently. It is plausible that Vulpia invaded the region via early seaport settlements and was spread by agricultural expansion. 96% of field sites contained V. myuros var. myuros, 79% V. myuros var. megalura, 50% V. bromoides, 6% V. fasciculata and 6% contained V. muralis. 90% of sites contained a mix of species and 9% of sites contained pure species stands. V. myuros var. myuros is the most widespread species and dominant form of V. myuros. It is found from high rainfall regions through to arid locations occurring on mostly light textured low fertility soils. V. muralis and V. fasciculata occur infrequently with the former widely dispersed and the later occurring predominantly on sands. V. bromoides occurs extensively in high rainfall regions but rarely extends to locations receiving less than 400-450mm annual rainfall and northward above 30°00’ latitude. It is predominantly on light to loamy textured soils that are fertile and acid. The most common species V. myuros and V. bromoides often coexist within sites but the dominance of one over the other is strongly correlated with growing season length and false break frequency. V. bromoides is positively correlated to growing season length and V. myuros is negatively related. The distribution of Vulpia species is strongly influenced by climate and soils. Variability in distribution is a reflection of the ecological differentiation between species to colonise different environments

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 168-198) The horehound plume moth (Wheeleria spilodactylus Curits), an agent introduced to control the invasive weed horehound (Murrubium vulgare L.), was used as a model system to investigate factors believed to influence the successful establishment of an introduced natural enemy. Retrospectively tests the use of generic population viability analysis and decision making tools for determining optimal release strategies for the horehound plume moth in South Australia and to compare outcomes with the emprical data collected during the course of this project

Salsola australis is an introduced weed of crop and pasture systems in the Western Australian broad acre cropping and pasture region (wheat-belt). This thesis investigated the classification, biology and ecology of the genus Salsola in southwest Australia, as well as modelling the effectiveness of possible weed control practices. Prior to this research, S. tragus was the only recognised species of the Salsola genus within Australia. However, genetic analysis revealed that four genetically distinct putative taxa of the genus Salsola were found in southwest Australia, none of which were S. tragus. The taxa that is the most prevalent agricultural weed was classified as S. australis, but the other three putative taxa could not be matched to recognised species. All four taxa were diploid (2n = 18), as opposed to tetraploid (2n = 36) S. tragus. Within the agricultural system of southwest Australia, S. australis plants established throughout the year, although the majority of seed production occurred in late summer and autumn. Total seed production (138-7734 seeds per plant) and seed viability (7.6-62.8%) of S. australis were lower than that reported for other agricultural weed species of the Salsola genus. Seed dispersal occurred when the senesced plants broke free of their root system to become mobile. Wind driven plants travelled and shed seed over distances of 1.6 to 1247.2 m. Movement of approximately half the plants was restricted to less than 100 m by entanglement with other S. australis plants within the stand. Some seed was retained on the senesced plants, but the germinability of this seed fell to less than 2% in the two month period following plant senescence (i.e. a decline of 79%). Once seed shed into the soil seed bank, anywhere from 32.3 to 80.7% of the viable seeds germinated in the year following seed production, with the rest remaining dormant or degrading. A model of the life cycle of S. australis based on the population ecology data indicated that the dormant seed bank had very little effect on annual seedling recruitment, but seed dispersal from neighbouring populations had a large impact on population growth rate. Therefore, the most successful weed control measures were those that restricted seed dispersal from neighbouring populations, or those that were applied to all populations in the region rather than to a single population. Weed control techniques applied to a single population, without reducing seed dispersal, could not reduce population size.

Bibliography: leaves 185-200. The herbicides norflurazon, oxadiazon, oxyfluoren, trifluralin and simazine used in South Australian viticulture were assessed for mobility and degradation through a combination of laboratory and field experiments. Sorption, leaching and dissipation rates were measured, as was presence in shallow groundwater. The fate of herbicides from vine to wine was also investigated, tests being conducted on herbicide residue in both white and red grapes and presence in wine. A proposal for good environmental management of herbicide use in vineyards to minimise the effects of herbicides was also developed.

Zantedeshia aethiopica (arum lily) is a noxious weed in south-western Australia. Herbicides are ineffective in controlling it in native forest and bushland. Biological control of weeds using indigenous or 'naturalised' plant pathogens in an inundative or 'mycoherbicide' strategy is an effective, host specific method of weed control. The work in this thesis tested the hypothesis that there are pathogens of Z. aethiopica present in the weed population of Z. aethiopica in south-western Australia. The objective of the study was to provide the groundwork to establish a potential bio-control programme for Z. aethiopica. Surveys were conducted for fungal, bacterial and nematode pathogens of Z. aethiopica over three geographic regions in south-western Australia: Perth metropolitan area; Garden Island nature reserve; and the Buselton-Augusta region. The diversity in fungi isolated varied amongst the three regions, with the greatest diversity of fungi being recovered from the Busselton-Augusta region of the study and the least diversity from the Garden Island region. Possible explanations for this variation are differences in rainfall, soil organics and soil pH. A total of 782 isolates werer recovered from diseased roots and rhizomes of Z. aethiopica. Of these the fungal genera most commonly isolated from root or I rhizome rots were Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Alternaria species. These genera are all potential plant pathogens which have been isolated from z. aethiopica by workers world-wide. The most commonly isolated fungal species were Fusarium solani and Fusarium oxysporum. A frequently isolated Pythium sp. was identified as P. coloratum. This is a new host pathogen association. The most commonly occurring fungi associated with leaf lesions were Phoma species. It is unlikely that the Phoma spp. isolated were Phoma zantedeschia as the isolated organisms failed to fit the original description of this species which has clusters of of multi-septate chlamydospores. This is significant as it indicates that P. zantedeschia, a pathogen of Z. aethiopica in a number of countries throughout the world, is unlikely to be present in southwestern Australia. Another serious pathogen isolated from Z. aethiopica both overseas and in New South Wales which was not isolated in this study is Phytophthora richardiae. Bacteria were associated with soft rots of rhizomes. Out of 50 bacterial isolates, nine of the most commonly occurring forms were examined in detail. Five were identified as Pseudomonas spp. and four as Erwinia species. These 9 isolates were tested for pathogenicity toward Z. aethiopica by infecting roots of Z. aethiopica grown in an aeroponics system. There was some indication that one of the Erwinia isolates may have been pathogenic toward Z. aethiopica. The differences were not significant (p>O.OS) but it is postulated that this is because of the high standard error, which could have been compensated for by increasing the number of replicates per treatment. Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani isolated from rhizome rots of z. aethiopica were also tested for pathogenicity toward Z. aethiopica in an aeroponics system. Lesion development was greater in response to inoculation with Fusarium isolates Foxl and Fs2 than in the non-inoculated controls, particularly in wounded treatments. The nematode Meloidogyne javanica was identified as the causal agent of galled roots observed on Z. aethiopica at 2 sites. This is a new host pathogen association. Meloidogyne javanica has a very broad host range and hence is not suitable as a biological control agent against Z. aethiopica. The diverse range of pathogenic genera isolated from Z. aethiopica gives reason for some optimism in the search for a bio-control agent to control the noxious weed Z. aethiopica. The existence of host specific pathovars of Fusarium oxysporum and Alternaria spp., which have been use in the biocontrol of weeds, offer avenues for further research into biocontrol of Z. aethiopica.

No - till systems have been widely adopted by farmers in Australia over the past decade to reduce soil erosion, improve soil physical and chemical properties, conserve soil moisture and save on fuel costs. These changes in tillage practices can have a major influence on the ecology and management of weeds. Studies were undertaken on the seed biology of six important Australian weed species to provide underpinning knowledge of their response to tillage. Field studies were also undertaken to investigate the effect of no - till on weed seedling emergence, seed bank persistence and herbicide behaviour. Seed germination of threehorn bedstraw and wild turnip, the latter only at sub - optimal temperatures, was inhibited by light. In contrast, seed germination of common sowthistle and Indian hedge mustard was stimulated by light. Seed germination of small - flowered mallow was not influenced by the light conditions. Seedling emergence of threehorn bedstraw, wild turnip, small - flowered mallow and annual ryegrass was low on the soil surface but increased with shallow burial, which suggests that farming practices that achieve shallow burial of seeds are likely to promote greater seedling emergence of these weed species. In contrast, seedling emergence of common sowthistle and Indian hedge mustard was greatest for the seeds present on the soil surface and emergence decreased with increased burial depth. In field experiments, low soil disturbance tillage systems left more seeds on the soil surface after crop sowing, whereas high soil disturbance systems buried most of the seeds. Seedling emergence of annual ryegrass, threehorn bedstraw and wild radish was greater under minimum tillage than no - till system. In contrast, seedling emergence of Indian hedge mustard, common sowthistle, silvergrass, small - flowered mallow and turnipweed was greater under the no - till system. Seedling emergence of wild oat and wild turnip was not influenced by the tillage system. Even though seedling emergence of annual ryegrass was much lower under no - till, the persistence of residual viable seeds of annual ryegrass from one season to the next was similar between the tillage systems. This was because of much greater seed decay under no - till ( 48 to 60 % ) than that recorded under minimum tillage ( 12 to 39 % ). All dinitroaniline herbicides ( trifluralin, pendimethalin and oryzalin ) were more effective in reducing the number of plants, spikes, dry matter and seed production of annual ryegrass when incorporated at sowing with tines than with the discs. At Minlaton in 2004 and 2005, bioavailable trifluralin was greater under tillage systems with greater levels of soil disturbance than under lower soil disturbance systems. In the absence of the herbicide, annual ryegrass was less competitive with wheat under the disc - sown systems. The response of grain yield to herbicides was greater under the tine - sown systems than the disc - sown systems. The performance of S - metolachlor on annual ryegrass control was investigated under no - till. The control of annual ryegrass was greater than 80 % when S - metolachlor was applied at sowing ( incorporated by sowing or post - sowing pre - emergence ). However, application of the herbicide at sowing resulted in phytotoxic effects on crop emergence and grain yield of wheat. Application of S - metolachlor at 20 or 23 days before sowing not only provided effective control ( 74 to 83 % ) of annual ryegrass, it was also safe on wheat. Application of this herbicide at 40 or 46 days before sowing was relatively ineffective in controlling annual ryegrass ( 33 to 49 % weed kill ) but safe on wheat. In conclusion, soil disturbance caused by tillage was found to have a major influence on the behaviour of the seed bank of different species including seedling emergence and decay rates of weed seeds. However, the response to tillage tended to be species - specific and was related to their seed biology. Tillage systems also had a major influence on the efficacy and bioavailability of trifluralin, which is prone to volatilisation losses. The findings of this research program are expected to contribute to the improvement in weed management under no - till systems.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2006.

Rainforest Restoration Manual for South-Eastern Australia is the definitive guide to the recovery and restoration of Subtropical, Warm Temperate, Cool Temperate, Gallery, Dry, Dry Gully and Littoral Rainforests from south-eastern Queensland to Tasmania. All of these rainforest types were inherently rare prior to settlement, and today with depletion, feral animals, weeds and climate change, all are threatened – with many listed under state and federal legislation. The manual presents detailed restoration methods in 10 easy-to-follow steps, documenting the research and trials undertaken during rainforest restoration over more than two decades. These experiments and their results will empower readers to uncover answers to many of the problems they could encounter. The manual is supported by a CD that provides important background information, with 32 appendices, a propagation manual for the region's 735 rainforest plants, an illustrated glossary and resources for teachers. Species lists and specific planting guides are provided for the 57 rainforest floristic communities that occur from the coast to the mountains between Durras Mountain in New South Wales and the Otways in Victoria. Extensively illustrated with colour photographs, this book will empower you or your group to be able to restore, manage, protect and conserve the magnificent rainforests that are in your care. The general principles and techniques described will meet the needs of students and teachers, novices, experienced practitioners, community groups and agencies alike.

The city of Perth is well known and treasured for its areas of protected bushland in the heart of the city. Kings Park and Bold Park represent a significant part of the natural heritage of the Swan Coastal Plain and are an important part of city life. The city is also a gateway to the incredible biodiversity to be found in south-west Western Australia. Perth Plants provides a comprehensive photographic guide to all plants known to occur in the bushlands of Kings Park and Bold Park, both native plants and naturalised weeds. There are 778 species included, representing approximately one-quarter of all the plants in the greater Perth region, and one-tenth of all species known for the south-west of Western Australia. This new edition contains 22 additional species and updated photography throughout. It is an essential reference for anyone interested in the plants of south-west Western Australia, and particularly the Swan Coastal Plain.

Nationalism: Past as Prologue began as a single volume being compiled by Ad Akande, a scholar from South Africa, who proposed it to me as co-author about two years ago. The original idea was to examine how the damaging roots of nationalism have been corroding political systems around the world, and creating dangerous obstacles for necessary international cooperation. Since I (Bruce E. Johansen) has written profusely about climate change (global warming, a.k.a. infrared forcing), I suggested a concerted effort in that direction. This is a worldwide existential threat that affects every living thing on Earth. It often compounds upon itself, so delays in reducing emissions of fossil fuels are shortening the amount of time remaining to eliminate the use of fossil fuels to preserve a livable planet. Nationalism often impedes solutions to this problem (among many others), as nations place their singular needs above the common good. Our initial proposal got around, and abstracts on many subjects arrived. Within a few weeks, we had enough good material for a 100,000-word book. The book then fattened to two moderate volumes and then to four two very hefty tomes. We tried several different titles as good submissions swelled. We also discovered that our best contributors were experts in their fields, which ranged the world. We settled on three stand-alone books:” 1/ nationalism and racial justice. Our first volume grew as the growth of Black Lives Matter following the brutal killing of George Floyd ignited protests over police brutality and other issues during 2020, following the police assassination of Floyd in Minneapolis. It is estimated that more people took part in protests of police brutality during the summer of 2020 than any other series of marches in United States history. This includes upheavals during the 1960s over racial issues and against the war in Southeast Asia (notably Vietnam). We choose a volume on racism because it is one of nationalism’s main motive forces. This volume provides a worldwide array of work on nationalism’s growth in various countries, usually by authors residing in them, or in the United States with ethnic ties to the nation being examined, often recent immigrants to the United States from them. Our roster of contributors comprises a small United Nations of insightful, well-written research and commentary from Indonesia, New Zealand, Australia, China, India, South Africa, France, Portugal, Estonia, Hungary, Russia, Poland, Kazakhstan, Georgia, and the United States. Volume 2 (this one) describes and analyzes nationalism, by country, around the world, except for the United States; and 3/material directly related to President Donald Trump, and the United States. The first volume is under consideration at the Texas A & M University Press. The other two are under contract to Nova Science Publishers (which includes social sciences). These three volumes may be used individually or as a set. Environmental material is taken up in appropriate places in each of the three books. * * * * * What became the United States of America has been strongly nationalist since the English of present-day Massachusetts and Jamestown first hit North America’s eastern shores. The country propelled itself across North America with the self-serving ideology of “manifest destiny” for four centuries before Donald Trump came along. Anyone who believes that a Trumpian affection for deportation of “illegals” is a new thing ought to take a look at immigration and deportation statistics in Adam Goodman’s The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Deporting Immigrants (Princeton University Press, 2020). Between 1920 and 2018, the United States deported 56.3 million people, compared with 51.7 million who were granted legal immigration status during the same dates. Nearly nine of ten deportees were Mexican (Nolan, 2020, 83). This kind of nationalism, has become an assassin of democracy as well as an impediment to solving global problems. Paul Krugman wrote in the New York Times (2019:A-25): that “In their 2018 book, How Democracies Die, the political scientists Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt documented how this process has played out in many countries, from Vladimir Putin’s Russia, to Recep Erdogan’s Turkey, to Viktor Orban’s Hungary. Add to these India’s Narendra Modi, China’s Xi Jinping, and the United States’ Donald Trump, among others. Bit by bit, the guardrails of democracy have been torn down, as institutions meant to serve the public became tools of ruling parties and self-serving ideologies, weaponized to punish and intimidate opposition parties’ opponents. On paper, these countries are still democracies; in practice, they have become one-party regimes….And it’s happening here [the United States] as we speak. If you are not worried about the future of American democracy, you aren’t paying attention” (Krugmam, 2019, A-25). We are reminded continuously that the late Carl Sagan, one of our most insightful scientific public intellectuals, had an interesting theory about highly developed civilizations. Given the number of stars and planets that must exist in the vast reaches of the universe, he said, there must be other highly developed and organized forms of life. Distance may keep us from making physical contact, but Sagan said that another reason we may never be on speaking terms with another intelligent race is (judging from our own example) could be their penchant for destroying themselves in relatively short order after reaching technological complexity. This book’s chapters, introduction, and conclusion examine the worldwide rise of partisan nationalism and the damage it has wrought on the worldwide pursuit of solutions for issues requiring worldwide scope, such scientific co-operation public health and others, mixing analysis of both. We use both historical description and analysis. This analysis concludes with a description of why we must avoid the isolating nature of nationalism that isolates people and encourages separation if we are to deal with issues of world-wide concern, and to maintain a sustainable, survivable Earth, placing the dominant political movement of our time against the Earth’s existential crises. Our contributors, all experts in their fields, each have assumed responsibility for a country, or two if they are related. This work entwines themes of worldwide concern with the political growth of nationalism because leaders with such a worldview are disinclined to co-operate internationally at a time when nations must find ways to solve common problems, such as the climate crisis. Inability to cooperate at this stage may doom everyone, eventually, to an overheated, stormy future plagued by droughts and deluges portending shortages of food and other essential commodities, meanwhile destroying large coastal urban areas because of rising sea levels. Future historians may look back at our time and wonder why as well as how our world succumbed to isolating nationalism at a time when time was so short for cooperative intervention which is crucial for survival of a sustainable earth. Pride in language and culture is salubrious to individuals’ sense of history and identity. Excess nationalism that prevents international co-operation on harmful worldwide maladies is quite another. As Pope Francis has pointed out: For all of our connectivity due to expansion of social media, ability to communicate can breed contempt as well as mutual trust. “For all our hyper-connectivity,” said Francis, “We witnessed a fragmentation that made it more difficult to resolve problems that affect us all” (Horowitz, 2020, A-12). The pope’s encyclical, titled “Brothers All,” also said: “The forces of myopic, extremist, resentful, and aggressive nationalism are on the rise.” The pope’s document also advocates support for migrants, as well as resistance to nationalist and tribal populism. Francis broadened his critique to the role of market capitalism, as well as nationalism has failed the peoples of the world when they need co-operation and solidarity in the face of the world-wide corona virus pandemic. Humankind needs to unite into “a new sense of the human family [Fratelli Tutti, “Brothers All”], that rejects war at all costs” (Pope, 2020, 6-A). Our journey takes us first to Russia, with the able eye and honed expertise of Richard D. Anderson, Jr. who teaches as UCLA and publishes on the subject of his chapter: “Putin, Russian identity, and Russia’s conduct at home and abroad.” Readers should find Dr. Anderson’s analysis fascinating because Vladimir Putin, the singular leader of Russian foreign and domestic policy these days (and perhaps for the rest of his life, given how malleable Russia’s Constitution has become) may be a short man physically, but has high ambitions. One of these involves restoring the old Russian (and Soviet) empire, which would involve re-subjugating a number of nations that broke off as the old order dissolved about 30 years ago. President (shall we say czar?) Putin also has international ambitions, notably by destabilizing the United States, where election meddling has become a specialty. The sight of Putin and U.S. president Donald Trump, two very rich men (Putin $70-$200 billion; Trump $2.5 billion), nuzzling in friendship would probably set Thomas Jefferson and Vladimir Lenin spinning in their graves. The road of history can take some unanticipated twists and turns. Consider Poland, from which we have an expert native analysis in chapter 2, Bartosz Hlebowicz, who is a Polish anthropologist and journalist. His piece is titled “Lawless and Unjust: How to Quickly Make Your Own Country a Puppet State Run by a Group of Hoodlums – the Hopeless Case of Poland (2015–2020).” When I visited Poland to teach and lecture twice between 2006 and 2008, most people seemed to be walking on air induced by freedom to conduct their own affairs to an unusual degree for a state usually squeezed between nationalists in Germany and Russia. What did the Poles then do in a couple of decades? Read Hlebowicz’ chapter and decide. It certainly isn’t soft-bellied liberalism. In Chapter 3, with Bruce E. Johansen, we visit China’s western provinces, the lands of Tibet as well as the Uighurs and other Muslims in the Xinjiang region, who would most assuredly resent being characterized as being possessed by the Chinese of the Han to the east. As a student of Native American history, I had never before thought of the Tibetans and Uighurs as Native peoples struggling against the Independence-minded peoples of a land that is called an adjunct of China on most of our maps. The random act of sitting next to a young woman on an Air India flight out of Hyderabad, bound for New Delhi taught me that the Tibetans had something to share with the Lakota, the Iroquois, and hundreds of other Native American states and nations in North America. Active resistance to Chinese rule lasted into the mid-nineteenth century, and continues today in a subversive manner, even in song, as I learned in 2018 when I acted as a foreign adjudicator on a Ph.D. dissertation by a Tibetan student at the University of Madras (in what is now in a city called Chennai), in southwestern India on resistance in song during Tibet’s recent history. Tibet is one of very few places on Earth where a young dissident can get shot to death for singing a song that troubles China’s Quest for Lebensraum. The situation in Xinjiang region, where close to a million Muslims have been interned in “reeducation” camps surrounded with brick walls and barbed wire. They sing, too. Come with us and hear the music. Back to Europe now, in Chapter 4, to Portugal and Spain, we find a break in the general pattern of nationalism. Portugal has been more progressive governmentally than most. Spain varies from a liberal majority to military coups, a pattern which has been exported to Latin America. A situation such as this can make use of the term “populism” problematic, because general usage in our time usually ties the word into a right-wing connotative straightjacket. “Populism” can be used to describe progressive (left-wing) insurgencies as well. José Pinto, who is native to Portugal and also researches and writes in Spanish as well as English, in “Populism in Portugal and Spain: a Real Neighbourhood?” provides insight into these historical paradoxes. Hungary shares some historical inclinations with Poland (above). Both emerged from Soviet dominance in an air of developing freedom and multicultural diversity after the Berlin Wall fell and the Soviet Union collapsed. Then, gradually at first, right wing-forces began to tighten up, stripping structures supporting popular freedom, from the courts, mass media, and other institutions. In Chapter 5, Bernard Tamas, in “From Youth Movement to Right-Liberal Wing Authoritarianism: The Rise of Fidesz and the Decline of Hungarian Democracy” puts the renewed growth of political and social repression into a context of worldwide nationalism. Tamas, an associate professor of political science at Valdosta State University, has been a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University and a Fulbright scholar at the Central European University in Budapest, Hungary. His books include From Dissident to Party Politics: The Struggle for Democracy in Post-Communist Hungary (2007). Bear in mind that not everyone shares Orbán’s vision of what will make this nation great, again. On graffiti-covered walls in Budapest, Runes (traditional Hungarian script) has been found that read “Orbán is a motherfucker” (Mikanowski, 2019, 58). Also in Europe, in Chapter 6, Professor Ronan Le Coadic, of the University of Rennes, Rennes, France, in “Is There a Revival of French Nationalism?” Stating this title in the form of a question is quite appropriate because France’s nationalistic shift has built and ebbed several times during the last few decades. For a time after 2000, it came close to assuming the role of a substantial minority, only to ebb after that. In 2017, the candidate of the National Front reached the second round of the French presidential election. This was the second time this nationalist party reached the second round of the presidential election in the history of the Fifth Republic. In 2002, however, Jean-Marie Le Pen had only obtained 17.79% of the votes, while fifteen years later his daughter, Marine Le Pen, almost doubled her father's record, reaching 33.90% of the votes cast. Moreover, in the 2019 European elections, re-named Rassemblement National obtained the largest number of votes of all French political formations and can therefore boast of being "the leading party in France.” The brutality of oppressive nationalism may be expressed in personal relationships, such as child abuse. While Indonesia and Aotearoa [the Maoris’ name for New Zealand] hold very different ranks in the United Nations Human Development Programme assessments, where Indonesia is classified as a medium development country and Aotearoa New Zealand as a very high development country. In Chapter 7, “Domestic Violence Against Women in Indonesia and Aotearoa New Zealand: Making Sense of Differences and Similarities” co-authors, in Chapter 8, Mandy Morgan and Dr. Elli N. Hayati, from New Zealand and Indonesia respectively, found that despite their socio-economic differences, one in three women in each country experience physical or sexual intimate partner violence over their lifetime. In this chapter ther authors aim to deepen understandings of domestic violence through discussion of the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of theit countries to address domestic violence alongside studies of women’s attitudes to gender norms and experiences of intimate partner violence. One of the most surprising and upsetting scholarly journeys that a North American student may take involves Adolf Hitler’s comments on oppression of American Indians and Blacks as he imagined the construction of the Nazi state, a genesis of nationalism that is all but unknown in the United States of America, traced in this volume (Chapter 8) by co-editor Johansen. Beginning in Mein Kampf, during the 1920s, Hitler explicitly used the westward expansion of the United States across North America as a model and justification for Nazi conquest and anticipated colonization by Germans of what the Nazis called the “wild East” – the Slavic nations of Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, most of which were under control of the Soviet Union. The Volga River (in Russia) was styled by Hitler as the Germans’ Mississippi, and covered wagons were readied for the German “manifest destiny” of imprisoning, eradicating, and replacing peoples the Nazis deemed inferior, all with direct references to events in North America during the previous century. At the same time, with no sense of contradiction, the Nazis partook of a long-standing German romanticism of Native Americans. One of Goebbels’ less propitious schemes was to confer honorary Aryan status on Native American tribes, in the hope that they would rise up against their oppressors. U.S. racial attitudes were “evidence [to the Nazis] that America was evolving in the right direction, despite its specious rhetoric about equality.” Ming Xie, originally from Beijing, in the People’s Republic of China, in Chapter 9, “News Coverage and Public Perceptions of the Social Credit System in China,” writes that The State Council of China in 2014 announced “that a nationwide social credit system would be established” in China. “Under this system, individuals, private companies, social organizations, and governmental agencies are assigned a score which will be calculated based on their trustworthiness and daily actions such as transaction history, professional conduct, obedience to law, corruption, tax evasion, and academic plagiarism.” The “nationalism” in this case is that of the state over the individual. China has 1.4 billion people; this system takes their measure for the purpose of state control. Once fully operational, control will be more subtle. People who are subject to it, through modern technology (most often smart phones) will prompt many people to self-censor. Orwell, modernized, might write: “Your smart phone is watching you.” Ming Xie holds two Ph.Ds, one in Public Administration from University of Nebraska at Omaha and another in Cultural Anthropology from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, where she also worked for more than 10 years at a national think tank in the same institution. While there she summarized news from non-Chinese sources for senior members of the Chinese Communist Party. Ming is presently an assistant professor at the Department of Political Science and Criminal Justice, West Texas A&M University. In Chapter 10, analyzing native peoples and nationhood, Barbara Alice Mann, Professor of Honours at the University of Toledo, in “Divide, et Impera: The Self-Genocide Game” details ways in which European-American invaders deprive the conquered of their sense of nationhood as part of a subjugation system that amounts to genocide, rubbing out their languages and cultures -- and ultimately forcing the native peoples to assimilate on their own, for survival in a culture that is foreign to them. Mann is one of Native American Studies’ most acute critics of conquests’ contradictions, and an author who retrieves Native history with a powerful sense of voice and purpose, having authored roughly a dozen books and numerous book chapters, among many other works, who has traveled around the world lecturing and publishing on many subjects. Nalanda Roy and S. Mae Pedron in Chapter 11, “Understanding the Face of Humanity: The Rohingya Genocide.” describe one of the largest forced migrations in the history of the human race, the removal of 700,000 to 800,000 Muslims from Buddhist Myanmar to Bangladesh, which itself is already one of the most crowded and impoverished nations on Earth. With about 150 million people packed into an area the size of Nebraska and Iowa (population less than a tenth that of Bangladesh, a country that is losing land steadily to rising sea levels and erosion of the Ganges river delta. The Rohingyas’ refugee camp has been squeezed onto a gigantic, eroding, muddy slope that contains nearly no vegetation. However, Bangladesh is majority Muslim, so while the Rohingya may starve, they won’t be shot to death by marauding armies. Both authors of this exquisite (and excruciating) account teach at Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, Roy as an associate professor of International Studies and Asian politics, and Pedron as a graduate student; Roy originally hails from very eastern India, close to both Myanmar and Bangladesh, so he has special insight into the context of one of the most brutal genocides of our time, or any other. This is our case describing the problems that nationalism has and will pose for the sustainability of the Earth as our little blue-and-green orb becomes more crowded over time. The old ways, in which national arguments often end in devastating wars, are obsolete, given that the Earth and all the people, plants, and other animals that it sustains are faced with the existential threat of a climate crisis that within two centuries, more or less, will flood large parts of coastal cities, and endanger many species of plants and animals. To survive, we must listen to the Earth, and observe her travails, because they are increasingly our own.

[This Proceedings paper was revised and published in the 2019 issue of the journal Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, Volume 16] Aim/purpose The purpose of this article is to discuss the psychosocial and emotional outcomes of an introductory health science workshop designed to support and assist incoming health science students before starting their university study. Background For the past two decades, a South Australian university offered an on-campus face to face workshop titled ‘Preparation for Health Sciences’ to incoming first-year students from eleven allied health programs such as Nursing, Physiotherapy and Medical Imaging. While many were locals, a good number came from regional and rural areas, and many were international students also. They consisted of both on-campus and off-campus students. The workshop was created as a new learning environment that was available for students of diverse age groups, educational and cultural backgrounds to prepare them to study sciences. The content of the four-day workshop was developed in consultation with the program directors of the allied health programs. The objectives were to: introduce the assumed foundational science knowledge to undertake health sciences degree; gain confidence in approaching science subjects; experience lectures and laboratory activities; and become familiar with the University campus and its facilities. The workshop was delivered a week before the orientation week, before first-year formal teaching weeks. The topics covered were enhancing study skills, medical and anatomical terminology, body systems, basic chemistry and physics, laboratory activities, and assessment of learning. Methodology In order to determine the outcomes of the workshop, a survey was used requiring participants to agree or disagree about statements concerning the preparatory course and answer open-ended questions relating to the most important information learned and the best aspects of the workshop. Several students piloted this questionnaire before use in order to ascertain the clarity of instructions, terminology and statements. The result of the 2015-2018 pre- and post-evaluation showed that the workshop raised confidence and enthusiasm in commencing university and that the majority considered the workshop useful overall. The findings of the survey are drawn upon to examine the psychosocial and emotional impacts of the workshop on participants. Using secondary qualitative analysis, the researchers identified the themes relating to the psychosocial and emotional issues conveyed by the participants. Contribution The contributions of the article are in the areas of improving students’ confidence to complete their university degrees and increasing the likelihood of academic success. Findings Of the 285 students who participated in the workshops from 2015 to 2018, 166 completed the survey conducted at the conclusion of the initiative, representing a 58% response rate. The workshops achieved the objectives outlined at the outset. While there were many findings reported (Thalluri, 2016), the results highlighted in this paper relate to the psychosocial and emotional impacts of the workshop on students. Three themes emerged, and these were Increased preparedness and confidence; Networking and friendships that enhanced support, and Reduced anxiety to study sciences. Some drawbacks were also reported including the cost, time and travel involved. Recommendations for practitioners Students found the introductory workshop to be psychosocially and emotionally beneficial. It is recommended that the same approach be applied for teaching other challenging fields such as mathematics and physics within the university and in other contexts and institutions. Recommendations for researchers Improving and extending the workshop to provide greater accessibility and autonomy is recommended. A longitudinal study to follow up the durability of the workshop is also proposed. Impact on society The impacts in the broader community include: higher academic success for students; improved mental health due to social networking and friendship groups and reduced anxiety and fear; reduced dropout rate in their first year; greater potential to complete educational degrees; reduced wastage in human and financial resources; and increased human capital. Future research Addressing the limitations of cost, time and travel involved, and following-up with the participants’ academic and workplace performance are future directions for research.