Dissertationen zum Thema „Sex equity“
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1
Bevan, Kimberly J. „Surface Equity: A Case Study of Gender Equity and Inequity in Elementary Classrooms“. Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School, 2007. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/etd/547.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the teaching practices and perceptions of teachers, and how those perceptions and practices contributed to or perpetuated gender equity and inequity in elementary classrooms. Data for this study were collected in three elementary classrooms (third, fourth, and fifth grade) in an urban public school in southern Los Angeles. All three teacher participants were female and were self-identified feminists. The data collected for this study showed coeducational settings to be biased in favor of boys in classroom interactions, students calling-out, teachers calling on students, gender geography, negative student behavior, teacher discipline, early finishers, teacher feedback, the reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes, classroom climate, lack of feminist pedagogy, classroom practice, gendered language, textbooks, and the use of color in the classroom.
The gender-equitable practices the teachers in this study were implementing in their classrooms such as calling on male and female students equally, seating children in coed groups, and making sure that classrooms were gender-balanced was gender-equitable teaching practice, but it only scratched the surface of gender equity. The bias in favor of boys observed in these classrooms was at odds with the teachers' beliefs that they were creating a gender-equitable environment by providing only surface interventions which led to the finding surface equity. Although these teachers were implementing some gender-equitable teaching practices, they were not implementing any revolutionary pedagogy, like feminist pedagogy, which could negate inequity and provide for more than just surface equity. It is recommended that changes be made to policy in teacher education requirements and programs. Ongoing professional development must also be provided to classroom practitioners and educational leaders in order to move beyond surface equity. There must be continued research on gender and the creation of equity to create gender-equitable learning environments that move beyond surface equity to create social change.
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Simmons, Joseph Paull. „Gender issues and equity within Canadian high school sport“. Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape3/PQDD_0021/MQ56203.pdf.
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3
Thorson, Anna. „Equity and equality : case detection of tuberculosis among women and men in Vietnam /“. Stockholm, 2003. http://diss.kib.ki.se/2003/91-628-5689-8/.
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Lam, Gigi. „How does gender equity affect fertility in Hong Kong? /“. View abstract or full-text, 2007. http://library.ust.hk/cgi/db/thesis.pl?SOSC%202007%20LAM.
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Dancu, Toni Nicole. „Designing Exhibits For Gender Equity“. PDXScholar, 2010. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/339.
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Gender equity has been a national and global aim for over half a century (Ceci & Williams, 2007; National Center for Education Statistics, 2003; National Science Board, 2008). While gains have been made, one area where inequity remains is spatial reasoning ability, where a large gender gap in favor of males has persisted over the years (Else-Quest, Linn, & Shibley Hyde, 2010; National Science Board, 2008; Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). This gender gap in spatial reasoning has had substantial societal impact on the career interests of females in areas of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM), contributing to the larger societal need to engage non-dominant groups in these fields to reduce outsourcing (Ceci & Williams, 2007; Jaschik, 2007; Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009; White, 1992). Both spatial reasoning ability and STEM career interest have been related to science museum visits (Hamilton, Nussbaum, Kupermintz, Kerkhoven, & Snow, 1995; Salmi, 2001, 2002). However, researchers have also found a gender gap in favor of males in regard to science museum attendance and experiences once at the museum (Borun, 1999; Crowley, 2000). There are many suggestions for increasing female engagement at science museums and creating equitable experiences, but few have been systematically studied (Kekelis, Heber, & Countryman, 2005; Koke, 2005; Maher, 2005; Taylor, 2005). This research investigated gender equitable exhibit development by enhancing a geometry exhibit with several female-friendly design features and analyzing video data to determine the effects on girls' engagement and social interactions with their caregivers. The findings suggest that incorporating several female-friendly design features leads to significantly higher engagement for girls (evidenced by greater attraction and time spent). This study also looked for any unanticipated negative effects for boys after incorporating the female-friendly design features. It is encouraging that this study was unable to detect any unintended negative effects for boys; however, such non-significant results are inconclusive and should not dissuade future research and design teams from continuing to check for unanticipated ill effects of female-friendly design features for boys. While the positive effects for girls were significant, it is important to note that they were not significantly more positive for girls than for boys; further research is needed to determine whether the female-friendly design features create a more equitable experience for girls, or a more positive experience for everyone. This study did not identify any significant differences in parent-child verbal social interactions between the two versions of the exhibit; however, the pattern of results suggests that gender discrepant parent explanations, as found by Crowley, 2001 in a children's museum, may be less of a concern for girls in science centers, providing an interesting area for future study. This research presents evidence to support incorporating female-friendly design features in future science exhibit development projects, and indicates areas where future studies are still needed to gain a deeper understanding of their effects.
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Olivier, Patricia Joan. „Gender equity in mathematics education : the Namibian situation“. Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/51772.
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Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Gender inequity in mathematics performance is a global phenomenon. In both the developed and the developing world, females perform more poorly in mathematics than males at senior secondary school level. In Namibia, the situation is no exception. Examination results for the past few years have shown that males outperform females in mathematics at senior secondary school level. This has resulted in more males taking mathematics as a major subject at tertiary level, with the consequence that they subsequently find better jobs than females. For the purpose of this study, a literature research was done to investigate the factors that might influence the mathematics performance of females and males. The search did not show any significant biological differences between males and females that could explain the differences in performance. Several other factors were, however, identified to playa role in how females perform in mathematics. The factors identified were: interest in mathematics, a person's self-concept, mathematics anxiety, attitude towards mathematics, gender stereotyping, and the roles of the family and teachers. These factors were tested in the Namibian situation by means of a questionnaire that was given to Grade 12 students who do mathematics and it was found that: 1. males and females' attitudes towards mathematics differ significantly. Males seem to have a much more positive attitude towards mathematics; 2. Females experience mathematics anxiety at a higher level than males; 3. Gender stereotyping influences the mathematics performance of females more negatively than males' performance; Family members' influence contributes significantly to the poorer performance of females; 5. Interest in mathematics seems to be higher in males than in females; 6. Teacher influence does not seem to play a significant role in the mathematics performance of males and females. (This is in contrast with the results of the literature review.); and 7. There is no difference in the self-concept of Namibian males and females. To help make mathematics more appealing to girls, the first step is to recognise the disparities. Each person in a girl's circle of family, teachers, community and friends can begin, even before she reaches primary school, to hold high expectations of her and praise her performance. Sophisticated technology is increasingly significant to our nation's economic, political and social health. Almost every element of society - in fields as diverse as music, sports and agriculture - is being touched by technology. To prepare them for.these jobs, we must present science, engineering and mathematics as non-intimidating subjects to every student, so that they will feel encouraged to gain the skills and knowledge necessary for technical careers. As we increasingly become part of the global economy, we must engage the intellectual potential of all our young people.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geslagsongelykheid in wiskunde prestasies is a globale verskynsel. Daar is bevind dat meisies swakker doen as seuns in wiskunde in die senior sekondere skoolfase in beide die ontwikkelende sowel as die ontwikkelde lande. Namibia is geen uitsondering nie. Eksamenuitslae van die afgelope paar jare het gewys dat seuns baie beter vaar as meisies in wiskunde, spesifiek in die senior sekondere skoolfase. Dit het tot gevolg gehad dat meer seuns wiskunde neem as hoofvak na skool en dat hulle gevolglik beter werksgeleenthede as meisies kry. Vir die doel van hierdie studie is 'n Literatuurstudie gedoen om uit te vind watter faktore beinvloed die wiskunde prestasies van studente. Die literatuurstudie het geen noemenswaardige biologiese verskille tussen seuns en meisies uitgewys wat moontlik die verskil in prestasies kan verklaar nie. Verskeie ander faktore is egter geidentifiseer wat beslis 'n rol speel in wiskunde prestasies van meisies. Die faktore wat geidentifiseer was, is: belangstelling in wiskunde, 'n persoon se selfbeeld, wiskunde angs, 'n persoon se houding teenoor wiskunde, geslags stereotipes, die rol van die familie en onderwysers. Bogenoemde faktore is getoets in die Namibiese situasie by wyse van 'n vraelys wat uitgegee is vir graad 12 leerlinge wat wiskunde doen. Die resultate wat verkry is, is as volg: 1. Daar is 'n groot verskil tussen seuns en meisies se houding teenoor wiskunde. Dit wil voorkom as seuns se houding meer positief is as die van meisies; 2. Meisies ondervind wiskunde angs in 'n groter mate as seuns; 3. Geslagstereotipes het 'n negatiewe invloed op die wiskunde prestasies van meisies; 4. Familielede se invloed speel 'n groot rol in die swakker prestasies van meisies; 5. Seuns stel meer belang in wiskunde as meisies; 6. Dit blyk asof die invloed van onderwysers nie 'n noemenswaardige rol speel in die wiskunde prestasies van studente nie; Dit is teenstrydig met die bevindinge in die literatuurstudie. 7. Daar is geen verskil in die selfbeeld van meisies en seuns nie. Die eerste stap om wiskunde meer aantreklik vir meisies te maak, is om die dispariteit tussen seuns en meisies te erken. Elke persoon wat op enige manier met meisies in aanraking kom, hetsy familie, onderwysers, gemeenskap of vriende kan, selfs voorskool al, begin om hoë verwagtinge van hulle te koester en hulle te prys vir goeie prestasies. Gesofistikeerde tegnologie raak al hoe meer belangrik vir ons nasie se ekonomiese, politiese en sosiale welslae. Bykans elke sektor in ons gemeenskap, so divers soos musiek, sport en landbou, word geraak deur tegnologie. Die wetenskappe, ingenieurswese en wiskunde moet dus, sonder intimidasie, aan elke student aangebied word, om hulle sodoende aan te moedig om die nodige vaardighede te ontwikkel vir tegnies beroepe. Ons moet al ons jongmense se intellektuele potensiaal ten volle benut om in lyn te kom met die wereld ekonomie.
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Evensen, Elisabeth Banghart. „Equity v. equality: the role of gender and disclosure of allocation on individual reward allocation decisions“. Diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/54325.
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Research on reward allocations has consistently found differences in the manner in which men and women allocate rewards between themselves and others (Kahn, O'Leary, Krulewitz, & Lamm, 1980; Major & Adams, 1984; Major & Deaux, 1982). Overall, the research seems to suggest that when asked to divide a reward between themselves and a partner, men tend to use the equity norm to allocate rewards; whereas, women tend to use the equality norm to allocate rewards. However, a number of studies have been conducted which seem to demonstrate that a variety of situational g factors mediate the gender of allocator effects such as input level of the allocator and his/her co-workers, gender of the co-worker, expectancy of future interaction with the co-worker, and type of reward allocation.
The purpose of the present research was two-fold: (1) to examine individual differences influencing an allocator's choice of an allocation strategy, such as how anticipation of future interaction with the recipients of an allocation decision would influence an allocator's reward allocation; and (2) whether a person‘s self-esteem level might impact on how an individual might allocate a reward.
In general, the results of the current research suggest that previously observed differences between men's and women's allocations may not reflect true underlying differences between the gender; in terms of their preferences for allocation strategies. Allocation strategies appeared to vary as a function of the gender and input levels of the recipients of the reward and whether the type of allocation decision was a joint or independent situation. Both men and women tended to allocate rewards either equitably or using a compromise between equity and equality. Self-esteem was also found to influence the amount of the reward men and women allocated to the high performer and to themselves. Unfortunately, disclosure of allocation was not found to have a major effect upon how subjects allocated rewards. Several alternative explanations for these results are discussed.Ph. D.
8
Armeni, Virginia. „Student perceptions of gender equity in high school coeducational and single-sex physical education classes“. Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape8/PQDD_0015/MQ54976.pdf.
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Fleischman, Robert Paul. „Perceptions of Title IX and gender equity the influence of life histories, sports experiences, and campus initiatives /“. Diss., Online access via UMI:, 2006.
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10
Correa, Elaine. „Get out of my space! :"illusionary practices of equity"“. Thesis, McGill University, 2000. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=36758.
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This thesis explores the experiences of Canadian academic women in terms of location, space and voice. Within this qualitative study, the spaces of and for women within the university are examined by way of women's subjective experiences of 'value' and 'being valued'. Differences in experiences between women based on age, colour, tenure and academic rank are described through the voices of thirty academic women. The study argues that the "illusionary practices of equity" operating within the university milieu, exacerbate the tensions inherent in contradictory subject locations that women occupy within academe. The struggles of representation and identity within these contested spaces raise the challenges of whose voice will have space within the privileged locations of higher learning.
11
Ye, Lei. „The impact of gender effects on consumers' perceptions of brand equity: A cross-cultural investigation“. Thesis, University of North Texas, 2008. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9007/.
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Despite a long-standing tradition to view gender as a unitary theoretical construct, there is an increasing approbation afforded to gender identity as a multifarious construct. Over and above physiological characteristics, gender identity is a psychological and a social construct. More than simply a biological classification, both gender and gender identity have been explored as portentous moderators of consumers' cognitive and emotive states, brand attributions and shopping behaviors. How might gender differences be manifested in building and sustaining brand relationships? This is the seminal question addressed in the present research. The overarching objective of this research is to address how the broadened conceptualization of gender impacts customer-based brand equity across U.S. and Chinese consumers. The focal populations of interest are related to markedly different levels of brand penetration in each a post-developed and transitional market setting. Furthermore, it provides a platform for investigating how gender identities may differ across two of the largest consumer buying groups in the global marketplace. Toward this goal, this research explores the multidimensionality of gender as a construct, and then empirically investigates how an extended view of gender may or may not impact consumer-based brand equity. Based on an integration of extant theories in gender identity and self-congruity, this study proposes a research framework to investigate the relationship among gender identity, brand connections, and consumer-based brand equity. An online survey was conducted to collect consumer panel data in the U.S. and China respectively. Results from regression analysis and path analysis suggest that physiological gender alone cannot adequately explain consumers' brand perceptions. The empirical analysis offers further support for including three unique gender related constructs (physiological gender, psychological gender traits, and gender role attitudes) to understand gender-related consumer behavior. The results also indicate that brand connections serve as important intermediate steps to understand the relationship between gender identity and consumer-based brand equity.
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Ikonen, Katarina. „Vad består content marketing av och dess kännetecken? : En studie av sex företag“. Thesis, Mittuniversitetet, Avdelningen för ekonomivetenskap och juridik, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:miun:diva-32662.
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Content marketing kännetecknar ett värdeerbjudande där budskapet är personligt som stärker mottagarens livsstil genom en berättelse som är trovärdig och autentisk, som skapar värde för mottagaren iform av kunskap och social identitet och utgår från avsändarens värderingar. Content marketing kräver en strategi och långsiktighet som används i egna kanaler iform av artiklar, sociala medier och personliga events. Empowerment och en SEO är två sätt att effektivisera sin content marketingstrategi.Content marketing characterizes a value offering where the message is personal that strengthens the recipient's lifestyle through a story that is credible and authentic, which creates value for the recipient in terms of knowledge and social identity and based on the sender's values. Content marketing requires a strategy and long-term use in custom channels in the form of articles, social media and personal events. Empowerment and an SEO are two ways to streamline their content marketing strategy.
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Nyirongo, Richard Walibwe. „School participants' perceptions of gender equity issues in school policies and practices : an ethnographic case study of a public secondary school in Malawi /“. View abstract, 2005. http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3191710.
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Luk, Miu. „Exploring teachers' understanding and practice of gender equity case study of a kindergarten in Hong Kong /“. Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2005. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B35501467.
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Bryson, Todd. „Gender equity at a major midwestern university : meeting the requirement of interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex /“. Available to subscribers only, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1594490801&sid=16&Fmt=2&clientId=1509&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
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Lake, Sharon Marie Rose Killeen. „The accidental feminist: Iowa's breastfeeding firefighter and the national struggle for workplace equity“. Diss., University of Iowa, 2010. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/5010.
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This dissertation is a social and legal history of one of Iowa's most controversial sex discrimination cases. The study examines the 1979 civil rights complaint of Linda Eaton, Iowa City's first woman firefighter--a white, working-class, single mother who did not consider herself a feminist. Eaton made national news and became the focus of an intense local debate when she was threatened with dismissal for breastfeeding her baby at the fire station. The president of La Leche League spoke out on her behalf, while the local chapter of NOW established a legal defense fund and spearheaded a year-long campaign of support. Mining the personal documents of community members, and using oral history interviews, manuscript collections, and legal documents, this study elevates the importance of grassroots action by demonstrating that local women's sex discrimination complaints and lawsuits were central to the dramatic transformation of workplace policies that began across the U.S. during the 1970s.
This study foregrounds the relationship of Eaton's case to Iowa City's vibrant 1970s feminist community, and to national politics. The controversy over Iowa's breastfeeding firefighter reflected and contributed to national struggles over the meaning of gender equality, particularly the complex debates about affirmative action and the Equal Rights Amendment. Because she drew support from both the feminists of NOW and the maternalists of LLL, Eaton's case highlights the problematic intersection of paid and domestic labor in women's lives, especially those of working-class women. Eaton's case critiques the masculine ideal worker standard and makes a bid for working conditions that accommodate women's biosocial role in reproductive labor.
This project draws upon previously unavailable records to offer an historical account of the first career women firefighters in the U.S. that identifies the resistance these women met as they encountered the masculine culture of firefighting in the 1970s. It highlights both the strengths and weaknesses of using law to eliminate sex discrimination in the workplace by constructing a vivid portrait of women's slow and painful struggle for full economic citizenship.
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Pazdral, Rebecca K. „The post Title IX generation : perceptions and experiences of gender equity among new university faculty /“. view abstract or download file of text, 2004. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/uoregon/fullcit?p3136438.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2004.Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 144-154). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.
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Tsomo, Zixolele. „An evaluation of gender equity in the Amathole District Council head office, East London 2006-2010“. Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/d1012685.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the promotion of gender equity in the Amathole District Municipality (ADM). This investigation originated against the phenomenon that women are continuously faced with barriers to progress in the workplace. In an endeavour to find a meaningful solution to the problem, it was necessary to assess the degree of transformational change in the workplace; to ascertain what these barriers are; and how they can be overcome. The study commenced with an overview of the stance of women in the Republic of South Africa, especially their struggle to find a platform from where their voice could be heard. In order to achieve the research objectives, an in-depth literature study was undertaken. A survey was also conducted to examine the perceptions of gender equity in the ADM. The required data was collected by means of face-to-face semi-structured interviews with female officials in senior managerial positions. The study concludes with a number of recommendations that emanate from the literature review and qualitative study.
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Graham, Jennifer R. „An examination of United Methodist clergy“. 24-page ProQuest preview, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=1425291381&SrchMode=1&sid=3&Fmt=14&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1220041274&clientId=10355.
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Dewidar, Omar. „Sex and Gender in Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy Cohort Studies: A Systematic Methodological Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies“. Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/42501.
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Randomized trials and cohort studies have shown sex differences in the implantation and response to Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT). Furthermore, gender roles are associated with precipitants of congestive heart failure. Cohort studies are well-suited to assessing implantation rates, long-term outcomes, and the role of sex and gender. Therefore, we systematically identified cohort studies that reported outcomes of CRT and evaluated the following: 1) prevalence and temporal changes in sex and gender reporting and analysis; and 2) sex differences in the implantation and response to CRT. Sex was increasingly considered but remained inadequately reported and analyzed. Gender was not considered in the studies. In clinical practice, fewer women received devices, despite benefiting from CRT more than men. Of note, the difference in response may be confounded by differences in the clinical profiles of men and women. There is a need for better integration of sex and gender in studies to understand better the reasons leading to the observed differences.
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Watford, Tara Michon. „Looking beyond equal representation perspectives of gender equity from the new majority in doctoral education / Tara Michon Watford“. Diss., Restricted to subscribing institutions, 2007. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1467889611&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=1564&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
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Van, der Schyff Sedick. „Men's attitudes and responses to the Gender Equity Strategy at South African Nylon Spinner Polymer Plant (2002-2004): Implications for an education and training intervention“. University of the Western Cape, 2005. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&.
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This study investigated the attitudes and responses of male employees to the implemention of the Gender Equity Strategy and considered the implementation for the development of a gender education and training intervention. The study investigated the initial resistance to the introduction and implementation of the Gender Equity Strategy at the Polymer Plant by male employees.
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Rhoades, Melinda Justine. „Addressing the computing gender gap a case study using feminist pedagogy and visual culture art education /“. Columbus, Ohio : Ohio State University, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1217107478.
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Pelletier, Lou Allan. „Accounting for the male-female earnings differential : results from the 1986 survey of consumer finances“. Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/28264.
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This study seeks to explain the observed differences in the earnings of individual Canadians by sex. The study uses data from the micro data file of the 1986 Survey of Consumer Finances of individuals age 15 and over, with and without income. To a large extent, the study follows the examples presented in other Canadian studies conducted by Holmes (1974), Robb (1978), Gunderson (1980), Goyder (1981) and Ornstein (1983).
Employment earnings account for an overwhelming proportion of the total income received by individuals. Thus, the examination of the earnings differential attempts to address the root causes of many of the problems faced by nontraditional families. Canadian society is no longer largely composed of the traditional family with a working father and the homemaking mother. The growing number of dual-earner couples, single and childless adults, and households headed by women presents a difficult challenge for social policy. The male-female earnings disparity is a key component in exacerbating problems that include the availability of credit for women, the feminization of poverty, access to affordable and adequate housing, and adequate incomes for retirement. To effectively address the problems that have resulted from the interaction of greater female participation in the labour force and the formation of alternate household types, planners and policy makers need to address the root problem of sexual inequality in the labour force, and not solely the symptoms. In the context of changing family structure and the economic position of women, the focus of this study is to identify the size of the male-female earnings gap, and to determine the extent to which the earnings gap can be explained by personal, work and productivity-related characteristics. The impact of these factors are analyzed from two points of view. First, the impact of individual factors on the level of earnings are analyzed through a simple comparison of mean earnings of men and women across a variety of characteristics. Second, the influence of these factors on earnings, and the degree of inequality between the earnings of men and women, is analyzed using multiple linear regression analysis.
Regression analysis is used to estimate separate earnings equations for men and women. From the separate earnings equations, the wage gap can be partitioned into three parts, due to differences in (1) constant terms, (2) mean levels of the independent variables, and (3) the returns of the independent variables. Further, to assess the impact of occupational and industrial segregation on the earnings gap, a second set of earnings equations are calculated that do not include measures of occupational and industrial segregation.
The calculations of separate earnings equations for men and women, for the selected sample, produced an unadjusted earnings ratio of 0.66. After adjustments were made for the ten productivity and productivity-related factors considered in the analysis, including occupational and industrial distributions, the ratio increased to 0.79. This left an earnings gap of $5,985 (1985 dollars) that could not be assigned to any of the measured variables. While part of the unexplained residual may be explained by variables not included in the analysis, or by more careful measurement of existing variables, it seems likely that at least 20 percentage points of the earnings gap is attributable to "an amalgam of different forms of discrimination which, taken together, disadvantage women relative to men", (Denton and Hunter, 1982). Discrimination is defined as different returns in earnings for equal productivity characteristics, as given by the regression coefficients. Of the total earnings gap of 34 percent, approximately 60% of this is attributable to wage discrimination, and approximately 40% is due to differences in productivity-related characteristics
Occupational and industrial segregation account for a large proportion of the earnings gap. The adjusted earnings ratio, when occupational and industrial segregation are not considered endowments, is 0.69. Thus, the difference between the full-regression equation and the partial regression equation indicates that occupational and industrial segregation accounts for approximately 30% of the earnings gap.Applied Science, Faculty of
Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of
Graduate
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Owen, Brian D. „The effects of nonjudgemental feedback on gender equity in teacher student interaction in primary school physical education“. Thesis, Edith Cowan University, Research Online, Perth, Western Australia, 1995. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1190.
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This study examined whether gender role dependent and independent teacher behaviours could be influenced by the provision of peer observation and nonjudgemental feedback. Sixteen Year 4/5 classroom teachers, eight males and eight females were selected and divided into two groups of eight, a control group and an intervention group. The teachers were provided with standardized physical education programmes. A total of 64 physical education lessons were observed. For each group of teachers two lessons were recorded as baseline data to show established behaviour patterns. For the rest of the study, the control group continued to be recorded with no feedback being provided. The intervention group was provided with the results of analysis of their intervention, and nonjudgemental feedback following their first and second lessons (with a collapsed set of data). An adaption of the clinical supervision system was utilized to enable teachers to analyse their own interaction patterns and identify areas of behaviour that required adjustment. In the third lesson, they were again analysed and conferencing provided feedback. The fourth lesson provided a measurement of a reinforced feedback system. Gender stereotypic patterns of teacher behaviour were analysed and the extent to which equity of participation and verbal interactions in primary school physical education classes were examined. The findings showed that sex integration in physical education lessons does not eliminate gender inequity. The teacher-student interaction patterns disproportionately favoured boys and disadvantaged girls, possibly contributing to their lower skill levels and a negative attitude towards physical education. The study also found that teachers were able to effect change in their verbal interaction patterns after they had received intervention by means of nonjudgemental feedback and consequently became more equitable in their interactions. Significant differences in observed teacher interactions with individual students and groups established the continuance of sex inequitable patterns of teacher-student behaviour. The interaction categories in which these occurred were in control/discipline, the use of student names and the giving of instructions to students. Other categories relating to management and the criticism of unsuccessful students were also shown to be inequitable, but to a lesser extent. The results of intervention, however, suggested that with feedback gender biased interaction patterns could be suspended or reduced. Some teachers in the intervention group, after their second conference, were able to balance their patterns of behaviour to such an extent that there was no evidence of biased interactions. Others significantly lowered their biased interactions. All teachers however, expressed a positive view towards conferencing and felt it was a beneficial process. They generally felt that it was important as educators to give all students an equitable share of their attention.
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Kawana, Sanae. „Communicating gender equity in the public sector workplace in Hokkaido, Japan“. Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2003. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/36365/1/36365_Digitised%20Thesis.pdf.
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Very few qualitative studies based on first-hand research have been conducted regarding gender equity, especially in the public sector in Japan. The qualitative research in this
thesis is therefore unique because it focuses on the public sector employees in a Japanese rural setting. Secondly, this exploratory ethnographic study elucidates the cultural and communication problems connected with gender equity policies in Japan and the social construction of the meaning of gender in a Japanese local government workplace. A feminist conceptual framework was developed to analyse the findings in this thesis, which provides a new interpretation about this social phenomenon.
Triangulation was used to enhance the validity of this case study. The major methods used are: (a) open-ended, in-depth interviews with key persons and informal interviews with the
employees of the public sector; (b) two focus group discussions: one of six males and six females from three levels in local government; (c) follow up questionnaires of30 male and female workers; (d) participant observation; (e) an analysis of archives of surveys of concepts on gender equity in local government employees, Chitose citizens, and Hokkaido people. As all public organisations are influenced by national government policies on
gender equity, the findings are argued to have some generalisability. Being influenced by the world women's conferences since the 1970s, the Japanese government has enforced several gender equity policies. Nevertheless, some empirical secondary data indicate that working environments have changed little since the new law was introduced (Inoue et al., 1999). Under the umbrella of these national policies, local governments established their own plans; however, no effective implementation of these plans has been observed (Yazawa et al., 1997). One possible reason for this is that few people are aware of what gender discrimination means from a sociological point of view.
Indeed, few women in Japan have spoken out about gender inequalities. The other reason is the communication barriers that exist between male and female employees in discussing gender relationships (Banzai, 1999; Hale, 1999; Kashima, 1999). Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify hidden cultural and communication barriers in the Japanese workplace in order to facilitate the implementation of gender equity policies.
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Brown, Katrina Janel. „The demography of Nike, Helena, and Melpomene a feminist socio-legal analysis of athletic gender equity via sports law /“. Laramie, Wyo. : University of Wyoming, 2007. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1317327281&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=18949&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
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Bickett, Jill Patricia. „A Case Study of Student Leadership and Service in a Catholic Female Single-Sex High School“. Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School, 2008. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/etd/275.
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The purpose of this study was to research student perspectives about, and participation in, leadership and service at Catholic female single-sex high schools. This study draws data from a Catholic female single-sex high school in a metropolitan area of the United States. Data collection included school document review, site observation, and interviews of current students (n=10), young alumnae (n=5), mature alumnae (n=5), and current faculty and staff (n=6). The data was analyzed using an adapted theoretical framework of Wenger's (1998) social theory of learning, informed by Lave and Wenger's (1991) concept of communities of practice. This study addresses how the situated experience of the Catholic female single-sex high school affects students' expectations, values, and behaviors regarding leadership and service. The data show that the situated experience of a Catholic female single-sex high school encouraged engagement and interest in leadership and service. Students were empowered to believe that gender should not be an obstacle in seeking positions of leadership or service. However, although the environment was successful in advocating for participation in leadership and service, the social structure, social practices, identity formation, and situated environment tended to reinforce traditional gender-based notions of leadership and service. The culture of the school did not encourage the use of a critical lens to view the inequity that women experience, resulting in student expectations, behaviors, and values that were reproduced from the dominant culture in society. Student relationship to community and Catholicity is also discussed. In order to achieve the benefits of female empowerment advocated by the school, greater emphasis should be placed on identifying and addressing the obstacles to female leadership and service in society at large. There should be continued research to identify effective strategies for empowering female students to participate in leadership and service opportunities in high school, while providing them with a clearer sense of the challenges they will face in leadership and service positions later in life. In this way, the mission of Catholic female single-sex high schools can be more fully realized, which will hasten the day when true gender equity is achieved in the broader social context.
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Scott, Ernestine H. „Black professional women in dual-career families : the relationship of marital equity and sex role identity to the career commitment of the wife /“. Diss., This resource online, 1990. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-07282008-135512/.
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Nguyen, Thi Ngoc Bich. „Gender equity in the higher education of Vietnam : a case study of women faculty at Vietnam National University (VNU)-Ha Noi /“. view abstract or download file of text, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/uoregon/fullcit?p9978593.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2000.Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 185-196). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users. Address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/uoregon/fullcit?p9978593.
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Luk, Miu, und 陸苗. „Exploring teachers' understanding and practice of gender equity: case study of a kindergarten in HongKong“. Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2005. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B35501467.
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Bickel, Luke A. „The perceptions of gender equity in intercollegiate athletics by student athletes at Ball State University“. Virtual Press, 2001. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1204197.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the steps taken by the Ball State University Athletic Department in order to achieve the gender equity expectations set forth by Title IX. The study also investigated the perceptions and understanding of student athletes at Ball StateUniversity toward the steps taken to achieve gender equity. This study utilized surveys with student athletes from Ball State University. The results suggest that student athletes do not feel they are treated equally by the athletic department. However, it is unclear as to whether student athletes are fully aware of the actions taken by the athletic department to ensure gender equity.Department of Educational Leadership
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Sunnari, V. (Vappu). „Gendered structures and processes in primary teacher education:challenge for gender-sensitive pedagogy“. Doctoral thesis, University of Oulu, 1998. http://urn.fi/urn:isbn:9514246985.
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Abstract
My aim was to study gendered structures and processes and the challenges arising from them in primary teacher education. The topic was studied from structural and from agency-based and processual perspectives. The special tools used in the analyses consisted of culturally produced differences and asymmetry and the symbolic meanings given to them.
The study included historical and contemporary parts. The historical part of the study acquired its focus through the structures of the first Finnish Teacher Seminar and through three annual curricula of primary teacher education in Oulu. Data for the contemporary analyses were collected during a pedagogic development project carried out at the Oulu Department of Teacher Education in the years 1988–1996
The most visible components of the gender system identifiable in the structures of the first Finnish Teacher Seminar were the following:
– different aims for personal growth
– sex- and grade-based division of prospective teachers: female teachers for girls of all ages and small boys, male teachers for boys aged 10 or more
– differences in study subjects; especially in physical education, handicraft and pedagog
– everyday chores and pedagogical tasks of the student
– moral code and normative contro
– different enrolment requirements
The sex-related differences in the first curriculum of the Oulu College of Teacher Education were surprisingly similar to the differences seen in the first Finnish Teacher Seminar. The academic curricula proved to be ostensibly gender-neutral. But the research findings showed, in accordance with several other research findings, that formal neutrality does not eliminate institutionalised gendered features or gendered perspectives for personal and/or professional development. On the basis of the findings, the following aspects of the gender system and gender contracts in contemporary primary teacher education in Oulu could be identified:
– Almost without exception, the students qualifying in the education of the first two forms were female.
– Female students qualified in various subjects taught in primary school while male students rather tended to acquire their qualifications according to a more personal orientation. Their special qualifications were mostly physical education and technical work.
– There was a tendency among the student teachers to notice boys differently from girls and to experience boys as more challenging, and to
– interpret pupils’ school achievements in sex-related ways. This tendency was also shared by te pupils.
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McKay, Brian J. „An attitudinal study of gender equity perceptions from athletic administrators and coaches in the Mid-American Conference“. Virtual Press, 2004. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1304659.
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Within the past three years, men's track and field teams were being eliminated in the Mid-American Conference (MAC). Gender equity legislation, namely Title IX, was being blamed for those cuts. By probing the beliefs and opinions of coaches and administrators, a more accurate representation of gender equity could be drawn. The focus of this study was to gain a greater understanding of how gender equity is perceived by Mid-American Conference (MAC) athletic administrators and coaches.Q-methodology was chosen as the most relevant method to achieve the desired outcome. This method would take the subjective opinions and beliefs of the subjects and transform them into numbers that could be analyzed. The resulting information would create factors, or groups,which would help draw some conclusions on the true impact of gender equity legislation in the MAC.The subjects of this study provided two distinct factors labeled: "Title IX Defenders" and "Title IX Amenders." Title IX Defenders felt adamant that Title IX should not be altered. They primarily wanted to protect the integrity of the legislation. Title IX Amenders felt that Title IX should be altered to prevent further damage to men's non-revenue athletes, while continuing to protect female athletes.Department of Journalism
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Brown, Staci Deanne. „Student Scores on Advanced Placement Exams: Gender Variables“. Thesis, University of North Texas, 2007. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5198/.
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The results of the Advanced Placement exams given to students in 2006 were disaggregated according to gender. The level of performance was compared between males and females using Cohen's d. The standardized differences between male and female performance group levels were compared to previous results for the 1992 Advanced Placement (AP) exams. One purpose of this study was to determine whether or not the male-favored results that existed in 1992 still existed in the 2006. This study found that differences still exist in results based on gender and no real progress has been made in reducing the gap in achievement between males and females. A second purpose of this study was to compare and contrast the local data to the national data set to see if scores in Brazosport were similar to scores collected at the national level. To determine if similar results would be obtained at the local level the results of 267 Advanced Placement exams taken by 190 students from Brazsosport Independent School District in 2006 were disaggregated according to gender. The level of performance was compared between males and females using Hedge's g. Because of limited sample size, only 9 Advanced Placement exams were reviewed at the local level. This study found that the results from Brazosport were, in many cases, quite different from those found on the national level and there was no pattern to explain the variation among the differences. This study supports the collection of local data for monitoring gender bias that might exist on Advanced Placement exams. The data collected in the current study indicates that individual district progress in overcoming gender differences that historically have existed in specific scores on the AP exam might be overlooked if only national data is reviewed.
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Yello, Nicole. „A contact analysis of Caldecott medal and honor books from 2001-2011 examining gender issues and equity in 21st century children's picture books“. Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2012. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/645.
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An abundance of research has been conducted about the importance of including books and literature as part of a young child's developmental process. Much of this research suggests that picture books are vital to a young child's healthy development and "are important influences that shape us by reflecting the politics and values of our society" (Fox, 1993, p. 656). This study was completed to analyze character roles and gender representation of male and female characters exclusively in children's picture books. The entire population of Caldecott Award and Honor Medal books published between 2001 and 2011 was utilized for a frequency analysis. Each Caldecott Award and Honor Medal book meeting this study's criteria was examined, read and analyzed. Books included only works of fiction and were delimited to exclude biographies, autobiographies, informational books, concept books and poetry. A total of 24 books were used in the data analysis. This research attempted to answer the following question: Are males and females equitably represented in recently published children's literature? From a content-analysis approach, within a historical perspective, this research aimed at examining if gender bias still dominates the literature, and if so, to what extent. The intellectual interest of this project is in discovering male and female presence and imagery in children's picture books.B.S.
Bachelors
Education and Human Performance
Elementary Education
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Palmhag, Gabriel, und Mattias Mårtensson. „Bygg dig en konkursbuffert : - En studie om sex nyckeltal som kan innebära finansiell oro för små bolag inom byggbranschen“. Thesis, Mittuniversitetet, Avdelningen för ekonomivetenskap och juridik, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:miun:diva-33937.
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Denna studies syfte var att analysera sex nyckeltal och se vilka samband dessa hade på riskbuffert sysselsatt kapital. Studien utfördes på 796 små byggbolag i Sverige under perioden 2009–2016 med hjälp av en binär logistisk regressionsanalys. Som teoretisk referensram användes working capital management och finansiell oro. Studien resulterade i att kapitalets omsättningshastighet, skuldränta och rörelsekapital/totala tillgångar uppvisade signifikanta negativa samband med riskbuffert sysselsatt kapital. Räntetäckningsgrad och avkastning på totalt kapital resulterade i signifikanta positiva samband med riskbuffert sysselsatt kapital. Skuldsättningsgrad resulterade intressant nog i ett icke signifikant negativt samband. Slutligendiskuterades byggbolagens sannolikhet för finansiell oro utifrån respektive nyckeltal.The aim of this study was to examine the relation between six independent key ratios with riskbuffer on capital employed. The study was conducted on 796 small construction enterprises in Sweden during 2009–2016 with a binary logistic regression model. As theoretical framework, working capital management and financial distress was applied. The study concluded that the capital turnover rate, interest payable and working capital to total assets had significant negative relations with riskbuffer on capital employed. However, the interest cover ratio and return on total assets were both significant positively related withriskbuffer on capital employed. Debt-to-equity ratio resulted interestly enough in a nonsignificant negative relation. Lastly, with regards taken to every respective key ratio, the probability of financial distress among the construction firms was discussed.
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Bernelf, Fredrik. „Same-sex parental leave : Legislation and equality“. Thesis, Umeå universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-150591.
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Sweden is known to have one of the world's most generous parental insurances, both inlength and flexibility which has led to a high maternity rate and more women in paidwork. The political work on equality in Sweden has the goal that women and men shallhave the same power to shape society and their own lives. This has led to legislationaimed at getting fathers to stay more at home with their children. There has been plenty ofresearch on this subject so this study goes off the main track and looks at how legislationaround parenthood works for same-sex couples and if paternal leave is shared moreequally between same-sex parents than heterosexual parents. Discourse analysis of thelegislation and a survey with same-sex families followed by interviews indicate that samesexcouples share parental leave more equally than heterosexual couples. Legislationworks well for most same-sex families except for the process of related adoption. Reasonsfor more equal sharing of parental leave is hard to find but could depend on the fact thatsame-sex couples have been couples for a longer time, than heterosexual couples, beforedeciding to have children. Wage gap between men and women is a reason whyheterosexual couples do not share equally and it could be vice versa for same-sex couples.
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Graysmith, Leah. „Sex and gender in the equine in literature“. [Ames, Iowa : Iowa State University], 2008.
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Yuan, Lijun. „Reconceiving women's equality in China a critical examination of models of sex equality /“. online access from Digital dissertation consortium, 2002. http://libweb.cityu.edu.hk/cgi-bin/er/db/ddcdiss.pl?3074817.
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Parker, Michael L. „Sex and the soul Plato's equality argument in the Republic /“. Cincinnati, Ohio : University of Cincinnati, 2006. http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/view.cgi?acc%5Fnum=ucin1147887701.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Cincinnati, 2006.Title from electronic thesis title page (viewed Aug. 3, 2006). Includes abstract. Keywords: Plato, Republic, Equalit, ; Feminism, Guard Dog Analogy, Myth of Er, Laws, ; Nature, Soul, Phusis, Nomos, Female Nature, Guardians. Includes bibliographical references.
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Ocran, Kweku Siripi. „An Examination of Female Students’ Schooling Experiences in an Era of Educational Reforms in Ghana: A case study in the Accra - Tema School District“. Oxford, Ohio : Miami University, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=miami1272391557.
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Chiu, Hsin-Hui. „Two Essays on Investor Sentiment and Equity Offerings“. Digital Archive @ GSU, 2006. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/finance_diss/5.
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ABSTRACT TWO ESSAYS ON INVESTOR SENTIMENT AND EQUITY OFFERINGS BY HSIN-HUI CHIU May 2, 2006 Committee Chair: Dr. Jason T. Greene Major Department: Finance Using monthly open-end mutual fund flows as a proxy for investor sentiment, I am able to examine the impact of sentiment on IPO volume and underpricing. I find that issuers’ filing decisions are significantly affected by the predicted future sentiment around the expected IPO dates. Furthermore, sentiment has an impact on the final offer price setting and over-allotment options exercised. While previous research documents IPO cycles with respect to other proxies for investor sentiment, I am able to examine IPO cycles and underpricing with respect to sentiment along with investor risk preferences. I hypothesize that a going public firm will try to issue its IPO when investor risk preferences are favorable to the firm’s own risk characteristics. Empirical results based on 5,661 initial public offerings between 1986 and 2004 are consistent with my hypotheses that issuers not only time the market with sentiment in general, but also attempt to incorporate investor risk preferences into their going public decisions. Furthermore, underpricing is more severe when firms issue equity during months with large inflows into equity mutual funds. In my second essay, I find that SEO firms appear to time market efficiently because of the shorter filing periods compared to the average 2-3 months of the IPOs. Also, sentiment not only affects a SEO offer price setting but also affects the over-allotment options exercised. I examine two subgroups of the SEO samples: shelf registration and non-shelf SEOs. I find that shelf-registered SEOs incorporate investor sentiment into offering price to a greater degree compared to regular SEOs. Lastly I find that investor risk preference plays a role in firms’ decision to file prospectuses with the SEC. In other words, firms rationally decide the timing of filing based on the predicted investor preference and try to match firm characteristics with investor preference around the expected SEO date.
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Harris, Scott Robert. „What is equal? : the social construction of equality in marriage /“. view abstract or download file of text, 2001. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/uoregon/fullcit?p3018369.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2001.Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 231-243). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.
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Williams, Jeff. „A pastor-led program to equip parents to educate their children in human sexuality“. Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1993. http://www.tren.com.
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Kylberg, Julia, und Alexandra Wulff. „English in single-sex classrooms. English teachers’ considerations when selecting texts for single-sex classes“. Thesis, Malmö högskola, Lärarutbildningen (LUT), 2009. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-35836.
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The purpose of this dissertation is to find out whether some teachers at the vocational upper secondary schools where we have had our teaching practice are aware of the gender perspective and if/how they implement it in their teaching. The focus of the investigation is to find out to what extent the teachers in question take gender into account when they select texts for their single-sex classes. The aim was to learn about the teachers’ thoughts and views on gender issues as well as learning more about how to work gender consciously in the classroom. Qualitative interviews with seven upper secondary teachers were carried out. The semi-structured interviews we conducted contained guiding questions concerning gender, single-sex classes, material used for teaching. All the interviewed teachers think that gender is a very important question both in school and in society. The majority of the participating teachers do adjust their material with gender as a factor according to the sex of the majority of the class. The teachers emphasized that they also take other factors into account when selecting texts; an important one is the pupils’ course of study and interests.
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Parker, Michael L. „Sex and the Soul: Plato’s Equality Argument in the Republic“. University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2006. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1147887701.
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Lee-Attardo, Angela. „Minority Stress, Same-Sex Couples, and Marriage Equality: A Qualitative Interview Study“. Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2018. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1516914266181273.
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Hill, Paul. „A non-hierarchical Pauline theology of marriage from Ephesians 5:21-33“. Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN) Access this title online, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.2986/tren.063-0020.
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Autore, Don M. „Two Essays on Shelf-registered Corporate Equity Offerings“. Diss., Virginia Tech, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/26823.
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This dissertation consists of two essays. The first provides evidence that the recent revival of shelf equity offers is related to changes in how firms use shelf registration. During 1990-2003 firms that make shelf filings have no immediate intent and low probability of issuance, lower pre-filing returns relative to non-shelf issuers, and often have been certified in prior SEOs. The evidence indicates that the way firms now use shelf offerings resolves the under-certification problem responsible for the shelf demise in the 1980s (Denis, 1991) and results in smaller market penalties and lower underwriter fees relative to non-shelf offerings. This allows firms with greater uncertainty to take advantage of the shelf option to defer or abandon offers. Additionally, firms often use universal shelf filings and choose between debt and equity offerings based on the prevailing relative market conditions.
The second essay examines offer price discounting of traditional and shelf-registered seasoned equity offerings (SEOs). The results indicate that relative to traditional SEOs, shelf discounting during 1982 - June 2004 is similar in magnitude, is influenced by the same factors, and has increased similarly over time. Prior studies attribute the time-series increase of seasoned offer discounting to pre-offer short sale constraints (Rule 10b-21; adopted in 1988). This study provides insights about the effect of Rule 10b-21 by exploiting the fact that shelf-registered offerings were exempt from this regulation until September 2004. The analysis uses the shelf exemption as a control in testing the Rule's effect, and the elimination of the exemption as an "out-of-sample" test. The results suggest that Rule 10b-21 is not associated with the increase in seasoned offer discounts. The gradual increase in discounting over the past two decades is largely due to a shift in the composition of issuers toward firms that have greater stock volatility and pre-offer price uncertainty.Ph. D.