Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „Rural land prices, NSW“

Purpose – This article aims at analysing the different institutional aspects of the rural land market that are manifest at the transactional level. Second, it answers the question whether including these aspects in a land price model increases the understanding of rural land market outcomes. Institutional economics scholars have challenged the limited institutional behaviour of conventional land market models. Despite their research methods remaining primarily qualitative, research findings suggest that we should look at institutional aspects to understand land and real estate market outcomes better. Design/methodology/approach – This paper presents a hedonic price model explaining rural land prices by using individual institutional transaction aspects from the deeds of purchase of the land exchange. Findings – The results indicate that incorporating institutional aspects, such as property rights, transactional arrangements and governance context, as explanatory variables significantly improves the power of the model. Originality/value – The approach taken in this article is new in the sense that it tries to combine a quantitative research method with a rich data set of a more qualitative character. The use of deeds of purchase as a primary source of a hedonic price model is relatively new and provides a first step in bridging the gap between advanced hedonic land price models and rich institutional economic insights in market processes.

The recent implementation of the CAP Single Area Payments in the EU New Member States raises the question of whether a quick capitalisation of these payments is expected. Capitalisation of public support to agriculture into land prices indicates that the benefits are partly transferred toward landowners rather than toward producers. This distributional aspect is of particular importance in countries where a large proportion of land is farmed by producers who do not own this land. This study investigates the influence of several types of support on Czech agricultural land prices from private transactions between 1995–2001. The past period direct payments have been capitalised at the strongest rate, despite their low level and imperfections on the land market, suggesting that such support is most easily transferred to land values. A continuing capitalisation might threaten the farming activity, as farms are almost only tenanted. And because most of the landowners live in towns, there is a risk of an extreme leakage of support not only outside the farming sector, but also outside the rural sector.

Growing crops for biofuels is often criticized because of its direct competition for land for food production. The recent price increases on world food markets are partly a result of this competition. For instance, cereals prices have increased by more than 60% since 2005 and in 2006 sugar prices peaked at a level twice as high as the level of previous years. There are concerns whether these increases will continue and if the world will run out of resources for food production. According to the authors, these concerns are largely unwarranted. For one, higher prices for food also mean that feedstocks are becoming increasingly expensive for bio-energy production and this endogenously limits the amount of feedstocks that will be used in the energy market. In addition, there is no imminent global resource shortage, neither for land nor for water that would support these concerns. Even with an expanding world population there is globally still enough land and water to grow a substantial amount of biomass for both food and bio-energy production. However, there is an uneven distribution of natural resources, resulting in huge regional differences with important areas experiencing major land and water shortages. China and India, for example, account together for more than 35% of the total global population and both have exploited most of the land and water resources available for agriculture. On the other hand, sub-Saharan Africa and South America still have the potential, in terms of suitable land and exploitable water, to expand areas for agricultural production. The growing demand for bio-energy will have a negative and positive effect on food. Higher food prices can increase food insecurity among the urban poor and the rural landless population. On the other hand higher prices and more marketable production can stimulate the agricultural sector and create new opportunities for rural communities. At the national level it can offer development opportunities for countries with significant resources.

Recently, we witnessed an immense increase in international land transactions in the Global South, a phenomenon slowly expanding in northern industrialized countries, too. Even though in Europe agriculture plays a decreasing economic role for rural livelihoods, the increases in land transactions by non-local, non-agricultural investors pervades rural life. Nevertheless, the underlying processes are not yet well understood. Large-scale land acquisitions describe such purchases and leases in a neutral way, while ‘land grabbing’ expresses negative consequences for rural people. We investigate whether and under which conditions the term land grabbing is justified for the phenomenon observed in Europe. We propose six socio-cultural criteria that scholars should consider to come to an initial classification: legal irregularities, non-residence of new owners, centralization in decision-making structures, treating land as an investment object, concentration of decision-power, and limited access to land markets. We supplement our findings with empirical material from East Germany, where such land acquisition processes occur. Our paper contributes to the ongoing discussion about agricultural structural change in Europe, which is intensified by increasing land prices and a new distribution of landownership but likewise strongly intertwined with rural development.

This paper reports on the findings of the study related to the agricultural land purchases in the Slovak Republic from June 1, 2014 till September 30, 2015. The situation is analysed according to the new legislation for the period after the expiration of the moratorium on the purchase of agricultural land by foreigners. We focus on the agricultural land supply and land prices in particular Slovak regions related to the land which has been offered for sale via the Register of Publication of Offers of the Agricultural Land at the web side of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Our results show that new legal regulation Act no. 140/2014 Coll. on acquisition of ownership right to agricultural land directly favours certain groups interested in purchasing of land, and limits not only foreigners but also domestic persons interested in purchasing of agricultural land. The land supply prices are higher than the administrative ones in all Slovak regions.

This paper reports on the findings of the study related to the agricultural land purchases in the Slovak Republic from June 1, 2014 till September 30, 2015. The situation is analysed according to the new legislation for the period after the expiration of the moratorium on the purchase of agricultural land by foreigners. We focus on the agricultural land supply and land prices in particular Slovak regions related to the land which has been offered for sale via the Register of Publication of Offers of the Agricultural Land at the web side of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Our results show that new legal regulation Act no. 140/2014 Coll. on acquisition of ownership right to agricultural land directly favours certain groups interested in purchasing of land, and limits not only foreigners but also domestic persons interested in purchasing of agricultural land. The land supply prices are higher than the administrative ones in all Slovak regions.

Increasing agricultural production is essential to improving food availability and farm household incomes in developing economies. This study investigated the dynamic supply responses of major cereal crops to price and nonprice factors in Ethiopia using the Ethiopian Rural Household Survey (ERHS) panel dataset from 1994 to 2009. According to the Nerlovian expectation and adjustment approach in conjunction with the system GMM (generalized method of moments) estimator, both the planted areas and produced yields of major crops (teff, wheat, and barley) are influenced by price and nonprice factors in Ethiopia. The supply of major cereal crops is affected positively by their own prices and negatively by the prices of substitute crops. Nonprice factors such as education, farm size, fertilizer, land quality, and precipitation also affect supply of major cereals. Both the short-term and long-term acreage and yield response elasticities of teff and barley are positive. Moreover, the adjustment coefficients are positive for teff, barley, and wheat. The results suggest that Ethiopian farmers are capable of analyzing market signals and responding positively to price increases of staple crops. The findings also imply that the Ethiopian agricultural sector has been responsive to the cereal price increases observed since 2006. The remarkable growth of Ethiopian agriculture over recent decades is partly explained by the increase in agricultural prices. This study recommends that a fine-tuned balance between government interventions and market solutions is important, in addition to improving farmers’ agronomic practices, for increasing agricultural production.

The present study aims to determine and evaluate the negative consequences of the implementation of the direct payments financial support mechanism under the Common Agricultural Policy on the rural sustainability of Lithuania. Interviews of experts and a combination of the analytic hierarchy process with three different measurement scales and the analytic hierarchy process with triangular fuzzy numbers were employed in order to evaluate and rank the negative effects of the direct payments mechanism of the Common Agricultural Policy. It was revealed that high land prices, decreasing diversification of cultivated crops, land degradation, and financial indebtedness of farmers can be attributed to direct payments and these consequences have a significant negative impact on the rural sustainability of Lithuania. The necessity of using a combination of different evaluation scales and techniques was confirmed.

After 20 years of neglect by international patrons, agriculture is now again in the headlines because high food prices are increasing food anxiety and poverty. In the coming years, it will be important to increase food productivity and production in developing countries, expressly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asian countries like Afghanistan with smallholders. This, however, wants finding viable solutions to a number of complex procedural, institutional, and policy issues, including land markets, research on seeds and inputs, agricultural extension, credit, rural organization, connection to markets, rural non-farm employment, trade policy and food price stabilization. This paper reviews what the economic poetry has to say on these topics. It debates in turn the role played by agriculture in the development course and the interactions between agriculture and other economic sectors, the determinants of the Green Revolt and the foundations of agricultural growth, issues of income diversification by farmers, approaches to rural growth, and issues of international trade policy and food security, which have been at the root of the crisis in agricultural commodity instability in recent years.

Transaction cost theory is largely used to investigate the formal domain of land and housing. In the informal domain, however, this perspective has been employed largely as a supplement in addressing the other fundamental notion in new institutional economics—property rights—despite the possibility that informality in land development can emerge regardless of the informality or formality of such rights. To cover this gap, this study developed a theoretical framework based on transaction cost theory to explain the formal–informal dichotomy in land development. The proposed framework maintains that land development depends on engaging in transactions that involve total or partial ownership of a combination of capital and land through lease and/or sale contracts, which enable landowners to earn from the new rental prices produced by the increase in land prices. Landowners are afforded two avenues from which to reduce transaction costs, namely, formal and informal institutional frameworks, each defining and enforcing restrictive rules on agents’ actions. These avenues, however, are simultaneously a source of new transaction costs that can affect the expected financial return of land development. Landowners therefore tend to choose the institutional framework that entails lower transaction costs but enables higher gains. Thus, the higher transaction costs associated with a formal institutional framework are the primary deterrents to the selection of this structure. In turn, informal land development continues to expand, regardless of the existence of formal prohibitive measures. We investigated the formal–informal dichotomy in the rural land development process in Tehran Province, Iran. The results indicated that transaction costs cause inefficiency in formal institutions, thereby driving the perpetuation of informal development.

The aim of the study was to identify the importance of the evolution of land resources in shaping the social structure. The analysis was based on selected references from the Polish literature on the subject. The time range covers the years 1944–2016. Land plays an important role in shaping the social structure of the Polish countryside. The size of a farm used to be the primary criterion for social status in the countryside and among farmers. Currently, a position in the social structure of the Polish rural communities is highly determined by the area of farmed land (owned or leased). The situation of agricultural land users is changing. These are not only people who identify themselves with the profession of a farmer. The social structure composition in the Polish countryside comprises more and more people who are farmers in the light of law (they have the required acreage of agricultural land) but they do not reside in the countryside. Another group consists of so-called absent owners, who are connected with a village by possessing in it some agricultural land, but it is often treated as an investment (an increase in land prices and the possibility of receiving subsidies from the European Union and from the national budget). As a result of Poland’s political transformation, the social structure of rural communities now also comprises leases and buyers of land acquired by the Agricultural Property of the Treasury from former state farms.

Developing Asia stands witness to the impact of economic growth on poverty reduction. The incomes and quality of life for many people have improved and poverty levels are falling. But results vary with rural growth lagging behind urban growth in many countries and subregions. Two thirds of the region’s 3 billion people live in rural areas, and in India, for example, 74 percent of people classified as poor are in rural areas (ADB 2004). The difference in urban and rural growth and poverty outcomes is socially and politically untenable, as witnessed in the recent election in India. Rural poverty problems in many cases become urban poverty problems through rising pressure on cities to absorb rural migrants needing jobs, homes, and services. Pre-1980s, the rural economic problem was commonly seen as undersupply of affordable food and raw materials to support industrialization as the engine of rapid growth. The strategy greatly influenced the design and choice of public policies. Overvalued exchange rates were intended to help new industries establish domestic markets and lower costs of imported materials, but lowered the domestic currency earnings for farmers in export markets. Administered food prices lowered consumer prices but lowered returns to farmers as well. Agricultural commodities and land were heavily taxed to force the transfer of resources out of rural areas. Farm input subsidies encourage production of food crops but lead to resource wastage, and often benefit well-to-do farmers. Such policy biases lower agriculture’s terms of trade, distort market signals, and undermine agricultural growth (Krueger 1992).In the above back setting. An attempt is made to briefly outlines the potential for agriculture and rural development as a critical force for inclusive growth and sustained poverty reduction and reviews experiences in the Asian region with agriculture in economic transformation. It highlights major policy challenges for accelerating agriculture and rural development.

For peasants who have been collectivized for nearly three decades, the national campaign initiated by the Party Central Committee's Document No. 1, 1984 to promote the reparcellization of collective farmland, by extending the peasants' leasehold right to over 15 years (para. 3–1), is certainly not less spectacular than the land reform of 1949–52, when land was confiscated from the rich for redistribution among poor peasant families. This “second land reform” has now firmly consolidated the long-fought policy of Deng Xiaoping for a decentralized approach towards rural management. All the cats – “black or white” – seem to have now been totally unleashed to run after their best catch. This stands in sharp contrast to the uneasy equilibrium of the “two-line struggle,” which existed throughout the entire 20-year period following the abortive communization drive of 1958/1959. Nevertheless, while probably no Chinese leader today can afford to play the role of Mao's Liu cum Deng, one wonders whether, for economic reasons, the present rural institutional solution as envisaged in Document No. 1 will mark the end of the perennial Chinese search for an “optimum” level of decentralization. In a way, the agricultural reform of recent years has begun with the drastic increases, decreed in 1979, in state farm procurement prices, averaging 25 per cent. For a regime very much obsessed with the value imperative of modernization, the farm price increases should clearly be construed as income incentives for promoting agricultural production to ease the economic constraints on industrialization. This is nothing new but is exactly the policy developed by the prominent Chinese economist, Ma Yinchu, some 25 years ago in his then much condemned “balanced growth model” for China. Thus the strategy fits in well with a western analytical model formulated by Chiang and Fei in 1966, for a “maximum-speed development through austerity.” The model postulates that under socialism, a consumption policy which imposes an “optimum” rather than maximum degree of austerity, may induce greater labour effort and thus an output growth more than proportionate to the required marginal consumption expenditure. It follows that not only will the rate of capital accumulation not be depressed by increased consumption, but it may even accelerate and thus help to sustain a higher overall income growth rate.

AbstractEconomic recession often exacerbates the effects of poverty on agrarian communities in Nigeria. This paper examined the effects of economic recession on female farmers and coping strategies they employed. It explored the effects of the crisis on their income, farm size, livelihood and welfare aspects such as feeding, schooling of their children and health care. The study was conducted in Ondo State, Nigeria. Primary data were used. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to administer 100 copies of the questionnaires on females in rural agrarian households in the study area. The obtained data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square and Likert scale analysis. The findings showed that the economic recession resulted in poor health care, inadequate feeding, poor income and school dropouts. Major factors that helped the women to cope were land ownership security/access to land, introduction of new crops, marital status and educational status. These factors are crucial as their Chi-square values and Likelihood Ratios were significant at one percent probability level (P < 0.01). The research concludes that educated females as well as married women and women possessing secured land tenure coped better in times of economic crisis. The paper thus recommends increased investments by governments in the agricultural sector to help curtail the inflation in food prices and increasing women access to land and education.

A very large segment of the population in India has not been affected by the process of post-independence economic development. According to one estimate, in 1983, around 300 million people, or 40 percent of the total population, were living below the poverty line, while more than 100 million people were living in severe destitute conditions. Infant mortality, which is an important indicator of undernourishment, is more than three times the rate in Sri Lanka and China. This is not a satisfactory state of affairs but it represents a significant improvement over time. While population has increased from 355 million in 1949-50 to 775 million in 1985-86, foodgrain output has almost tripled to 151 million tonnes during the same period. Most of the other agricultural crops have followed a similar pattern of growth, implying an increase in the per capita availability of domestically-produced agricultural products over time. The main source of agricultural growth since the Sixties has been the increasing use of modern inputs, which have contributed to higher yields and to multi-cropping patterns. However, while the green revolution diminished poverty, it adversely affected the distribution of land, leading to the concentration of resources in fertile areas and benefiting more the richer farmers. Furthermore, the growth of population combined with slow urbanization has increased the population pressure on land. The land-man ratio has been declining over time and the increase in employment opportunities outside agriculture, both in urban and rural areas, which is vital for reducing poverty, has not been significant enough to alter the employment pattern. This suggests that it would be impossible to wipe out poverty in the foreseeable future by altering prices or raising production alone, despite evidence that the price index and the production of agricultural products have a direct influence on poverty.

This paper represents an overview on the structural dynamics of Romanian agriculture, and the challenges faced. Describing the main changes over the last three decades, the analysis here should facilitate understanding of how communist-era agriculture of a centralised state might be transformed into something able to operate efficiently under free-market conditions. The specifics of Romania’s agricultural transition connect closely with certain preconditions, among them in particular the high proportion of the national population that is still rural. A privatisation process set in rapidly post-1989, as the old State Farms were dissolved over just two years. The role this economic branch played in the generation of GDP decreased, in a manner suggesting the former level will not be re-achieved, but farmers have worked to improve their basic infrastructure. The main obstacle would now seem to be the excessive fragmentation of agricultural land and the only-slow process of consolidation. Current characteristics of structural dynamics are visible in trends towards specialisation in farming, livestock restructuring, the slow (re-) development of irrigation infrastructure, increased land prices and more typical processes of a “land grab” profile. In this connection, the paper identifies 9 challenges Romanian agriculture faces, presenting these synthetically to ensure a clarification of objectives, with a view to greater upgrading of the country’s huge potential being achieved.

We explore sustainable land sector opportunities for Australia’s 1.2 million km2 northern savanna rangelands where extensive beef cattle pastoralism is the predominant contemporary land use. Our focal region is characterised by mean annual rainfall exceeding 600 mm, ecologically bountiful wet season water availability followed by 6–8 months of surface water deficit, mostly nutrient-poor soils, internationally significant biodiversity and carbon stock values, very extensive dry season fires in pastorally unproductive settings, a sparse rural population (0.14 persons km–2) comprising a high proportion of Indigenous people, and associated limited infrastructure. Despite relatively high beef cattle prices in recent seasons and property values escalating at a spectacular ~6% p.a. over the past two decades, long-term economics data show that, for most northern regions, typical pastoral enterprises are unprofitable and carry significant debt. Pastoral activities can also incur very significant environmental impacts on soil and scarce dry season water resources, and greenhouse gas emissions, which currently are not accounted for in economic sustainability assessments. Over the same period, the conservation sector (including National Parks, Indigenous Protected Areas) has been expanding rapidly and now occupies 25% of the region. Since 2012, market-based savanna burning projects aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions occur over a further 25%. Returns from nature-based tourism focussed particularly on maintaining intact freshwater systems and associated recreational fishing opportunities dwarf returns from pastoralism. The growth of these latter industries illustrates the potential for further development of profitable ‘ecosystem services’ markets as part of a more environmentally and socially sustainable diversified regional land sector economy. We outline some of the imminent challenges involved with, and opportunities for developing, this new industry sector.

O Território Rural do Bolsão/MS, a partir do ano de 2006, presencia nova reconcentração fundiária, por meio da expansão territorial do complexo eucalipto-celulose. Circunstância que tem ocasionado visíveis transformações territoriais, especialmente nas áreas circunvizinhas às empresas localizadas próximos aos projetos de reforma agrária. Nessa perspectiva, objetivamos com esta pesquisa: abordar a territorialização do complexo eucalipto-celulose e as estratégias de (re)criação camponesa nos projetos de assentamento da Reforma Agrária, com o intuito de apreender algumas aproximações a respeito da atual questão agrária no Território. Como metodologia de análise, recorremos à: revisão bibliográfica de obras que tratam da questão agrária; como procedimento de coleta de dados: ao trabalho de campo e uso de fontes orais; e como técnica de pesquisa: pela aplicação de entrevistas aleatórias. Por meio desse trabalho percebemos que houve a valorização do preço das terras e a inserção de programas sociais realizados pelas empresas nos assentamentos a partir da expansão do complexo eucalipto-celulose, ocasionando respectivamente a paralisação e privatização da política de Reforma Agrária. Em contrapartida há nos territórios da Reforma Agrária a resistência inovada do campesinato a partir da apropriação tanto dos mercados institucionais PAA e o PNAE quanto pelo fortalecimento dos grupos informais de comércio justo. Palavras-chave: Questão Agrária; Complexo eucalipto-celulose; Cerrado; (Re)criação camponesa; Território Rural do Bolsão/MS. THE AGRARIAN QUESTION IN TERRITÓRIO RURAL DO BOLSÃO/MS: some approaches Abstract The Rural Territory of Bolsão/ MS, from the year 2006, witnesses new land reconcentration through the territorial expansion of eucalyptus-cellulose complex. Circumstance that has caused visible territorial transformations, especially in the surrounding areas of companies located next to agrarian reform projects. In this perspective, we aim with this research: address the territorialization of the eucalyptus-cellulose complex and strategies of (re)creation of peasant settlement projects of agrarian reform, in order to grasp some approaches regarding the current agrarian question in the Territory. As analysis methodology, we used the literature review of works that deal with the land question; as data collection procedure: the field work and the use of oral sources; and as research technique: for the application of random interviews. Through this work we realized that there was the exploitation of land prices and the insertion of social programs undertaken by companies in the settlements from the expansion of the eucalyptus-pulp, causing respectively the paralysis and privatization of land reform policy. Keywords: Agrarian Question; Eucalyptus-cellulose complex; Land reconcentration; Cerrado; Peasant (re)creation; Território Rural do Bolsão/MS. LA CUESTIÓN AGRARIA EN EL TERRITORIO RURAL DEL BOLSÃO/MS: algunas aproximación Resumen Lo Território Rural do Bolsão/MS, la partir del año de 2006, presencia nueva reconcentración agraria, por medio de la expansión territorial del complejo eucalipto-celulosa. Circunstancia que tiene ocasionado visibles transformaciones territoriais, especialmente en las áreas alrededores de las empresas localizadas cercana a los projectos de reforma agraria. En esta perspectiva, objetivamos con esta investigación: abordar la territorialización del complejo eucalipto-celulosa y las estrategias de (re)creacíon campesina en los projectos de asentamiento de la Reforma Agraria, con la meta de aprehender algunas aproximaciones la respeto de la actual cuestión agraria en lo Território. Como metodología de análisis, recorremos a: revisión bibliográfica de obras que tratam de la cuestión agraria; como procedimiento de colecta de datos: al trabajo de campo y uso de fuentes orais; y como técnica de investigación: por la aplicación de entrevistas aleatorias. A través de este trabajo nos dimos cuenta de que era la explotación de los precios de la tierra y la inserción de programas sociales emprendidas por las empresas en los asentamientos de la expansión de la pasta de eucalipto respectivamente, causando la parálisis y la privatización de la política de reforma agraria. Palabras-clave: Cuestión agrária; Complejo eucalipto-celulosa; (Re)creacíon campesina; Cerrado; Território Rural do Bolsão/MS.

The determination of the NJOP is based on the assessment of the land and property/buildings carried out by the Regional Government. The purpose of this research is to find out how to determine the selling value of tax objects and their implications for land and building tax revenues in Banjar Regency. The method in this research is descriptive. This research was conducted in the working area of Kertak Hanyar and Gambut Districts. The data collection technique used in this research is a field study. The data analysis method used in this research is descriptive quantitative data analysis. The results of this study are that Banjar Regency determines the selling value of the tax object of each taxpayer differently according to the location and condition of the tax object, namely land and buildings. Such as the determination of NJOP in Kertak Hanyar and Gambut Districts, where these two sub-districts are one of the largest contributors to income sourced from PBB Taxes because they are developed sub-districts which are dominated by housing, trade, services, and industry activities. There is a lot of land conversion from agricultural land to other land functions such as housing, business, industry, and services. The determination of land and building NJOP is still an NJOP determination adopted from KPP Pratama since the transfer of Land and Building Tax for Rural and Urban sectors from central tax to local tax on January 1, 2014, until now. UN revenues that have the highest potential are in Kertak Hanyar and Gambut Districts. Local governments must assess and reprocess data, especially between the selling value of tax objects (NJOP) and selling prices that occur in the community, and update PBB objects from previous data, such as non-taxable tax objects (public facilities) so that the determination of NJOP become more relevant. Local governments need to re-establish NJOP for data that has not been subject to PBB, or updating existing data will increase the selling value of tax objects that are the basis for imposing PBB.

In Georgia agriculture faces many challenges though there are few beneficial movements in this sector. As the article mainly describes the challenges of potato production development, the statistical data analysis will be useful. In 2008-2019 local potato supply rate was increased from 86% up to 93% in the country, especially in the condition when the potato land plots reduced from 24 thousand to 16.4 thousand ha, while the quantity of the produced potato has been increased unequally. Rural farms, regardless they are domestic or commercial are still flexible on the market against the prices of other agricultural product, this was the reason why the total potato land plots used to increase or reduce. In many cases the reason for reduction of the plots is the problems with harvest sales and low prices compared to primary cost of the product due to which the cultivated land plots were reduced. In addition, 99% produce potato. The majority of Samtskhe-Javakheti residents was and is engaged before and now in the agriculture actively. The region population is actively involved in both crop production and livestock breeding. The speed of production volume changing in the agriculture gives us possibility to base regional development concept on agricultural development in combination with the processing industry. For the recent years the size of the state funding of the sector is permanently increasing, though there are many indicators showing that it is early to talk about quality improvement of the field. Additionally, the article discusses the steps made towards development of agriculture and there are stipulations about the reasons of their ineffectiveness. The solution ways and directions are also suggested for overcoming the causes on the example of Samtskhe-Javakheti region. By considering the fact that potato production is the major direction of the crop production in Samtskhe-Javakheti, the discussion mainly focuses on existing situation in potato growing of the region, analyzing the situation, threats and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. In Summary, we have developed the model for the region in order to have a precedent for overcoming the challenges in the potato production, which will show the rural household and enterprises how it is possible to reflect supporting policy of the state on the financial results of the activities. The model does not require great financial expenses, though it can be an important stimulus for other domestic farms and the example for the regional cooperatives developed on the model, supporting to development agriculture and entire region together processing industry. Keywords: Agriculture, potato production.

In Georgia agriculture faces many challenges though there are few beneficial movements in this sector. As the article mainly describes the challenges of potato production development, the statistical data analysis will be useful. In 2008-2019 local potato supply rate was increased from 86% up to 93% in the country, especially in the condition when the potato land plots reduced from 24 thousand to 16.4 thousand ha, while the quantity of the produced potato has been increased unequally. Rural farms, regardless they are domestic or commercial are still flexible on the market against the prices of other agricultural product, this was the reason why the total potato land plots used to increase or reduce. In many cases the reason for reduction of the plots is the problems with harvest sales and low prices compared to primary cost of the product due to which the cultivated land plots were reduced. In addition, 99% produce potato. The majority of Samtskhe-Javakheti residents was and is engaged before and now in the agriculture actively. The region population is actively involved in both crop production and livestock breeding. The speed of production volume changing in the agriculture gives us possibility to base regional development concept on agricultural development in combination with the processing industry. For the recent years the size of the state funding of the sector is permanently increasing, though there are many indicators showing that it is early to talk about quality improvement of the field. Additionally, the article discusses the steps made towards development of agriculture and there are stipulations about the reasons of their ineffectiveness. The solution ways and directions are also suggested for overcoming the causes on the example of Samtskhe-Javakheti region. By considering the fact that potato production is the major direction of the crop production in Samtskhe-Javakheti, the discussion mainly focuses on existing situation in potato growing of the region, analyzing the situation, threats and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. In Summary, we have developed the model for the region in order to have a precedent for overcoming the challenges in the potato production, which will show the rural household and enterprises how it is possible to reflect supporting policy of the state on the financial results of the activities. The model does not require great financial expenses, though it can be an important stimulus for other domestic farms and the example for the regional cooperatives developed on the model, supporting to development agriculture and entire region together processing industry. Keywords: Agriculture, potato production.

Ecosystems provide services that contribute to the well-being of people living within a city’s borders and on the urban–rural fringe. While benefits from green areas in urban settings are well investigated, peri-urban areas are significantly less addressed by researchers than cities. This study aims to evaluate the importance of environmental amenities in peri-urban areas using the hedonic pricing method to assess people’s willingness to pay for environmental goods and services. A local regression model (geographically weighted regression) and two global regression models (generalized spatial two-stage least squares and ordinary least square) are used to identify the spatial patterns and level of influence of protected areas, forests, rivers, trees, and landscape diversity. This paper includes the Central European case study example of a peri-urban area of the city of Wroclaw, Poland. The results from the three models show that out of all of the environmental amenities included in this study, proximity to protected areas—such as Natura 2000 sites and landscape parks—and the diversity of land-use patches within the 500-m radius around the sites exert the strongest influence on plot prices. The overall impact of environmental amenities on vacant plot prices in peri-urban areas is low or, as in the case of river and streams, not significant. The results of the analysis reveal the preferences of the new peri-urban inhabitants concerning green spaces that have an effect on the real estate market in Poland.

The south coastal region of Yogyakarta Province (YSP) in Indonesia has inherited a unique farming system called sawah surjan, which is considered as a cultural heritage that demonstrates a form of local wisdom in managing land resources with poor drainage. The local residents have succeeded in realizing their desire of making the farming system ecologically stable and capable of providing a decent living. As a cultural heritage, however, sawah surjan has been under an increasing threat of conversion resulting from the infrastructure development and spreading of urban developments. This study assessed the prospect of sawah surjan in the rural household economy and its sustainability within the context of changing wider environment. To do so, a household survey was conducted covering 41 farmer households in Depok Village, Panjatan Sub-district, Kulonprogo Regency, Yogyakarta Special Province where the existence of sawah surjan is threatened by the large-scale investments. The research show that sawah surjan contributes to employment generation, diverse sources of income, food security, and income redistribution. It is generally sustainable but the excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers will have adverse effects on its sustainability. The research confirms that the most significant threat is the infrastructural development, especially the prospective construction of a new international airport as increased land prices may lead to uncontrolled conversion of sawah surjan into non-agricultural uses. This is also in coincidence with the stagnant regeneration of farmers in the area that lead to a bleak future of the system.

Forest business clusters offer a unique opportunity to improve competitiveness of the forest products sector and stimulate economic development in rural areas. This study utilized georeferenced data on the location of primary wood products manufacturers in the US South to examine spatial clustering within this industry. Independent spatial analyses, F-hat and L-hat, and a χ2 statistic provided evidence of regional clustering. A count data model was used to determine location preference of primary wood-using mills and identify factors promoting industry clustering. It was determined that access to a labor pool, low cost of primary inputs, presence of related industries, adequate transportation infrastructure, and low land values positively influenced clustering among primary wood-using mills. A marginal analysis indicated that counties with adequate transportation infrastructure and presence of related industries were most likely to attract new primary forest products manufacturers. These two factors increased the predicted number of sawmills by 26.83% and 22.65%, respectively. Increases in prices of logs and energy can deter the spatial aggregation of wood-using mills. Results provide evidence that public investments in infrastructure can have an important role in attracting wood products industry firms.

On his first day in office, on 1 December 2018, freshman President of Mexico, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) delivered a speech outlining 100 policy priorities of his administration. The present study analyzed the contributions of this government’s program relating to food security and their environmental implications, and whether they contributed to strengthen the state or improved human security, considering that the poor and marginalized were at the center of AMLO's campaign. In total 45 policy priorities were geared to consolidate the state, while 55 contributed to improving human security. Only six were related to food security, including stipends to food producers and purchasing grains at guaranteed prices, a fertilizer distribution program and subsidies for cattle husbandry and fisheries/aquaculture. These programs contributed to advancing 10 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals, especially those related to Zero Hunger and Reduced Inequalities. Various policy programs had explicit considerations towards climate change and land degradation, including the exclusion of natural protected areas from agricultural subsidies, and recognized that food production is vulnerable to climate change. The four agricultural programs analyzed may advance AMLO’s goal of avoiding food imports, while curbing rural poverty. However, available evidence is mixed regarding animal acquisition loans, which are likely to have adverse environmental outcomes. Finally, the program for developing agroforestry operations is already contributing to deforestation, and further ecosystem degradation is most likely to occur from the introduction of timber and fruit species to natural forests as this program does not preclude the inclusion of recently cleared plots. If human development goals are to be reached, along with fulfilling the international commitments on sustainable development and environmental conservation, policies need to be implemented that simultaneously tend to a booming transnational industry, while bringing forward the rural poor, who amount to nearly half of the country's population.

Base on the Village Law No. 6 of 2014 concerning Village, namely villages have the right, authority and obligation to regulate and manage their own government affairs and community interests based on their rights of origin and local customs. In this authority, the village provides services to the community and conducts community empowerment. Sota village is a border region with Papua New Guinea. The location of Kampung Sota is relatively close to the seafront of the city of Merauke, has a population of 1,270 in 2014 and the resources of forests, rivers and swamps. This research use Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach and SWOT analysis. The results of the study found: Strength Aspects namely 1). Raw materials are easily available, 2). Strategic business location, 3). Product prices begin to increase, 4). The products produced are export products, 5). Availability of Village Land, 6). Commitment from the village government. Weakness aspects are: 1). The lack of business capital, small production quantity, 2). Transportation for raw materials, 3). Unattractive packaging, 4). Cooperatives in the village are controlled by individuals / traditional leaders who control the local land. Opportunity Aspect namely 1). Products that have a prospective market share, 2). Production capacity can be reproduced, 3). Increased consumer needs and public awareness to use local products, 4). Development of technology and information, 5). Additional workforce. Threat aspects, namely: 1). Still depends on the rainy and dry seasons, 2). Increased bargaining position of raw material suppliers, 3). The emergence of new competitors, 4). Government regulations on National Parks. So that the type of potential business that can be developed is the management of eucalyptus oil. While the alternative business sector is tourism, clean water, nine basic commodities and arwana fish. Keywords: Development, Village Owned Enterprises, prospective

Abstract The world-wide process of structural transformation is a result of the emergence of new challenges with long-term effect; which requires a strategic vision in the agro-food trade, together with the implementation of concrete actions by the authorities. Increasing global population, increasing pressure on natural resources and global warming are leading to a new framework at international level. In Europe, the aging process is an additional challenge. All these aspects will have profound implications for agriculture and rural areas. Global food demand is increasing, a large scale of urbanization, rising input prices, pressure on water resources and increasing vulnerability of crops and animals to climate change will limit food production. Even in these conditions agricultural sector of Romania has a huge potential. Domestic food demand could be covered if this potential will be exploited with technological resources and would not depend so much by climatic factors. Also Romania could export significant quantities of agro-food products. On the other hand, Romania suffers from one of the most pronounced structural divisions of agricultural land between all EU member states and also between the new member states. Precisely for this reason, Romania loses a lot in terms of production and export of agro-food products, in competition with developed countries. This paper analyzes the competitive position of Romanian companies in agro-food value chains. The article also answers to one of the most important questions. Are Romanian companies competitive in the agro-food value chains? What are the factors, challenges and obstacles for internationalization of Romanian agro-food product? In order to answer these questions, a quantitative research was performed using statistical data obtained from International Trade Center, for the year 2019 and Romanian National Committee for Macro prudential Supervision, 2020.

Tomato(Solanum esculentum)is one of the most promising vegetables whose production is being intensified in Uganda. However, tomato yields remain low due to several constraints. The study aimed at identifying production and marketing practices, and constraints affecting tomato productivity in major tomato growing areas of Uganda. A survey was conducted in eight major tomato producing districts using a questionnaire to guide interviews for 240 farmers and 16 key informants. The data were analyzed using SPSS software. Results revealed that tomato production in Uganda is dominated by males who grow them on 0.68 acres of land on average. Mosttomatofarmers (78.4%) use mono cropping system with varietiesAsilla F1 (35.3%), Tengeru97(21.1%), Rambo (18.1%), NovelaF1(17.7%) and Riogrande (10.3%) dominating. The choice of tomato varieties used by farmers mainly depend on yield potential, pest and disease tolerance and market preference attributes such as long shelf life. In the study area, tomato is mainly fertilized using foliar fertilizers, followed by Diammonium phosphate and cattle manure. The key pests affecting tomato include caterpillars, thrips, worms and whitefly, while bacterial wilt, blight, leaf spots and viral infections are the major diseases. Majority (95.7%) of farmers use chemical sprays(pesticides and fungicides)and 4.3% of farmers used other control methods. The other methods of pest and disease control included rogueing, hand picking, ash, organic extracts, urine and frequent weeding. Average tomato yield was 4,846.3 kg/acre lower than the potential yield of 6000kg/acre. Thirty five percent of farmers market their tomato individually on-farm, 32.8% sell in rural markets, while 32.2% send to the nearest urban markets. The study revealed intensive chemical use accounting for 20% of the production costs, high seed costs (11%) and drought (10%) as the major production constraints impeding tomato production; and price fluctuations, low prices, high transport costs, post-harvest loss on farm, and poor market access as the major marketing constraints. The research findings will aid in the development of new market-oriented, highly productive tomato varieties with improved access to seed and designing initiatives to address production and marketing constraints, which will eventually enhance tomato production.

Relevance of research topic. The number of Ukrainian holding-type organizations and their land bankcontinues to grow, "displacing" small and medium-sized producers from the agricultural economy.Since 2019, state policy has been refocusing on forced support for small and small-scale farms, and after the Ukrainian decentralization reform the leadership of the united territorial communities of the new tools they received depends on the development of small and medium-sized businesses. Formulation of the problem. Today, the actualization of local economic development requires significant financial resources from the united territorial communities. And the formation of their budget depends on the effectiveagricultural sector operation. After the Ukrainian reform of local self-government and decentralization, the economic development of the territories and of Ukraine as a whole, depends on the using of new tools and resources by the community leadership. The solution of theagrarian sphere problems of the united territorial communities is in the plane ofsmall agrarian entrepreneurship state support, strengthening of the state control over the activity of large agro-traders, as well as their social and financial responsibility to the united territorial communities. Analysis of recent research and publications. Theoretical questions on the study of small agrarian entrepreneurship in the development of united territorial communities were engaged in such scientists of the Institute of Economics of NASU, Institute of Agrarian Economics of NAAS of Ukraine, as Shemyakin D., Finagina O. V., Lysetsky A. S., Onishchenko O. M., and other national and foreign scientists. Selection of unexplored parts of the general problem. The issue of the impact of decentralization on theagricultural sector development of the united territorial communities needs to be detailed and further researched. Setting the task, the purpose of the study. The article aim is to investigate the theoretical aspect of organizational and legal foundations of the formation of united territorial communities in Ukraine, assess thesmall agricultural business current state and trace its relationship with the activities of united territorial communities for economic development. Method or methodology for conducting research. The set of general scientific methods of cognition and special methods of economic research are used in the work. Among them: analysis and synthesis, generalization and comparison, system-structural and comparative analysis, systematic method of cognition of economic processes and phenomena, index method and method of statistical groupings for analysis of united territorial communities activity development of the agro-industrial complex of Ukraine. Presentation of the main material (results of work). The article considers the theoretical aspect of organizational and legal foundations of the united territorial communities formation in Ukraine, assesses the current state of small agricultural business and reveals it’s main relationships with the united territorial communities activities for region economic development. Territorial communities are voluntary associations of residents of city, village and settlement councils, which directly receive funding from the state budget for the development of education, medicine, sports, culture, and social protection. Financial support from the state gives more opportunities to local communities to implement their own projects. The more active the territorial community, the more projects will be implemented and theterritorial communityprofitability level will be higher, which it will spend on the development of territories. This is the main incentive to attract additional investment to improve people's living standards. In 2020, theUkrainian Cabinet of Ministers adopted 24 orders on the definition of administrative centers and approval ofregional community’s territories. There are 1469 territorial communities in our country. After the launch of the decentralization process in Ukraine – the transfer of powers and resources to places from which the community itself determines the direction of funding, small communities require forresource lack for rural development. The solution has beena decision to consolidate several councils by merging, which allowed communities to use common resources for territorial development. Ukraine owns 60.3 million hectares, which is about 6% of Europe's territory.There are 32.7 millionarable land hectares of land in the structure ofUkrainian agricultural territory, of which almost 9 million are used as pastures, hayfields and other agricultural lands. The quarter of agricultural land was never distributed, remaining on the balance of the state. Thus, state and the communal property include 10.5 million hectares of agricultural land, which is 26% of the total area, of which 3.2 million hectares – in the permanent use of state enterprises, 2.5 million hectares – in stock, and the rest – for rent. Almost 40% of the total number of Ukrainian enterprises in the agricultural sector and 38% of the area of agricultural land cultivated by agricultural enterprises are absorbed by agricultural holdings and large agricultural traders. On June 1, 2019, there were more than 160 large agricultural holdings in the country, they cultivate more than 3.6 million hectares of agricultural land. Thus, today in Ukraine the number of holding-type organizations and their land bank continues to grow, "displacing" small and medium-sized producers from the agricultural economy. Thecommunity agrarian branch is a complex multi-sectoral system, the individual subsystems of which are unevenly represented in different territorial formations, but are in close interaction with each other. The role of small agrarian businesses in the development of united territorial community’sagriculture is constantly growing. In recent years, the share of farms has increased by 30%. With the development of farming in the agricultural regions of Ukraine, the opportunities to solve the problem of employment in rural areas and the revival of territories in general are increasing. Therefore, state support for agricultural producers is an important step in order to obtain funds for small business development in the agro-industrial sector. If earlier the preference of vectors of state support was in large agro-traders, then from 2019 the policy of the state was reoriented to the strengthened support of small and small-scale farms. Such support is confirmed by financial preferences for small agribusiness through regional branches of the Ukrainian State Farm Support Fund. Agricultural cooperatives will receive state support through cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture of Ukraine with the assistance of the Department. Thus, today the promissory note form of payment has been abolished, and 70% of the cost of their equipment has been reimbursed for cooperatives. As a result of the crisis of 2014-2016, many Ukrainians started doing business and many successful cases of micro and small agricultural enterprises operating in the regions appeared in the country. However, barriers to rural development are a lack of financial resources and a lack of economic knowledge. Therefore, in order to maximally support farms and agro-industrial entrepreneurship in rural areas by the state, high-quality interaction and communication on the ground is needed. Thus, in addition to financial support, the state program also includes advising agricultural producers. Experienced specialists will help to structure the business, calculate the financial and create a business plan. In 2020, the budget of financial support for the agro-industrial sector of Ukraine is set at 4 billion UAH, which is only 43% of the limit – does not meet 1% of GDP. the real need for financial state support of a key sector of Ukraine's economy. The implementation of the program of financing micro and small agribusiness has great potential not only in the country, but also within each united territorial community. Each of them, which participates in the program of state support of small agrarian business, annually receives about 75 thousand UAH of taxes to its budget. On a national scale, this is an additional UAH 75 million ($ 3.06 million) in taxes to local budgets over 5 years. The possibility of organizational and legal forms of micro and small agribusiness, according to the current legislation of Ukraine, to hire labor – partially solves the problem of unemployment in rural areas. A significant contribution is also made by micro and small agribusiness in increasing the volume of gross domestic product in Ukraine. Small and medium business in Ukraine brings 55% of gross domestic product to the country's economy, and micro and small business 16%, while in Europe the figure is twice as high, and their efficiency is 10 times higher than in our country. It is the subjects of small and medium-sized businesses in the field of agriculture that are powerful catalysts and stimulators of business activity, determine the unification of all participants in economic relations in the country. Therefore, state support and effective development of united territorial community’sagribusiness create the basis for the emergence and functioning of the institutional environment. Thus, giving 12% of Ukraine's GDP and providing jobs for members of the local community, small agribusiness entities need the development of agricultural equipment suppliers, agricultural processors, research institutions that conduct breeding work and develop modern technologies, logistics infrastructure, market structures, as well as institutions of agricultural education. The agro-industrial sphere of the community is the main means of ensuring the socio-economic development of territorial united territorial communitiesand the effective functioning of rural areas. However, the distribution of agricultural land and land ownership remains an urgent problem for united territorial communities, as in addition to the territorial base, the land is a means of agricultural production. The population of the united territorial community is the main consumer of agricultural products produced by small agricultural enterprises. So, it provides a reproduction of labor for the industry. The vector of development of united territorial community’sagricultural production depends on the availability of natural, productive and labor resources of the community. The most energy-intensive are the production of vegetable crops, sugar beets, potatoes, industrial crops, as well as certain livestock industries, which are more often engaged in by farms and small agricultural enterprises. The study found that in Ukraine, government measures are the main obstacle to the development of agro-industrial entrepreneurship in united territorial communities, because it creates an extremely unfavorable climate for the development of small and medium enterprises or prohibits it altogether. For many years in a row, the sources of budget formation, which are generally local taxes, remain a significant problem in the development of agriculturally oriented united territorial communities. The limitation of incomes of agricultural enterprises and the population is the low efficiency of agricultural enterprises, the main reason for which is the low wages of peasants. The reason for this problem in the agricultural sector is low productivity, which forms the added value of agricultural products. Examining the structure of Ukrainian small agrarian business, its players in general education were classified into two large groups: 1. Farmers and agricultural producers living and working in rural areas. They live in a society within the lands of which they rent shares, pay all the necessary taxes, provide residents of general education with jobs, finished agricultural products at affordable prices. 2. Farmers who are registered in Ukrainian cities, however, use the land of the community, paying only the rent of agricultural land, depleting them due to non-compliance with crop rotations. Such agro-traders enjoy state support, soft loans and other preferences, receive super-profits and in no way contribute to the development of agricultural areas and society. These are the activities of large agro-industrial holdings, the form of interaction with rural general education and the mechanisms of social responsibility which need to be worked out with the help of the following measures by the government and agricultural producers: 1) development and restoration of the infrastructure of the united territorial communities and its elements used by agricultural holdings; 2) use of modern ecologically safe agrotechnologies. 3) training of qualified specialists in the field of agro-industrial complex, their employment in modern agro-industrial companies; 4) state support, restoration and preservation of recreational and health facilities of the united territorial communities, including agricultural lands, which are leased by large agricultural holdings; 5) involvement in the economic activity of the agricultural holding of farms on a partnership basis. Thus, partnerships and cooperation between large agricultural holdings and small agricultural producers of united territorial communities can contribute not only to the development of small agricultural businesses in Ukraine, but also to the socio-economic development of society and rural areas in general. The field of application of results. Thescientific research results on the problems of small agricultural entrepreneurship in the development of united territorial communities can be used in the field of state regulation of agribusiness and united territorial communities to support local agricultural producers. Conclusions according to the article. The agro-industrial sphere of the communities is the main means of ensuring the socio-economic development of territorial communities and the effective functioning of rural areas, because the development of farming opportunities increases the problem of rural employment and the revival of territories in general. That is why state support for agricultural producers is an important step to obtain funds for small business development in the agro-industrial sector.

China is now facing urbanization and the migrants from rural area have increased significantly. The farmland was the core iuess of the new urbanization process. The contracted land management right, residence land use rights and collective construction land allocation right were the main contents of the property right of peasants. To establish a new mechanism to make peasants and the rural collective enjoy the reasonable land profit is important for the new round land reform in China. Based on that, this paper will explain how the rural land were transformed into urban poverty. This paper argued that replace rural retained land into urban property model was a new form of compensation for the rural land. By this model, the migrant farmers can obtain the compensation as the economic base in city and improve the willingness of farmers moving to city and transfer their land to enlarge average arable land scale to develop food production. The paper concluded that the way to solve the shortage of arable land was to speed up the process of urbanization, promote the circulation of cultivated land to realize the expansion of rural per capita arable land to ensure food security. Therefore, it is needed to build a unified construction land market, realize the same price and same right between state-owned land and rural collective land, giving farmers more property rights.

Since 1970, farmers in NSW and beyond have been participating in an easy-access Home Study Program for farmers, land and business managers in rural areas. In the late sixties, the Rural Youth Organisation of New South Wales had been looking for an effective way of preparing its members for a business career on the land. With the backing of the Department of Education and the active support of farm management specialists at the University of New England, the Farm Management Correspondence Course was launched. Within a few years, responsibility for the Program passed to the NSW Department of Agriculture, where it has remained ever since. Since 1980, the Program has operated out of C B Alexander Agricultural College, 'Tocal', Paterson near Newcastle. Over 10,000 people have been involved in these courses. Today the Farm Management Home Study Program prepares for its twenty-fifth anniversary in 1995. How does the Program make further study so easy for farmers to access?

Many rural communities in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, have poor-quality water supplies. The lack of a palatable alternative increases the risk of the high consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, a significant contributor to adverse health outcomes. This disproportionately effects Aboriginal people living in these towns, who are also profoundly affected by the social determinants of health. Therefore, examining health inequalities linked to water access is important. This study investigated the availability of drinking water fountains in rural and remote communities in NSW. Telephone interviewer-assisted surveys were conducted with 32 representatives from local government councils or Local Aboriginal Land Councils in NSW from communities with a population of <5000 and an Aboriginal population of at least 3%. The results were analysed descriptively. Towns and communities with a higher population of Aboriginal people and lower median weekly income were less likely to have access to free refrigerated and filtered water within the community or at local schools compared with towns and communities with a lower Aboriginal population and higher median weekly income. The availability of free, clean and refrigerated water in rural and remote communities is critical to reducing the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and the promotion of water as the preferred drink.

This paper explores the relationship between monetary policy, prices, and rural household savings and investment behavior in China. We first develop a two-period life-cycle model with bequests for China's rural economy to analyze the impacts of interest rates, agricultural product prices, and housing prices on rural households’ capital allocation choices (households’ savings deposits, investment in private housing, and investment in agricultural productive fixed assets). We then empirically estimate the theoretical model equations with a newly compiled panel dataset covering the rural areas of 26 provinces from 2001 to 2016. Our empirical results suggest that high housing prices are harmful to the rural economy as they reduce productive investment and consumption. An efficient interest rate market and land tenure system reform are recommended.

Recently, the self-employed do not respect the land rights of farmers, forcing farmers to transfer land, free of illegal interception land transfer revenue; do not respect the wishes of farmers, forced recruitment of illegal occupation of farmer contracted land, to compensate for low prices, such as a very serious problem. Discussion from the institutional reasons, there are some flaws of the current land law system. From the theoretical construction site briefly describes the contents of the configuration pre-planning the construction site, the site specific design, site hardware and software facilities, administer the site core information website and promotion, website maintenance and other aspects of the latter.

In this article, we present a historical analysis on how Sardinian pastoralism has become an integrated activity in global capitalism, oriented to the production of cheap milk, through the extraction of ecological surplus from the exploitation of nature and labour. Pastoralism has often been looked at as a marginal and traditional activity. On the contrary, our objective is to stress the central role played by pastoralism in the capitalist world-ecology. Since there is currently little work analysing the historical development of pastoralism in a concrete agro-ecological setting from a world-ecology perspective, we want to contribute to the development of the literature by analysing the concrete case of Sardinian pastoralism. To do so, we will use the analytical framework of world-ecology to analyse the historical dialectic of capital accumulation and the production of nature through which pastoralism -understood as a socio-cultural system that organises nature-society relations for the reproduction of local rural societies- became an activity trapped in the production of market commodities and cheap food exploiting human (labour) and extra-human factors (e.g. land, water, environment, animals etc.). Looking at the exploitation of extra-human factors, the concept of ecological surplus allows us to understand how capital accumulation and surplus was possible thanks to the exploitation of nature, or rather the creation of cheap nature and chap inputs for the production of cheap commodities. We analyse historical pastoralism to understand how geopolitical configurations of global capitalism interact with the national and local scales to change pastoral production, nature and labour relations. We will pay particular attention to the role of land and the relationship between pastoralists and animals. The article is based on secondary data, historical material and primary data collected from 2012 to 2020 through qualitative interviews and ethnographic research. We identify four main cycles of agro-ecological transformation to explore the interactions between waves of historical capitalist expansion and changes in the exploitation of agroecological factors. The first two phases will be explored in the first section of the paper: the mercantilist phase during the modern era and the commodification of pastoralist products, which extend from the nineteenth century to the Second World War. In the mercantilist phase, the expansion of pastoralism finds its external limits in the trend of international demand (influenced by international trade policies that may favour or hinder exports) and its internal limits in the competition/complementarity with agriculture for the available land that results in a transhumant model of pastoralism. In this phase, the ecological surplus needed for capitalist accumulation is produced by nature as a gift, or nature for free, which results in the possibility of producing milk at a very low cost by exploiting the natural pasture of the open fields. The second cycle, “the commodification of pastoralist products”, started at the end of the nineteenth century, with the introduction on the island of the industrial processing of Pecorino Romano cheese, and which was increasingly in demand in the North American market. This pushed pastoralism towards a strong commodification. Shepherds stopped processing cheese on-farm and became producers of cheap milk for the Pecorino Romano processing industry. Industrialists control the distribution channels and therefore the price of milk. Moreover, following the partial privatisation of land and high rent prices, shepherds progressively lose the ecological surplus that was guaranteed by free land and natural grazing, key to lower production costs and to counterbalance the unequal distribution of wealth within the chain. At the beginning of the twentieth century, although the market for Pecorino Romano was growing, these contradictions emerged and the unfair redistribution of profits within the chain (which benefited industrialists, middlemen and landowners to the detriment of shepherds) led to numerous protests and the birth of shepherds' cooperatives. The second section of the paper will explore the third agro-ecological phase: the rise of the “monoculture of sheep-raising” through the modernisation policies (from the fifties until 1990s). The protests that affected the inland areas of Sardinia, as well as the increase in banditry, signal the impossibility of continuing to guarantee cheap nature and cheap labour, which are at the basis of the mechanism of capitalist accumulation. On the basis of these pressures, the 1970s witnessed a profound transformation that opened a new cycle of accumulation: laws favouring the purchase of land led to the sedenterization of pastoralism, while agricultural modernisation policies pushed towards the rationalisation of the farm. Land improvements and technological innovations (such as the milking machine and the purchase of agricultural machinery) led to the beginning of the “monoculture of sheep raising”: a phase of intensification in the exploitation of nature and the extraction of ecological surplus. This includes a great increase of the number of sheep per unit of agricultural area, thanks to the cultivated pasture replacing natural grazing and the production and purchase of stock and feed. Subsidised agricultural modernisation and sedentarisation can once again "sustain" the cost of cheap milk that is the basis of the industrial dairy chain. However, agricultural modernisation results in the further commodification of pastoralism, which becomes increasingly dependent on the upstream and downstream market, making pastoralists less autonomous. Moreover, given the impossibility of further expanding the herd, the productivity need of keeping low milk production costs has to be achieved through an increase in the average production per head. Therefore, there are higher investments in genetic selection to increase breed productivity, higher investments to improve animal feeding and a more intensive animal exploitation to increase productivity. These production strategies imply higher farm costs. In this context, the fourth phase, the neoliberal phase (analysed in the third section of the paper) broke out in Sardinia in the mid-1990s. With the end of export subsidies and the opening of the new large-scale retail channel in which producers are completely subordinate, it starts a period of increased volatility in the price of milk. In order to counter income erosion and achieve the productivity gains needed to continue producing cheap milk, pastoralists have intensified the exploitation of both human (labour) and non-human (nature) factors, with contradictory effects. In the case of nature, the intensive exploitation of land through monocultural crops has reduced biodiversity and impoverished the soil. In the case of labour, pastoralists have intensified the levels of self-exploitation and free family labour to extreme levels and have also resorted to cheaply paid foreign labourers. Throughout the paper, we reconstruct the path towards the production of "cheap milk" in Sardinia, processed mainly into pecorino romano for international export. We argue that the production of ecological surplus through the exploitation of nature and labour has been central to capital accumulation and to the unfolding of the capitalist world ecology. However, we have reached a point of crisis where pastoralists are trapped between rising costs and eroding revenues. Further exploitation of human (cheap labour) and extra-human (nature and animals) factors is becoming unsustainable for the great majority, leading to a polarization between pastoralists who push towards further intensification and mechanisation and pastoralists who increasingly de-commodify to build greater autonomy.

The purpose of the research of this scientific work is to assess the possibilities of development of farms in modern conditions, as well as to find out the problems and prospects of farms in Ukraine. Method. Farming is a form of entrepreneurial activity of citizens with or without the creation of a legal entity who have expressed a desire to produce marketable agricultural products, process and sell them in order to make a profit on land provided for family farming. An important role in the production of agricultural products is now given to farms that have actually become full-fledged entities in the agrarian diversified economy, have passed their first stage of formation and formation. The presence of a large number of large producers, problems of organization and location of wholesale markets, insufficient population of rural areas, inadequate level of resource supply – all this determines the specifics of the competitive environment in which farms operate. The task of development of farms in Ukraine requires the study of the peculiarities of their activities, analysis of the current stage of functioning of farms, identifying obstacles to their development and outlining areas for improvement of their activities. This is what determines the relevance of this article. Results. The scales and tendencies of development of farms in Ukraine, their place among other agricultural producers, including in the context of regions of Ukraine are analyzed. The main indicators of their activity are described. It is confirmed that despite the large number of farms, their place in the agricultural economy of Ukraine still remains insignificant. The main organizational and economic problems of farm development in Ukraine have been identified, which are related to the lack of equity, conditions for free access to credit, as well as the inadequate ratio between prices for technical equipment and agricultural products. The position of farms in the world is revealed. Scientific novelty and practical significance. The development of farming as a priority form of agricultural farms is shown. A number of measures for the development of farms are proposed. The advantages of farms over personal farms and over agricultural enterprises are given. Problems and prospects of farming in Ukraine are revealed.

This study analyzes noncredit, rural property transfers from colonial South Carolina. These records are used to measure the frequency, annual timing, geographic spread, and turnover rate of land sales. These data also are used to derive a hedonic land-price index. We argue that these estimates reflect variations in the local expectations of future economic growth and conclude that the rapid increase in land prices reflected the fact that the Low country economy was indeed fueled by plantation agriculture.

<p>This paper aims to determine whether the urban sprawl onto the rustic lands of the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve (UBR) is driven by the environmental and landscape qualities of this protected natural area and can be defined as “naturbanization”. Aware that residential choice factors are both complex and multidirectional, we have taken, as a comparison scenario, the unprotected rural area which borders with the Reserve (Ex UBR). This enables us to determine whether the housing preferences of new buyers are predominantly driven by the “reserve effect” (naturbanization), or by the appeal of the neighbouring unprotected area which is closer and better communicated to the city (accessibility) and presents less stringent building regulations.</p><p>Our findings for the UBR reveal a “reserve effect” that would support the naturbanization hypothesis, but the results obtained in both property markets show that the price-boosting impact of the “accessibility/proximity effect” in unprotected rural land is stronger than that of the UBR “reserve/naturbanization effect”.</p><p>Statistical tests conducted on the variables that determine urban sprawl into the non-developable rustic land of protected and unprotected areas serve to establish a definition/characterization of naturbanization that transcends the local/particular and applies to the general, becoming a small theoretical contribution on this issue. We conclude that naturbanization is characterized by factors that influence residential preferences of property buyers (house+rustic land) for protected natural areas. What gives naturbanization a distinctive characteristic is the subjection of such protected areas to specific conservation regulations that restrict choices and decisions of prospective buyers. These facts enrich our understanding of the tradeoffs between nature protection policies and economic development in these areas.<strong></strong></p>

Rural depression is a global issue in the process of worldwide urbanization. Compared with rural economic institution reform, rural land institution reform is more thorough in realizing rural revitalization. In this paper, polycentric governance theory is used to introduce marketization reform of collective profit-oriented land (MRCPL). MRCPL aims to allow rural collective profit-oriented construction land to be sold and leased with the same rights and at the same price as state-owned construction land. In the process of MRCPL, we suppose that the key subject is the central government, and the multiple auxiliary subjects include local governments, markets, villagers, and village collectives. Herein, Deqing County was selected as the research area and its achievements, conflicts, and potential risks in the process of MRCPL were studied. This study found that in Deqing County, a unified urban–rural construction land market has been preliminarily established, the rural revenue allocation mechanism has been updated, and the rural land finance mechanism has been developed. However, MRCPL may have conflicts with existing land requisition institutions and land banking institutions, and may also have conflicts within different subjects (farmers, village collective, local government, and central government). These conflicts may lead to potential risks, such as rent-seeking risk, land-financing risk, and real-estate-bubble risk. In general, the MRCPL aims to allow rural collective profit-oriented construction land to be sold and leased with the same rights and at the same prices as state-owned construction land. This reform can protect farmers’ land rights and promote the construction of urban and rural integration.

The article analyzes the ratio of state and private forms of ownership of land and studies its local markets. The data collected as a result of field research of rural communities and also provided by real estate agencies allow to track the real growth of private property on land in municipalities. Studying the condition of local land markets at the level of rural communities one can make a number of unfavorable conclusions, such as growth of shadow sector and speculation in the prices of land plots within settlements. All these tendencies call into q uestion the existing scenario of carrying out privatization in Russia.

Socio-economic development of the Belgrade region significantly affects the direction of the change of planting areas use. The increase in urban areas has adversely affected the direction of agricultural land use. Dynamics of change is significantly due to high production costs (high land prices and expensive labor force) gives rise to the high price of the product on the market, there is a constant "pressure" of urban areas to arable land, increasing the risk of "loss" of agricultural holdings; increased environmental pollution due to the concentration of industrial plants or road construction. The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics of structural changes in sowing area in the period from 1991 to 2011.

Society faces numerous problems due to high population growth where housing along with other settlements is a notable concern. Horizontal expansion of housing on cultivable land in rural area reduces the availability of land for cultivation. The study is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative in nature based on primary data, carried out in a village in Comilla, an eastern district of Bangladesh during April 2012. The study finds that the households receive returns both in cash as well as in kind from new homesteads made on cultivable land. The cash benefit received by households at new place is Tk. 156238.14 on an average per year in 2011 price and on an average the cash investment per year in 2011 price (inflation adjusted) for housing is Tk. 213108.1818 (weighted average). This clearly indicates a cash loss from housing on cultivable land from household’s perspective. However, statistically the cash investment for housing in rural area is not significantly different from the cash return received by the households at 5% level of significance. Thus it becomes an important question whether the household’s choice of making new home on cultivable land is a rational choice or not. Further, the amount of money each household spent for housing could have been used for a higher cash return through some alternative investments. The study reveals, households derive positive utility (non cash returns) from new homes notwithstanding cash loss and other investment options forgone. The study further argues that if the government or any authority is to take some steps regarding the declining trend of cultivable land in rural areas, the perspectives of the households must be considered with great attention.

Markets are ubiquitous, dominant, integrating all production nationally: that is interlocking markets in a national purchase and sale network at money price, organised on an economy-wide basis, a market network essential to all industrial and agricultural lines of production… Practically all farm output was sold for cash. All factors of production, land, labour, tools, transport, artificial fertilisers, were available on national markets for purchase at money price… Here we have total market dependence, for livelihood and the ubiquitous use of cash.

After the policy of separating ownership rights, contract rights, and management rights to rural land, some Chinese farmers entrusted their land to agricultural social service providers. However, at present in land trusteeships, short-term behaviors exist, which are not good for the sustainable utilization of land. This article uses a dynamic game model to analyze the economic reasons for short-term behavior and to explore possible mechanisms. The study’s results showed that fluctuations in trusteeship prices encouraged farmers to sign low-price, long-term contracts or high-price, short-term contracts that allowed agricultural social service providers choose short-term behaviors. A variable-price system may avoid short-term contracts as a result of fluctuations in trusteeship prices, allowing both sides to build a long-term stable partnership, encouraging long-term investment in land. To ensure the sustainable utilization of land, it is suggested that both sides adopt a variable price system.

While China's ruling Communist Party has benefited from a reservoir of political trust engendered by more than three decades of rapid economic growth, it is confronted with rising social tensions and the prospect of instability. The number of mass incidents, which is a key measure of instability, has risen enormously, and a major source of such incidents stems from local governments taking land from farmers, often at below-market prices. This article draws upon data from two surveys to assess the political trust implications of land takings. It is found that, as expected, land takings are associated with a decline in political trust. However, the decline affects trust in local authorities only and leaves the central government largely unscathed. Nonetheless, the gap between villagers' trust in central and local authorities is not unalloyed good news for the regime and has major implications for policy implementation and governance.

Bushfires have been a key concern for countries such as Australia for a long time. These must be mitigated to eradicate the associated harmful effects on the climate and to have a sustainable and healthy environment for wildlife. The current study investigates the 2019–2020 bushfires in New South Wales (NSW) Australia. The bush fires are mapped using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing, the hotpots are monitored, and damage is assessed. Further, an Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)-based bushfire mitigation framework is presented where the bushfires can be mapped and monitored instantly using UAV swarms. For the GIS and remote sensing, datasets of the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and VIIRS fire data products are used, whereas the paths of UAVs are optimized using the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm. The mapping results of 2019–2020 NSW bushfires show that 50% of the national parks of NSW were impacted by the fires, resulting in damage to 2.5 million hectares of land. The fires are highly clustered towards the north and southeastern cities of NSW and its border region with Victoria. The hotspots are in the Deua, Kosciu Sako, Wollemi, and Yengo National Parks. The current study is the first step towards addressing a key issue of bushfire disasters, in the Australian context, that can be adopted by its Rural Fire Service (RFS), before the next fire season, to instantly map, assess, and subsequently mitigate the bushfire disasters. This will help move towards a smart and sustainable environment.

An ecological and humane urbanism is required to combat resource degradation and socio-economic polarisation. UN-Habitat’s New Urban Agenda calls for a paradigm shift to ‘leave no one, no place and no ecology behind’ through sustainable development. However, this article argues that a ‘sustainability fix’, while necessary, is insufficient to counter the hegemonic growth-orientated culture and it is important to re-embed economic activities in ethical socio-ecological relationships for people and place well-being. These require critical scholarship to reproblematise issues and present prescriptive approaches for resolving them. Reproblematisation of Hong Kong’s alleged land scarcity problem reveals a property-dominant urban-biased political economy that sustains a high land price policy through suppressing development of massive rural land resources, resulting in ecological and socio-spatial disparities. Reimagining the development of rural Hong Kong based on the principles of nature conservation and place-making for conviviality and human flourishing could be a potential pathway towards a transformative urbanism.

Abstract Rural areas in Poland are distinguished by one of the worst spatial structures of individual land properties in the European Union. The least favourable structure occurs in the southern and south-eastern part of the country, where it results in farms losing 20-30% of their agricultural revenue. The bad spatial organisation of land is also reflected in transaction prices obtained for agricultural land. Considering criteria such as: land management, parcel area, width, and elongation (length to width ratio), and soil bonitation value, this paper determines the effect of each of the criteria separately on the development of transaction prices of agricultural land in the years 2009-2014 in selected villages in the southern part of the Cegłów (Mińsk district, Mazowieckie province), distinguished by the unfavourable spatial structure of agricultural land. Meeting this objective involved the application of the analytical capacity of the Geographic Information Systems (GIS), cadastral data base, soil-agricultural map vector, study of the conditions and directions of the spatial management of the Cegłów area, and the property price and value register. The obtained study results suggest that in areas with particularly defective spatial structure, land with parameters permitting its efficient use, i.e. with proper width and elongation is particularly valuable. Another parameter determining the level of obtained prices is the bonitation value, although it is of less importance for the analysed area than for agricultural areas with proper management conditions.