Dissertationen zum Thema „River Ganga“

Major rivers in developing countries around the world are heavily loaded with pollutants. According to the UN Water Statistics around 2 million tons of waste is dumped into rivers daily. In the developing countries 70 % of the industrial waste is diverted into the water courses without treating daily. In particular in Asia where more than half of the world population is living, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) estimates that five major rivers in Asia aid over 870 million people are the most endanger in the world. In India over the past 50 years the population and economic growth leads to increasing pressure on the water recources. It is expected that the population of India would be 1.4 billion by 2024. Till today wide range of research is being undertaken on the pollution problem of Ganga River. Many scientists and NGOs are trying to study the condition of Ganga water by measuring metals, chemical pollutants, coli form bacteria…etc. Government of India has officially launched Ganga Action Plan (GAP-1) during April 1985 and GAP-2 in February 1991to reduce the pollution of Ganga River. Even though lot of research is going on to decrease the pollution load, no significant change has occurred. The main aim of this project is to identify gaps in current efforts and to suggest measures to sustainably resolve the problem. There are six highly polluted cities on the bank of the river with different type of pollution loads they are Rishikesh, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna and Calcutta. Out of the all the cities Varanasi has a distinctive pollution fill to the river over the belt of the river that you can find a lot of dead bodies flowing on the river. On March 4th 2010, the Government of India approved to implement "Mission Clean Ganga" project to control the pollution sources on Ganga River in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarkhand and West Bengal. Government has approved highest budget to Varanasi, 490.90 Crore Indian Rupees which clearly emphasizes how severally the water is polluted in Varanasi. This situation inspires me to concentrate on Varanasi in my project. During this project I visited Varanasi to study the current situation in collaboration with Sankat Mochan Foundation, a NGO organization whose aim is "Not A Drop Of Sewage In Ganga In The Religious Bathing Area Around It".

Les changements climatiques, au niveau de la variabilité du climat, se font ressentir un peu partout à travers le globe que ce soit par le décalage des saisons, une variation des précipitations ou l'augmentation des températures. Certaines régions telles que le delta du Gange-Brahmapoutre-Meghna subissent au quotidien les impacts de ces variations. Quatre grandes perturbations environnementales chamboulent cette dynamique dans cette grande région du delta du GANGE-BRAHMAPOUTRE-MEGHNA : le changement du régime des précipitations, la fonte des glaciers causée par la hausse des températures moyennes annuelles, l'augmentation du niveau marin moyen et les perturbations climatiques extrêmes ponctuelles. Ces perturbations transforment le trait de côte, d'une manière directe ou indirecte. Cette fragilité des berges devient problématique dans un environnement urbain à forte densité. Nos résultats mettent en évidence que, dans un contexte de variabilité climatique changeant et de densité de population croissante, la région du delta du GANGE-BRAHMAPOUTRE-MEGHNA souffre d'une perte de terre viable entraînant des déplacements de populations. Certaines villes ont connu une augmentation de leur population allant au-delà de 1000% sur la période de 1921-2011. L'analyse de photographies aériennes sur la période 2001- 2013 montre un accroissement de l'étendue des zones urbaines, mais aussi du mouvement des berges. Sur une période plus récente, on constate même que de nouveaux quartiers ont été construits dans les zones inondées de 2004.
Les changements climatiques, au niveau de la variabilité du climat, se font ressentir un peu partout à travers le globe que ce soit par le décalage des saisons, une variation des précipitations ou l'augmentation des températures. Certaines régions telles que le delta du Gange-Brahmapoutre-Meghna subissent au quotidien les impacts de ces variations. Quatre grandes perturbations environnementales chamboulent cette dynamique dans cette grande région du delta du GANGE-BRAHMAPOUTRE-MEGHNA : le changement du régime des précipitations, la fonte des glaciers causée par la hausse des températures moyennes annuelles, l'augmentation du niveau marin moyen et les perturbations climatiques extrêmes ponctuelles. Ces perturbations transforment le trait de côte, d'une manière directe ou indirecte. Cette fragilité des berges devient problématique dans un environnement urbain à forte densité. Nos résultats mettent en évidence que, dans un contexte de variabilité climatique changeant et de densité de population croissante, la région du delta du GANGE-BRAHMAPOUTRE-MEGHNA souffre d'une perte de terre viable entraînant des déplacements de populations. Certaines villes ont connu une augmentation de leur population allant au-delà de 1000% sur la période de 1921-2011. L'analyse de photographies aériennes sur la période 2001- 2013 montre un accroissement de l'étendue des zones urbaines, mais aussi du mouvement des berges. Sur une période plus récente, on constate même que de nouveaux quartiers ont été construits dans les zones inondées de 2004.

L'altération chimique de la croûte terrestre fournit à l'ensemble des cycles bio-géochimiques de la surface les éléments essentiels à leur fonctionnement. L'érosion de grands orogènes, comme la chaîne Himalayenne s'accompagne de flux d'érosion et d'altération significatifs, susceptibles d'avoir un impact à l'échelle globale. L'objectif de cette thèse est de comprendre comment les processus physiques et chimiques façonnent le signal sédimentaire afin de quantifier l'érosion et l'altération actuelle ainsi que leur variations passées. L'étude détaillée de la dynamique du transport sédimentaire et des caractéristiques physiques et géochimiques des sédiments dans le bassin du Gange montre qu'actuellement environ 10 % du flux sédimentaire érodé en Himalaya est séquestré dans la plaine alluviale du Gange. L'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques (10Be) dans les sédiments de rivières montrent des taux d'érosions stables entre 1.3 et 1.4 mm par an pour l'ensemble de la chaîne drainée par le Gange. De plus, le transfert de sédiments dans la plaine s'accompagne d'un appauvrissement en éléments mobiles marquant l'altération chimique de ceux-ci. Cette altération a été quantifié et suggère que la plaine du Gange joue un role dominant dans l'altération des sédiments Himalayens. Les échanges cationiques lors du passage des sédiments au domaine marin restent limités dans le cas du système Himalayen et ne permettent d'augmenter le bilan de stockage de carbone à long terme que de 20 % environ. Enfin, l'enregistrement de la Baie du Bengale, qui couvre les produits issus de l'érosion Himalayenne sur les derniers 20 000 ans, montre que les sédiments exportés au Dernier Maximum Glaciaire (DMG) étaient significativement moins altérés qu'à l'actuel. Le système Himalayen n'est donc pas tamponné vis-à-vis des forages climatiques à haute fréquence du Quaternaire et les taux d'altération actuels ne peuvent très extrapolés dans le passé
Chemical weathering of the earth crust supplies the essential elements for numerous biogeochemical cycles. Physical erosion of large orogens, such as the Himalayan range, is accompanied by significant weathering fluxes possibly affecting the global environment. The objective of this PhD is to understand how surface processes affect river sediment properties in order to asses current erosion and weathering rates but also to decipher their past variations. To answer this question we studied the transport dynamics, the physical and the geochemical characteristics of the sediments in the Ganga basin. This study suggests that about 10 % of the flux eroded in the Himalayas is currently stored in the Ganga floodplain. Cosmogenic isotopes (10Be) measured in river sediments show stable erosion rates between 1.3 and 1.4 mm/yr for the entire Himalayan range drained by the Ganga. Furthermore, we show that River sediments are progressively depleted in the most mobile elements, as weathering proceeds during transfer in the floodplain. By comparing this flux to the weathering flux of the Himalayan range, we show that floodplain weathering is predominant in weathering Himalayan sediments. Cation exchange occurring when Ganga and Brahmaputra (G&B) sediments enter the marine environment are limited and enhances the long term carbon storage, linked to silicate weathering by only ca. 20 %. Finally, the Bay of Bengal sedimentary record, which documents the last 20 000 years of Himalayan erosion shows that the sediments exported during the last glacial maximum (LGM) were significantly less weathered compared to the sediments currently exported. The Himalayan system is thus not buffered towards the high frequency climate forcing changes of the Quaternary and modern weathering rates cannot easily be extrapolated over the past

L'image de la ville de Bénarès (Kāśī, Varanasi) est liée à son ensemble de ghāṭ – berges en forme de gradins – qui se déploie de façon monumentale sur la rive concave d'un méandre du Gange. L'aménagement de ce front d'eau s'inscrit dans un contexte culturel particulier qui nécessite un rapport de proximité avec l'eau du fleuve. La construction et le développement de ce front d'eau dans le temps et la manière composite dont les éléments architecturaux s'y sont intégrés, interrogent aujourd'hui cette grande unité urbaine qui forme un espace public de plus de 6 km de long. L'objectif de cette thèse est de comprendre les éléments qui ont concouru à la naissance et au développement de ce front. La forme architecturale et urbaine du ghāṭ est considérée comme un dispositif construit modulable adapté à un milieu fluvial, à une topographie et à des pratiques liées à la culture du lieu, qui facilite l'accès à l'eau quel que soit son niveau. M'appuyant sur des images anciennes, sur une série d'enquêtes de terrain et de relevés architecturaux, ainsi que sur des plans de travaux officiels, j'étudie les techniques de construction face aux contraintes de l'eau, j'observe et j'analyse le dialogue de cette forme de berge avec la géographie et le paysage urbain pour en mieux approcher son architecture et j'explique la matérialisation du ghāṭ par les pratiques diverses qui s'y déploient et les parcours symboliques qui y font référence. La relation toute particulière que la ville entretient avec son fleuve par l'architecture des ghāṭ explique son potentiel urbanistique inhérent à son développement dans le temps et le long de la berge
The image of Benares (Kāśī, Varanasi) is closely associated to the architecture of its riverfront composed of ghats – steps and terraces – that stretch out in a monumental way on the concave bank of a meander formed by the river Ganges. The expansion of this riverfront has to be understood in relation to a cultural tradition that demands a close proximity to the waters of the river. The construction and development of this riverfront in time and the various ways in which each architectural element is integrated with the river bank, calls into question its impressive urban unity that forms a public space extending more than 6 km. The aim of this thesis is to identify the elements that have contributed to the origin and the development of this front. The architectural and urban form of the ghat is considered as a constructed flexible device adapted to a specific river environment, a characteristic topography and to practices linked to the culture of the place, which allows for easy access to the varying levels of the river's water level. Based on pictorial archives, interviews, measure drawings done on site and on official planners' drawings, I examine the techniques of hydraulic constructions best adapted to counter the river's currents, I observe and analyze the relations between the riverbank, the geography and the urban landscape so as to better approach the ghats' architecture and I explain the materialization of the ghat through the diverse practices and the symbolic trajectories that surround it. The particular relation that the city entertains with its river, through the architecture of ghats, explains its urban potential inherent to its development in time and space i.e. along its river bank

Numerous studies indicate that the hydrology of a river basin is influenced by Land Use Land Cover (LULC) and climate. LULC affects the quality and quantity of water resources through its influence on Evapotranspiration (ET) and initiation of surface runoff while climate affects the intensity and spatial distribution of rainfall and temperature which are major drivers of the hydrologic cycle. Literature reports several works on either the effect of changing LULC or climate on the hydrology. However, changes in LULC and climate occur simultaneously in reality. Thus, there is a need to perform an integrated impact assessment of such changes on the hydrological regime at a basin scale. In order to carry out the impact assessment, physically-based hydrologic models are often employed. The present study focuses on assessment of the effect of changing LULC and climate on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga basin (UGB), India, using the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) hydrologic model. In order to obtain the changes that have occurred in the LULC of the basin over a time period, initially LULC analysis is carried out. For this purpose, high resolution multispectral satellite imageries from Landsat are procured for the years 1973, 1980, 2000 and 2011. The images are pre-processed to project them to a common projection system and are then co-registered. The processed images are used for classification into different land cover classes. This step requires training sites which are collected during the field visit as part of this work. The classified images, thus obtained are used to analyse temporal changes in LULC of the region. The results indicate an increase in crop land and urban area of the region by 47% and 122% respectively from 1973 to 2011. After initial decline in dense forest for the first three decades, an increase in the dense forest is observed between 2000- 2011 (from 11.44% to 14.8%). Scrub forest area and barren land are observed to decline in the study region by 62% and 96% respectively since 1973. The land cover information along with meteorological data and soil data are used to drive the VIC model to investigate the impact of LULC changes on streamflow and evapotranspiration (ET) components of hydrology in the UGB. For the simulation purpose, the entire basin is divided into three regions (1) upstream (with Bhimgodha as the outlet), (2) midstream (with Ankinghat as the outlet) and (3) downstream (with Allahabad as the outlet). The VIC model is calibrated and validated for all the three regions independently at monthly scale. Model performance is assessed based on the criterion of normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE). It is observed that the model performed well with reasonable accuracy for upstream and midstream regions. In case of the downstream region, due to lack of observed discharge data, model performance could not be assessed. Hence, the simulations for the downstream region are performed using the calibrated model of the midstream region. The model outputs from the three regions are aggregated appropriately to generate the total hydrologic response of the UGB. Using the calibrated models for different region of the UGB, sensitivity analysis is performed by generating hydrologic scenarios corresponding to different land use (LU) and climate conditions. In order to investigate the impact of changing LU on hydrological variables, a scenario is generated in which climate is kept constant and LU is varied. Under this scenario, only the land cover related variables are altered in the model keeping the meteorological variables constant. Thus, the effect of LU change is segregated from the effect of climate. The results obtained from these simulations indicated that the change in LU significantly affects peak streamflow depth which is observed to be 77.58% more in August 2011 in comparison with the peak streamflow of August, 1973. Furthermore, ET is found to increase by 46.44% since 1973 across the entire basin. In order to assess the impact of changing climate on hydrological variables, a scenario is generated in which LU is kept constant and climate is varied from 1971-2005. Under this scenario, land cover related variables are kept constant in the model and meteorological variables are varied for different time periods. The results indicate decline in the simulated discharge for the years 1971, 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005, which is supported by decline in observed annual rainfall for the respective years. Amongst 1971 and 2005, year 2005 received 26% less rainfall resulting in 35% less discharge. Furthermore, ET is observed to be negligibly affected. To understand the integrated impact of changing LU and climate on hydrological variables, a scenario is generated in which both climate and LU are altered. Based on the data available, three years (1973, 1980 and 2000) are considered for the simulations. Under this scenario, both land cover and meteorological variables are varied in the model. The results obtained showed that the discharge hydrograph for the year 1980 has significantly higher peak compared to the hydrographs of years 1973 and 2000. This could be due to the fact that the year 1980 received maximum rainfall amongst the three years considered for simulations. Although the basin received higher rainfall in the year 1980 compared to that in 2000, ET from the basin in the year 1980 is found to be 21% less than that of the year 2000. This could be attributed to the change in LU that occurred between the years 1980 and 2000. Amongst the years 1973 and 2000, there is not much difference in the observed rainfall but ET for the year 2000 is observed to be significantly higher than that of year 1973. It is concluded from the present study that in the UGB, changing LULC contributes significantly to the changes in peak discharge and ET while rainfall pattern considerably influences the runoff pattern of the region. Future work proposed includes assessment of hydrologic response of basin under future LULC and climate scenarios. Also the model efficiency can be assessed by performing hydrologic simulations at different grid sizes.

Numerous studies indicate that the hydrology of a river basin is influenced by Land Use Land Cover (LULC) and climate. LULC affects the quality and quantity of water resources through its influence on Evapotranspiration (ET) and initiation of surface runoff while climate affects the intensity and spatial distribution of rainfall and temperature which are major drivers of the hydrologic cycle. Literature reports several works on either the effect of changing LULC or climate on the hydrology. However, changes in LULC and climate occur simultaneously in reality. Thus, there is a need to perform an integrated impact assessment of such changes on the hydrological regime at a basin scale. In order to carry out the impact assessment, physically-based hydrologic models are often employed. The present study focuses on assessment of the effect of changing LULC and climate on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga basin (UGB), India, using the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) hydrologic model. In order to obtain the changes that have occurred in the LULC of the basin over a time period, initially LULC analysis is carried out. For this purpose, high resolution multispectral satellite imageries from Landsat are procured for the years 1973, 1980, 2000 and 2011. The images are pre-processed to project them to a common projection system and are then co-registered. The processed images are used for classification into different land cover classes. This step requires training sites which are collected during the field visit as part of this work. The classified images, thus obtained are used to analyse temporal changes in LULC of the region. The results indicate an increase in crop land and urban area of the region by 47% and 122% respectively from 1973 to 2011. After initial decline in dense forest for the first three decades, an increase in the dense forest is observed between 2000- 2011 (from 11.44% to 14.8%). Scrub forest area and barren land are observed to decline in the study region by 62% and 96% respectively since 1973. The land cover information along with meteorological data and soil data are used to drive the VIC model to investigate the impact of LULC changes on streamflow and evapotranspiration (ET) components of hydrology in the UGB. For the simulation purpose, the entire basin is divided into three regions (1) upstream (with Bhimgodha as the outlet), (2) midstream (with Ankinghat as the outlet) and (3) downstream (with Allahabad as the outlet). The VIC model is calibrated and validated for all the three regions independently at monthly scale. Model performance is assessed based on the criterion of normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE). It is observed that the model performed well with reasonable accuracy for upstream and midstream regions. In case of the downstream region, due to lack of observed discharge data, model performance could not be assessed. Hence, the simulations for the downstream region are performed using the calibrated model of the midstream region. The model outputs from the three regions are aggregated appropriately to generate the total hydrologic response of the UGB. Using the calibrated models for different region of the UGB, sensitivity analysis is performed by generating hydrologic scenarios corresponding to different land use (LU) and climate conditions. In order to investigate the impact of changing LU on hydrological variables, a scenario is generated in which climate is kept constant and LU is varied. Under this scenario, only the land cover related variables are altered in the model keeping the meteorological variables constant. Thus, the effect of LU change is segregated from the effect of climate. The results obtained from these simulations indicated that the change in LU significantly affects peak streamflow depth which is observed to be 77.58% more in August 2011 in comparison with the peak streamflow of August, 1973. Furthermore, ET is found to increase by 46.44% since 1973 across the entire basin. In order to assess the impact of changing climate on hydrological variables, a scenario is generated in which LU is kept constant and climate is varied from 1971-2005. Under this scenario, land cover related variables are kept constant in the model and meteorological variables are varied for different time periods. The results indicate decline in the simulated discharge for the years 1971, 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2005, which is supported by decline in observed annual rainfall for the respective years. Amongst 1971 and 2005, year 2005 received 26% less rainfall resulting in 35% less discharge. Furthermore, ET is observed to be negligibly affected. To understand the integrated impact of changing LU and climate on hydrological variables, a scenario is generated in which both climate and LU are altered. Based on the data available, three years (1973, 1980 and 2000) are considered for the simulations. Under this scenario, both land cover and meteorological variables are varied in the model. The results obtained showed that the discharge hydrograph for the year 1980 has significantly higher peak compared to the hydrographs of years 1973 and 2000. This could be due to the fact that the year 1980 received maximum rainfall amongst the three years considered for simulations. Although the basin received higher rainfall in the year 1980 compared to that in 2000, ET from the basin in the year 1980 is found to be 21% less than that of the year 2000. This could be attributed to the change in LU that occurred between the years 1980 and 2000. Amongst the years 1973 and 2000, there is not much difference in the observed rainfall but ET for the year 2000 is observed to be significantly higher than that of year 1973. It is concluded from the present study that in the UGB, changing LULC contributes significantly to the changes in peak discharge and ET while rainfall pattern considerably influences the runoff pattern of the region. Future work proposed includes assessment of hydrologic response of basin under future LULC and climate scenarios. Also the model efficiency can be assessed by performing hydrologic simulations at different grid sizes.

An effort has been develop to access the water quality status of river Ganga in West Bengal India for drinking purpose using unified techniques. For this study, 14 parameters at 10 location from Beharampur to Diamond Harbour over 39 months (2020january —2023march) were considered. The eastern stretch of Ganga showed a variation of Water Quality Index (WQI) from 24.4539 to 1790.2545 and Synthetic Pollution Index (SPI) from 0.244539 to 1.7902545 in 36 months. . The map interpolated through GIS exposed that the entire river stretch in 36 months and location near to ocean during the entire period of 36 months were severely polluted (WQI >100 or SPI > 1).Turbidity ,DO and BOD concentration mainly contribute to the high scores of indices. Further, the origin of these ions was estimated through multivariate statistical techniques using SPSS .. It was recognized that the origin of these pollutant is mainly attributed to seawater influx, that of fluoride to human and industrial activities , and other parameters originated through geological as well as human activities. Based on the research, a few possible water treatment mechanisms are suggested to render the water fit for drinking.

Anthropogenic factors such as climate change, land use land cover change and industrial and population growth can influence river water quality. Climate change affects water quality due to changes in stream temperature and streamflow due to increased air temperature and varied precipitation patterns associated with warming. Land use land cover influences water quality mainly from the agricultural runoff, which carries the pollutants from fertilizers and pesticides and reaches the nearby water body. Population growth can increase the water demand and sewage generated hence aggravating pollution. Industrial growth has the potential to affect water quality through increased effluent loads. The work presented in this thesis contributes to quantifying such anthropogenic influences on river water quality using a coupled hydrological-water quality simulation model. The study area considered is a 238km stretch of Ganga river in India from Ankinghat to Shahzadpur, passing through Kanpur, which is identified as the most polluted stretch of Ganga river by the Central Pollution Control Board of India. Sensitivity studies with forcings such as climate change and land use are extremely important for any management decision on water quality. In the initial part of the thesis, the sensitivity of nine water quality parameters to climate change and land use change is assessed using idealized scenarios and a standalone water quality simulation model, QUAL2K. The key input model parameters contributing to model uncertainty and key locations are identified using first order reliability analysis. The water quality parameters considered are DO, BOD, ammonia, nitrate, total nitrogen, organic-, inorganic-, and total phosphorous and faecal coliform. The non-point source pollution is quantified using the export coefficient method, in which pollutants from all land use classes are considered. Eight climate change and six land use land cover scenarios are framed based on historical data analysis to assess their sensitivity to water quality parameters. DO is the most sensitive indicator to the climate change scenarios considered, while nutrients and faecal coliform are more sensitive to the land use scenarios. In general, the water quality parameters are found to improve with a rise in air temperature and deteriorate with a reduction in streamflow. An increase in the agricultural land area leads to higher nutrient concentration, while an increase in the built-up area causes an increase in faecal coliform concentration. An increase in forest land shows better water quality in terms of all water quality parameters. The key input variables contributing to the uncertainty of water quality simulation are the head water discharge, point and non-point pollution loadings, water temperature, and corresponding reaction rates. The key locations identified using first order reliability analysis are Kanpur downstream and Jajmau downstream. Risk assessment studies on water quality for future scenarios are limited in the literature. In the next part of the thesis, the effect of climate change on water quality, the risk of eutrophication and fish kill for the mid-and end of the 21st century for this river stretch are assessed. The risk of eutrophication and fish kill are quantified using simulated concentrations of nutrients and DO, respectively. Downscaled climate change projections for two climate change scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) are used to drive a hydrological model coupled with a water quality simulation model. The simulations indicate a potential deterioration of water quality in this stretch in the mid-21st century, with a potential increase in pollutant concentration by more than 50% due to climate change alone. The risk of reduced dissolved oxygen and increased organic and nutrient pollution, and the risk of eutrophication and fish kills increase with warming due to the rise in the frequency of low-flow events and a reduction in streamflow during low-flow events. However, the risk of nitrate and microbial pollution is reduced due to increased denitrification and pathogen decay rates with warming. The risk of eutrophication and fish kill is found to increase by 43.5% and 15% due to climate change alone by the mid-21st century. The risk of eutrophication is found to increase by 6% due to land use change which can be attributed to an increase in nutrient loading with land use change. In the final part of the thesis, the individual effects of climate change, land use land cover change, population and industrial growth on river water quality are assessed with a coupled hydrological-water quality simulation model and the predominant factor contributing to pollution is identified. Also, the future water quality is projected for mid 21st century considering climate change, land use projections, population and industrial growth, and the proposed treatment for the stretch considered using socio-environmental scenarios. The effectiveness of the proposed treatment to offset the reduction in water quality from anthropogenic forcings is also assessed. The climate change effect is found to have a larger effect on water quality than other drivers, with a percentage contribution of above 70% because of the considerable sensitivity of water quality parameters to the amount of streamflow. Climate change projections combined with socio-environmental scenarios imply that the large increase in pollution due to climate change, land use land cover, industry, and population growth cannot be controlled by the current treatment proposals for 2050 by the authorities. However, providing adequate STPs to meet the population of 2050, and allowing only domestic sewage to reach STPs can help in achieving the objective of the Ganga Action Plan in the mid-21st century. The thesis comprises of five chapters. An introduction to the problem addressed, and the objectives of the work presented in the thesis are provided in Chapter 1. Details of the case study and analysis of the sensitivity of water quality parameters to climate change and land use with idealized future scenarios are discussed in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, the risk assessment of low water quality, eutrophication and fish kill under changing climate and land use land cover is presented. Chapter 4 presents the analysis of the individual effects of all external forcings, including climate change, land use change, population and industrial growth. Conclusions drawn from the study are presented in Chapter 5.

Climate change is one of the most serious global challenges of our time. It is not just a scientific issue but an economic, social, cultural, political and legal issue as well. The world community has taken many steps to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases to mitigate climate change. However, they have failed to take the drastic measures needed to address it effectively. This failure of the international community to effectively address climate change has encouraged environmental activists and victims of climate change to take recourse to international as well as national legal systems to better address these issues. India is particularly vulnerable to the changing climate and its Himalayan-fed rivers, such as the Ganga River, will be seriously affected because of the melting glaciers and changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change. Moreover, climate change can cause a violation of the ‘Right to Life’ provided to the people of India by its Constitution. The Indian Supreme Court has liberally interpreted this right to include the right to a healthy environment and has taken an active interest in protecting the environment and related rights of the people of India. The Supreme Court could potentially play an important role in addressing climate change issues in India by applying the broad constitutional provisions and the rich environmental jurisprudence developed by it in landmark environmental cases. This thesis discusses the potential role the Indian Supreme Court could play in future in addressing climate change issues with a focus on the Ganga Basin in India.

碩士
大仁科技大學
環境管理研究所
93
This research had three separate runs of eleven sampling sites in Dong-Gang River, Taiwan, from September, 2002 to January, 2003. Two bioassays including the Microtox® Chronic Toxicity and EROD assay, were used to detect the toxicity in order to understand the major caused effect. The Microtox® Chronic Toxicity and EROD assay are sensitive to the metal and Halogenated Aromatic Hydrocarbons (HAHs) toxicity, respectively. The significant toxicity responses obtained from Microtox® Chronic Toxicity method were 54.5%, 81.8% and 63.6% three separate runs, respectively. The Long-Jing Bridge had the highest level of toxicity ( Toxicity Unit >16) among eleven sampling stations. However, low toxicity unit (TU=1) from Si-Shui Bridge suggested (NOEC=100%, LOEC=100%) that the toxic effect associated with metals is believed to be low. In EROD assay analysis, the 3-MC and DMSO were used as positive and negative control. The preliminary results revealed that the EROD bioassay analysis were all negative in three separate runs. Significant activities were only detected in the Long-Jing Stream Bridge station when the extract of the sample was concentrated 10 times. The metal concentration of copper(Cu), chromium(Cr) and lead (Pb) were 2.85~727.01μg/L, 0.68 ~ 30.85μg/L and 2.25 ~ 34.36μg/L, respectively. In conclusion, the results revealed that the factors causing biological effects in eleven sampling sites from Dong-Gang river were metals. The contribution of organic pollutants to EROD activity was estimated to be low. Further understanding of the relationship between the other environmental factors and biological effect is critical.

碩士
國立高雄第一科技大學
環境與安全衛生工程研究所
103
This research collected all information of the Tong Gang river area by the background of ground water, geology, hydrology, during July to November, 2013 at Chaozhou Bridge(water quality monitoring station by Environmental Protection Administration) and Tong Gang bridge No 2 proceeding with the water quality and water amount sampling at 5 times, and refer to the real testing data and the Chaozhou Bridge testing station data every year, per Chaozhou Bridge . XingShe bridge and Western Port Pumping Station and the left side of Tong Gang river area, the right side of 26 branches, having the data of BOD、NH3-N and DO, then phasing in WASP/EUTRO mode to proceed water pollution decreasing simulation. Via WASP/EUTRO pollution decreasing mode estimation, finding polluted water rate with BOD、NH3- is high from Hsinyuan, Linlo River, Banana Tree Pei, Longchih River water flow，Thus, if above branch decreasing rate meets above 80 %, so that the pollution loading from Tong Gang River can be improved obviously. Rivers with low branch pollution river such as Ming Chih River, Chia Ping River, after pollution decreasing mode estimation, from upstream to downstream, the decreasing rate for BOD is 61.9%, decreasing rate for NH3-N is 69.1%, and the pollution area along left side from upstream to downstream is concentrating in branches, while decreasing rate of BOD is 55.4% and of NH3-N is 76%,after WASP/ EUTRO water quality simulation, it can be improved obviously; Among the 5 simulated cases from the research center, via analysis of WASP/EUTRO estimation, the Case 1 is for high polluted BOD and NH3-N of Hsinyuan River and Long Chih River, while the pollution deceasing rate meets 80 %, via WASP/EUTRO water quality estimation, it can meet totally the B class standard of Environmental Protection Administration, it’s the best decreasing case among all the cases; During the water quality simulation, it can be approved indirectly, while the pollution decreasing rate of BOD and NH3-N is higher, the water quality for whole Tong Gang River can be cleaning and improved obviously, however, the research indicated that for the higher polluted river such as Banana Tree Pei, from upstream to downstream, its BOD decreasing rate is around 52.5% and NH3-N decreasing date is around 54.5%, via the WASP water pollution estimation, while the branch flows to Tong Gang river, it doesn’t make big improvement for water cleaning. Another research survey showed Hsinyuan and Lin Luo Xi, Pazhupi are polluted mostly, if they can be supported by appropriate ecological engineering or pre-treatment measures to effectively reduce the BOD of wastewater pollution load and NH3-N I believe that the water body Tong Gang River Watershed absolutely fully effective improvement. In Program 5 water intake in Tong Gang from near the sea, low NH3-N values do contaminated water shut-off when measured by the location of the water intake near Tong Gang River estuary tidal zone; therefore, vulnerable to tidal waters, NH3-N for high BOD values or significant dilution effect, so the measured values of NH3-N and BOD will be significantly lower, but the impact on the findings of this study are not affected. This study mainly aims at imitate Module WASP / EUTRO water quality for Water Pollution abatement, and find the best possible Improvement program from 26 branches. Hopefully it’s helpful for water quality for the station of Tong Gang River, and meet the restoration goals of Class B water quality standards of EPA. Of course during the study failed to gather further information deeply as entire geomorphology , groundwater , underflow water, ground water and other related information. I hope Government can give consideration to both natural environment and SMS thought when develop Tong Gang river resources usage so as to improve Fongshan Reservoir water quality and improve annual shortage of water problem of unstable water offer from high flow period, period of low water level or torrential rain storm. Also hope future water quality can be upgraded and improved to first class people''s livelihood water or public water demands so as to satisfy daily demands of 440K tons of shortage water target in Kaohsiung area.

碩士
大仁科技大學
環境管理研究所
93
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the common contaminants in our environment. Some of PAHs have been confirmed that they are carcinogen. Among, Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) has the strongest toxicity to cause the cancer. In the European Union, they have restricted total concentration of PAHs must below 0.1ppb in their drinking water standard. However, these kinds of contaminants have least regard in the Taiwan’s standard of drinking water monitoring at present. If the drinking water is contaminated by PAHs due to the atmospheric deposit or the discharge wastewater into the river, the contaminated water will affected human health in directly or indirectly. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the content and distribution of PAHs in the Gao-Ping river and Dong-Gang river, which provides the water resources of drink water for Gao-Ping area at Taiwan. There are five sites from upstream to downstream in the Gao-ping river and dong-Gang river to take water sampling, respectively. The frequency of sampling was once a month. The solid phase Extraction (SPE) method was used to extract the PAHs from the sampling water. After the concentration, the concentrate of PAHs were detected by the High performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector. There are fourteen kinds of PAHs, which concerned by America EPA, were detected in the study. Finally, the Molecular Index was used to analyze and to describe the origin of PAHs pollution. The results have shown the highest and the lowest concentration of PAHs in the Gao-Ping river is occurrence at the Gao-Ping bridge(178～1126.1 ng/L) and at Lan He Yan(34.6～123.3 ng/L), respectively. In the Dong-Gang river, the highest and the lowest concentration of PAHs is occurrence at the Dong-Gang bridge(178～1126.1 ng/L) and at Wan Luan bridge(178～1126.1 ng/L), respectively. The most common substances of PAHs in the rivers are the Naphthalene, Fluorene and Phenanthrene. According to the result of Molecular Index analysis, in the Gao-Ping river, the samples taken form Li Ling bridge, Lan He Yan , Gao Ping bridge, Wan Da bridge, which PAHs are inferred contaminated by the Pyrolytic pollution, the sample taken from the Shuang Yuan bridge, the PAHs is comtaminated by the Petrogenic pollution. In the Dong Gang river, the samples taken from the Cheng De bridge, Wan Luan bridge, Chao Zhou bridge, Gang Dong NO.2 bridge, which PAHs are contaminated by the Pyrolytic pollution, the sample taken from the Dong Gang bridge, the PAHs is comtaminated by the Petrogenic pollution.

碩士
國立成功大學
建築學系碩博士班
96
This research is to study the changes and meaning along the river named Chai-Tou-Gang, including the river and the two-side streets of Chai-Tou-Gang. There are two parts: 1.Discussing the meaning of space by Manual Castells’s theory of Urban social change and the cases of the development for international edge cities. 2.According to the theory of Robert Cook, this study analyzes the quality for the visual of the area、functional、environment and urban experience. They are the material to discuss the meaning of space. The literature of the theory and analytic plan: The frame of theories and the analyzing of plans depend on related literatures. Besides the frame, the examination of space quality depends on field survey and the developed figures of design analyzing. After having development of two-side lands and legal plan and general environmental quality, conclusions comes up which towards this local city meaning: There are two aspects of edge space changes: Through the frame, conclusions comes up that this area is the backgrounds of development of two cities, revealing broken system, in continuously city activity, abandoned by local people. Thus they form the narrow edge space of city. Through quality and changing meaning of city referring to these two cities, they perform functional separated usage, environmental visual chaos, non-mutual system care and concern. All of these are due to lacking of activity and memory of local culture. And the formality of local meaning, from the point of view of plan, it is the edge of management of two cities.

碩士
國立中興大學
環境工程學系所
103
Due to the awareness of the environment at protection in recent years, the river-water pollution has been seriously concerned as an important issue. One of the useful policies to reduce the water pollution in Taiwan is the constructive of sewage systems. The Taiwan government has extended the sewage infrastructures to enhance the sewage systems and promoted the quality of living environment. The government has proposed a project to adopt the BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer) system to promote the enhancement, one of the sewage systems in Toufen and Chunan area. The Zhong-gang River, the main river in Miaoli, is heavily contaminated by the domestic wastewaters. The aim of the study is to understand the influence and improvement of the water pollution in this river after the collection and treatment of the sewage in Chunan and Toufen area. The amount of domestic wastewater and the pollution loading in this area were re-evaluated before and after the development of the sewage system. Also, water quality data from 2010 to 2014 were analyzed to discuss the improvement of the water quality of the Zhong-gang River. Results of the study show that the sewage systems of Chunan and Toufen could efficiently improve the water pollution. These decrements include 4,499 kg/day of BOD, 5,623 kg/day of COD, 4,499 kg/day of SS, and 282 kg/day of NH3-N (Ammonia Nitrogen) reduction. The RPI (River Pollution Index) index of the Wufu-Bridge monitoring station decreased from 3.8 to 3.3. However, indexes of the Jianshan-Bridge and Dongxing-Bridge stations were sustained to be 6.5 and 1.5, respectively. The current treatment system for the removal of ammonia nitrogen was inefficient. A biological denitrifacation process, such as MLE (Modified Ludzack and Ettinger), is suggested to be employed in the wastewater treatment process to increase the removal efficiency of the ammonia nitrogen.