Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Respiratory organs Diseases Immunological aspects“

Infection caused by the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 initially associated with respiratory damage and the development of respiratory symptoms. However, it was subsequently shown that COVID-19 can be considered as a systemic inflammatory process with multiple organ damage. One of the most frequent extra pulmonary manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection is liver damage. Several factors of influence on the liver in COVID-19 are currently being considered: viral immunological damage, hypoxia, systemic inflammatory process, drug toxicity and progression of existing liver diseases. This review is devoted to the analysis of available data on the mechanisms and clinical manifestations of liver damage in a new coronavirus infection.

The problem of interaction between a person and the intestinal microbiome is surrounded by many secrets and mysteries. The bacterial flora of the gastrointestinal tract has a local and systemic effect not only on the digestive system, but also on the entire body as a whole. Numerous studies have proved the pathogenetic relationship of the state of the intestinal biocenosis not only with diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, but also with pathological processes from other organs and systems of the body. In terms of its role in maintaining homeostasis, the intestinal microflora is not inferior to any other vital organ. In the presented review, the current aspects of the terminology and clinic of disorders of intestinal microbiocenosis are considered. Probiotics occupy an important place in the complex therapy of intestinal microbiocenosis disorders and the corresponding clinical manifestations. The review considers the main mechanisms of probiotic / host interaction, non-immunological and immunological effects of probiotics and the requirements for them, the main directions of use of representatives of the normal microflora Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. The data of meta-analyzes and systematic reviews, testifying to the expansion of indications for the appointment of probiotics, are considered the possibilities of probiotics in the complex therapy of Helicobacter pylori infection, syndrome of increased epithelial intestinal permeability, and the prevention of respiratory infections.The review concludes with the results of a search in the PubMed database on the possibility of using probiotics in the prevention and treatment of a new coronavirus infection COVID-19. The availability of modern, effective and safe probiotics in the arsenal of a practical doctor (primarily a general practitioner and general practitioner), and their use, contributes to the optimization of drug therapy not only in gastroenterological patients, but also in patients with other somatic pathologies, including those with new coronavirus infection COVID-19.

Supplementation of livestock and poultry diets with herbal plants containing bioactive components have shown promising reports as natural feed supplements. These additives are able to promote growth performance and improve feed efficiency, nutrient digestion, antioxidant status, immunological indices, and poultry health. Several studies have used complex herbal formulas with the partial inclusion of licorice. However, the individual use of licorice has been rarely reported. The major problem of the poultry industry is the epidemiological diseases, mainly confined to the respiratory, digestive, and immune systems. Licorice has certain bioactive components such as flavonoids and glycyrrhizin. The roots of this herb contain 1 to 9% glycyrrhizin, which has many pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, antiviral, anti-infective and anti-inflammatory properties. Licorice extracts (LE) have a positive effect on the treatment of high-prevalence diseases such as the immune system, liver, and lung diseases. Studies showed that adding LE to drinking water (0.1, 0.2, or 0.3 g/L) reduced serum total cholesterol (p < 0.05) of broiler chickens. Moreover, LE supplementation in poultry diets plays a significant role in their productive performance by enhancing organ development and stimulating digestion and appetite. Along with its growth-promoting effects, licorice has detoxifying, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and other health benefits in poultry. This review describes the beneficial applications and recent aspects of the Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) herb, including its chemical composition and role in safeguarding poultry health.

Purpose: This literature review summarizes the main immunological characteristics of type III interferons (IFN) and highlights the clinically relevant aspects and future therapeutic perspectives for these inflammatory molecules. Source: Relevant articles in PubMed MEDLINE from the first publication (2003) until 2020. N=101 articles were included in this review. Principal findings: Type III IFNs represent a relatively newly described inflammatory cytokine family. Although they induce substantially similar signalling to the well-known type I IFNs, significant functional differences make these molecules remarkable. Type III IFNs have extensive biological effects, contributing to the pathogenesis of several diseases and also offering new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches: 1) their potent anti-viral properties make them promising therapeutics against viral hepatitis and even against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is causing the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic; 2) imbalances in the IFN-λs contribute to several forms of chronic inflammation (e.g., systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases) and potentially predict disease progression and therapeutic response to biologic therapies; and 3) the antitumor properties of the type III IFNs open up new therapeutic perspectives against malignant diseases. Conclusion: Over the last 18 years, researchers have gathered extensive information about the presence and role of these versatile inflammatory cytokines in human diseases, but further research is needed to clarify the mechanistic background of those observations. Better understanding of their biological activities will permit us to use type III IFNs more efficiently in new diagnostic approaches and individualized therapies, consequently improving patient care.

Background. There is a progressive increase of respiratory allergic diseases nowadays in the world, made it necessary to study the participation of the components of the immune system in these processes. From the point of view of modern aspects about the organs of the immune system, interesting are the patterns of morphogenesis and function of bronchus associated lymphoid tissue, occupied a special place in the immunological protection of the body due to the large area of contact with various antigens. Morphogenesis and reactive changes in the local immunity in respiratory system in conditions of allergic inflammation remain urgent issue of modern morphology. Objective. To study the changes in diffuse lymphoid tissue of bronchi and lungs of guinea pigs sensitized with ovalbumin. Methods. We have studied the lung of 48 guinea pigs, using histological, immunohistochemical, morphometric, statistical methods, under conditions of experimental ovalbumin-induced allergic inflammation, assessed the average number of lymphocytes, macrophages and plasma cells in the diffuse lymphoid tissue. Results. The average number of lymphocytes in diffuse lymphoid tissue of bronchi and lungs increased from the 23rd day of observation and remained at a high level until the end of the experiment, the maximum was during the early period of the development of allergic inflammation, the increasing coefficient was 4.7. The average number of plasma cells also acquired maximum elevation in the early period of allergic process, the increasing coefficient was 2.0. The most significant average number of macrophages was on the 23rd day of observation with same increasing coefficient. Among all types of immunocompetent cells of diffuse lymphoid tissue in bronchi and lungs, T-lymphocytes prevailed during the experiment elevated almost by 5 times. Conclusions. In the early period of development of experimental ovalbumin-induced allergic inflammation, the specific resistance of the respiratory system manifests itself in the form of activation of local links of cellular and humoral adaptive immunity, as evidenced by the dynamics of changes in the average number of lymphocytes (the maximum increasing coefficient 4.7 in the 1st experimental group), macrophages and plasma cells (maximum increasing coefficient 2.0 in the 1st experimental group) of diffuse lymphoid tissue of bronchi and lungs of guinea pigs.

Obstruction of the lumen of the appendix is still considered to be the main cause of acute appendicitis (including feces), followed by the increased intraluminal pressure, the development of ischemia and mucosal hypoxia of the appendix, ulceration, violation of the mucous barrier and the development of necrosis. A sufficient number of scientific facts have been accumulated completely refuting this postulate. Current fundamental achievements in molecular biology, biochemistry, etc. did not become the basis for a clinical revision of the ancient well-established theories and concepts of the etiopathogenesis of many diseases in almost all medical specialties. Surgery isn’t an exception in this context. The review considers the etiopathogenesis of acute inflammation of the appendix from the current point of view of the hypothesis of epithelial-endothelial dysfunction and epithelial-endothelial distress syndrome, since it most fully characterizes the integration of the etiopathogenesis of almost all common diseases of organs with mucous membranes and the recent fundamental research their structures and functions. It is based on general and local factors of violation of the lymphoid apparatus and the integumentary epithelium barrier functions. Thus, this work presents a new concept of the etiopathogenesis of acute appendicitis, which in turn will allow the surgery of acute appendicitis to reach new levels of understanding.

Sickness behavior is the common denominator for a plethora of changes in normal behavioral routines and systemic metabolism during an infection. Typical symptoms include temperature, muscle weakness, and loss of appetite. Whereas we experience these changes as a pathology, in fact they are a carefully orchestrated response mediated by the immune system. Its purpose is to optimize immune cell functionality against pathogens whilst minimizing viral replication in infected cells. Sickness behavior is controlled at several levels, most notably by the central nervous system, but also by other organs that mediate systemic homeostasis, such as the liver and adipose tissue. Nevertheless, the changes mediated by these organs are ultimately initiated by immune cells, usually through local or systemic secretion of cytokines. The nature of infection determines which cytokine profile is induced by immune cells and therefore which sickness behavior ensues. In context of infection, sickness behavior is typically beneficial. However, inappropriate activation of the immune system may induce adverse aspects of sickness behavior. For example, tissue stress caused by obesity may result in chronic activation of the immune system, leading to lasting changes in systemic metabolism. Concurrently, metabolic disease prevents induction of appropriate sickness behavior following viral infection, thus impairing the normal immune response. In this article, we will revisit recent literature that elucidates both the benefits and the negative aspects of sickness behavior in context of viral infection.

Smoking is one of the most prominent addictions of the modern world, and one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide. Although the number of tobacco smokers is believed to be at a historic low, electronic cigarette use has been on a dramatic rise over the past decades. Used as a replacement for cigarette smoking, electronic cigarettes were thought to reduce the negative effects of burning tobacco. Nonetheless, the delivery of nicotine by electronic cigarettes, the most prominent component of cigarette smoke (CS) is still delivering the same negative outcomes, albeit to a lesser extent than CS. Smoking has been shown to affect both the structural and functional aspects of major organs, including the lungs and vasculature. Although the deleterious effects of smoking on these organs individually is well-known, it is likely that the adverse effects of smoking on these organs will have long-lasting effects on the cardiovascular system. In addition, smoking has been shown to play an independent role in the homeostasis of the immune system, leading to major sequela. Both the adaptive and the innate immune system have been explored regarding CS and have been demonstrated to be altered in a way that promotes inflammatory signals, leading to an increase in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and cancer. Although the mechanism of action of CS has not been fully understood, disease pathways have been explored in both branches of the immune system. The pathophysiologically altered immune system during smoking and its correlation with cardiovascular diseases is not fully understood. Here we highlight some of the important pathological mechanisms that involve cigarette smoking and its many components on cardiovascular disease and the immune systems in order to have a better understanding of the mechanisms at play.

The emphasis of this literature overview is placed on the etiology, epidemiology, specific gross and microscopic pathological changes of the commonest gastrointestinal diseases in newborn and growing calves in dairy and beef farms. Neonatal diarrhea in calves is a multifactorial disease accompanied with high morbidity and mortality rates. It incurs considerable economic losses for cattle industry worldwide. The gastroenteritis in calves is most commonly of infectious or parasitic etiology and the most frequently involved enteropathogens are Cryptosporidium parvum, bovine rotaviruses (GRA BRV), bovine coronaviruses (BCoV), mucosal disease virus - bovine viral diarrhoea (BVDV) and Escherichia coli K99 (F5). Affected calves are from 24th hours to 30 days of age, and the appearance of the disease is largely dependent on the immunological status of newborn calves, the amount of ingested colostrum, whether dams are vaccinated or not during the dry period, and the conditions of housing of newborns. The specific gross and microscopic lesions of the gastrointestinal tract and of some parenchymal organs are essential for the diagnostics and differential diagnostics of reviewed diseases.

To investigate the possibility that malnutrition is an important factor that prolongs respiratory failure (PRF), I studied the effects of pharmacologic injections of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH), an important anabolic stimulus, on nutritional and respiratory parameters in patients requiring mechanical ventilation for more than three days. Patients were excluded from consideration if dominating factors known to prolong ventilatory failure had not been stabilized. Over ten months, 106 patients in PRF were evaluated, but only six met the selection criteria. Three patients were randomized to receive standard nutritional support, and three into a group that received the equivalent nutrition plus 5 mg/day of rhGH for 14 days or until withdrawal of mechanical ventilation. Baseline characteristics of the selected patients were divergent as demonstrated by body mass indexes ranging from 14 to 42 (kg/m$ sp2),$ baseline maximal inspiratory pressures (PI$ sb{ max}$ from $-$15 to $-$70 cm H$ sb2$O, and Day 1 N balances from $-$13.5 to 1.2 g N/day. Despite increased plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations, the mean daily N balances of the rhGH-treated group were no better than the controls (1.3 $ pm$ 5.0 vs. 0.4 $ pm$ 2.6 g N/day; Mean $ pm$ SD), nor were there differences in PI$ sb{ max},$ level of ventilatory assistance required, and days to weaning. The persistence of respiratory failure in the overwhelming majority of patients in PRF appears to be due to factors already known to prevent weaning from mechanical ventilation. Even the carefully selected patients enrolled in the present study were insufficiently homogeneous or stable enough to allow proper testing of the experimental hypothesis.

Objectives : To investigate the impacts of traffic related air pollution (TRAP) on children’s respiratory health, and to investigate the policies and regulations implemented in other countries and the suggestions from the World Health Organization (WHO) to tackle this problem. Methods and Results: Using relevant keywords, 122 articles were acquired from PubMed and 15 were from MEDLINE via EBSCO host respectively. The articles were published between 1980 to 2013; all of which had examined the impacts of TRAP on children’s respiratory health. After assessing inclusion and exclusion criteria, 9 articles were finally included in this systematic review. Differences in demographic characteristics were studied and compared to determine the association between TRAP exposure and respiratory health impacts on children aged between 1 and 18. Four cross-section surveys and five cohort studies were selected in this review. The association between TRAP exposure and differences in children’s respiratory impacts were demonstrated in all studies. Multiple outcome measures were used to examine changes of children’s respiratory health such as the decline in lung function, incidences of asthma and inflammatory responses. There were 4 out of 9 articles suggesting the decline in lung function was related to TRAP exposure; 5 out of 9 articles showed the relationships between incidences of asthma and inflammatory responses and TRAP exposure and 2 articles mentioned other respiratory symptoms; notably, wheezing and sneezing, runny and stuffed nose. This review finally summarized the results of selected articles stressing that children who lived close to roadway within a 500 meter radius from home, with an early exposure to air pollution in the first year of age and a frequent exposure to heavy road traffic and outdoor air pollutants would experience greater impacts on respiratory health. Conclusion: The positive association between the impacts on children’s respiratory health and TRAP exposure has been determined through this systematic review. Stricter emission control strategies and updated guidelines are required to regulate traffic emission and improve air quality in order to reduce harm and provide a better living environment for our next generations.
published_or_final_version
Public Health
Master
Master of Public Health

Artists are exposed to numerous respiratory health hazards in the production of art. Little is known of artists' studio behaviors or of their health beliefs related to respiratory toxins. The Health Belief Model hypothesizes that individuals require a minimal level of relevant health motivation and knowledge before attempting to prevent a health condition, as well as a perception of their vulnerability to health conditions they view as threatening, conviction in the efficacy of preventive behaviors, and a perception that recommended preventive action entails few difficulties. This descriptive and exploratory study, conducted within the framework of the Health Belief Model, seeks to determine artists' knowledge, health beliefs, and preventive studio practices related to occupational respiratory health risks.

Thesis (MNutr)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background: The Ironman® triathlon is an ultra-endurance event. It has previously been shown that heavy training schedules and racing ultra-endurance events can lead to immune impairment. Evidence supporting the potential role of dietary intake and body composition on immune impairment or upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) is currently lacking. Aim: To investigate the relationship between dietary intake, body composition and the incidence of URTI in triathletes residing in Port Elizabeth (PE), during training and competition for the Ironman® 2011 triathlon. Method: An observational longitudinal descriptive study with an analytical component was conducted. The study population included triathletes living in PE, who completed an Ironman® distance event one year prior to, and who were training for the April 2011 Ironman®. Habitual dietary intake was assessed with a quantitative food frequency questionnaire; and race dietary strategies with a three day food record. Body composition was determined with anthropometry and the incidence of URTI was assessed with the WURSS-44. A general health screen (SF-36) was also administered. Results: Habitual dietary intake during the three months pre- and post-Ironman® 2011 triathlon was adequate for all nutrients except for carbohydrate intake in female and male participants (pre-Ironman® of 4.0 (1.7) g/kg body weight (BW)/day and 5.4 (1.8) g/kg BW/day; and post-Ironman® 3.0 (1.0) g/kg BW/day and 4.7 (1.5) g/kg BW/day respectively). Carbohydrate-loading strategies were below recommendations with intakes of 6.0 (2.9) and 5.1 (2.5) g/kg BW/day for female and male participants respectively. Race day nutrition strategies were below recommendations for carbohydrate intake. Post-race dietary intake was below recommendations for carbohydrate in the female participants (0.9 (0.5) g/kg BW). Body mass index was 26.6 (3.4) kg/m2 and 26.1 kg/m2 (1.40) for female and male study participants respectively. Body fat percentage was at the upper end for endurance athletes (29.3 (9.4) % and 13.7 (5.1) % for females and males respectively). In this study 25 % of the triathletes (N=20) developed an episode of URTI during the 3 months post-Ironman®. Dietary intake parameters measured three months pre-Ironman® that had a significant influence on URTI were: potassium (p=0.04) and thiamine (p=0.02) and dietary intake parameters measured 3 months post-Ironman® that had a significant influence on URTI were: total protein (p=0.04); isoleucine (p=0.03); leucine (p=0.03); phenylalanine (p=0.03); valine (p=0.02); thiamine (p=0.01); and Beta-tocopherol (p=0.03). Dietary intake parameters measured during the race that had a significant influence on URTI were: selenium (p=0.04); folate (p=0.04) and proline (p=0.02). Body composition did not have a significant influence on URTI. Conclusion: Habitual dietary intake three months pre- and post-Ironman® as well as pre- and post Ironman race strategies were low for carbohydrate. Body composition indicated that athletes were at the upper end associated with endurance sport. There was a relationship found between an episode of URTI and dietary intake.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond: Die Ironman® driekamp is 'n ultra-uithouvermoë kompetisie. Daar is voorheen bewys dat swaar oefening skedules en ultra-uithouvermoë kompetisies kan lei tot ‘n immuungebrek. Daar is tans ‘n tekort aan wetenskaplike bewyse wat die potensiële rol van dieetinname en liggaamsamestelling op immuungebrek of boonste lugweginfeksies ondersoek. Doel: Die doel van die studie was om ondersoek in te stel oor die verhouding tussen dieetinname, liggaamsamestelling en die insidensie van boonste lugweg infeksies in driekamp atlete woonagtig in Port Elizabeth (PE), tydens oefening en deelname aan die Ironman® 2011 driekamp. Metodes: 'n Waargenome, longitudinale beskrywende studie is gedoen met 'n analitiese komponent. Die studiepopulasie het bestaan uit driekampatlete woonagtig in PE, wat 'n Ironman® afstand kompetisie voltooi het een jaar voor en wat oefen vir die April 2011 Ironman® kompetisie. Gewoontelike dieetinname is bepaal met 'n kwantitatiewe voedselfrekwensie vraelys, en dieet strategieë rondom die byeenkoms met 'n drie dag voedselrekord. Liggaamsamestelling is bepaal met antropometrie en die insidensie van boonste lugweg infeksies is bepaal met die WURSS-44. 'n algemene gesondheid vraelys (SF- 36) is ook ingevul. Resultate: Die gewoontelike dieetinname gedurende die drie maande voor- en na-Ironman® 2011 was voldoende vir alle voedingstowwe, behalwe vir koolhidraat-inname in die vroulike en manlike deelnemers (voor Ironman® 4.0 (1.7) g / kg liggaamsmassa (LM) / dag en 5.4 (1.8) g / kg LM / dag, en na Ironman® 3.0 (1.0) g / kg LM / dag en 4.7 (1.5) g / kg LM / dag onderskeidelik). Koolhidraatlading strategieë was ontoereikend met innames van 6.0 (2.9) en 5.1 (2.5) g / kg BW / dag vir vroulike en manlike deelnemers onderskeidelik. Die inname op die dag van die byeenkoms was onvoldoende vir koolhidraat. Die dieetinname na die byeenkoms was onvoldoende vir koolhidraat inname in die vroulike deelnemers (0.9 (0.5) g / kg LM). Die liggaamsmassa-indeks was 26.6 (3.4) kg/m2 en 26.1 (1.4) kg/m2 vir vroulike en manlike deelnemers onderskeidelik. Persentasie liggaamsvet was aan die boonste grens geassosieer met uithouvermoë oefening atlete 29.3 (9.4) % en 13.7 (5.1) % vir vrouens en mans onderskeidelik. Die insidense van boonste lugweg infeksies was 25% (N=20) gedurende die drie maande na Ironman®. Dieetinname paramters wat gemeet was drie maande voor Ironman® wat beduidende beïnvloed met boonste lugweginfeksies getoon het, was, kalium (p=0.04) en tiamien (p=0.02) en die dieetinname parameters wat drie maande na Ironman® gemeet is en betekenisvolle beïnvloed getoon het met boonste lugweginfeksies was, totale proteïen (p=0.04); isoleusien (p=0.03), leusien (p=0.03), fenielalanien (p=0.03), valien (p=0.02), tiamien (p=0.01), en B-tocopherol (p=0.03). Die dieetinname parameters wat gemeet was tydens die wedloop wat beduidende beïnvloed met boonste lugweginfeksies getoon het na Ironman® 2011 was, selenium (p=0.04), folaat (p=0.04) en prolien (p=0.02). Die antropometriese parameters gemeet het nie beïnvloed op boonste lugweginfeksies gehad nie. Gevolgtrekking: Die gewoontelike dieetinname drie maande voor- en na Ironman® sowel as voor- en na Ironman® kompetisie strategieë was onvoldoende vir koolhidrate. Liggaamsamestelling het aangedui dat atlete aan die boonste grens geassosieer met uithouvermoë oefening geval het. Daar was beduidende beïnvloed gevind tussen dieetinname en boonste lugweginfeksies.

The SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) is a virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. The virus has high infectious power and easy ability to spread geographically, due to the fact that the infection is asymptomatic in some cases. However, 25% of patients infected by SARS-CoV-2 can progress to the severity of the disease and develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The symptoms are commonly recognized as fever, dry cough, tachypnea, shortness of breath, sore throat, sneezing, nasal congestion, and other symptoms, including severe inflammatory responses with the evolution of cytokine storm, pneumonia, and sepsis. Here, we show the COVID-19 since infection in the host cell to Post-COVID-19 syndrome, relating the occurrence of virus variants, laboratory and immunological aspects, the major clinical manifestations and image findings, and all aspects associated with pulmonary damage promoted by the virus.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic was initially manifested as a contagious respiratory infection, its other aspects quickly became apparent. Accordingly, the disease could affect various organs such as skin, digestive system, and the central nervous system. Apart from these diverse manifestations, it was rapidly cleared that the virus could potentially play a role in causing a wide range of autoimmune diseases. Moreover, various anthropological aspects of COVID-19 and its effects on human life were considered. In this regard, one of the important issues is its psychological effects, not only on the population of healthy people, but also on people suffering from underlying diseases. Inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system are included as one group of these diseases. Since these diseases can cause many psychological problems in patients, it is very important to pay attention to them during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the following section, the psychological aspects of COVID-19 in patients with neuroinflammatory diseases are described.

No and yes. The skin, oropharynx, upper airways, gastrointestinal tract, and lower female genital tract are full of bacteria, with the highest concentration being in the colon and in dental plaque. Overall, humans are made up of slightly more bacterial cells than human cells; about 40 versus 30 trillion respectively. Although much less prominent, fungi and viruses are also present. In addition to these endogenous microbes, humans come into contact with numerous others on a daily basis—they are inhaled, ingested with food and drink, and picked up on the skin from the environment. Some of these remain in and on the human body for periods of time, while others slough off or die. In contrast to this, there are certain areas of the body where microbial agents are not expected to occur under normal circumstances. These are called sterile sites and include: major organs and their surrounding fluids and capsules; blood and body fluids other than faeces and saliva (yes, including urine!); bone, bone marrow, and joint fluid; subcutaneous tissue, fat, muscle, and tendons; the lower respiratory tract; and some of the genital tract. Microbes only enter these protected sterile sites through various breaches in physical and immunological defences. Again— no and yes. This is a question that has posed much debate over the centuries and seems to evolve as understanding of both humans and microbes expands. Early understanding of infectious diseases was based on the idea that the microbe was an aggressor and the host a passive victim. Currently there is a better understanding of the relationship between microbe and host, which is more of a dance than a war. In order to express an understanding of the relationships between host humans and microbes, a language is required that describes this confusing and complex interaction, especially considering that knowledge in this field is still evolving. The bacteria that reside in or on human bodies on a semi- permanent basis are called normal flora, or indigenous microbiome. Each person has a relatively unique set of fairly stable microbes likely determined by early experience, and continued exposures and diets.