Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Public land Lease“

The political goal to reduce the transformation effects of political measures to the advantage of active farmers is only partially achieved with the Combi-model. The primary recipients are farmers who will give up their farms after introducing the Combi-model. These farmers have mostly farmed leased land. They will return these lands (leased before the reform) to the former leasers and sell their premium rights to other farm owners or lease these in co-operation with the former leasers for a fee to a new lease. Farmers who want to farm over a long term cannot use the stronger negotiating position against the old lessors following the introduction of the Combi-model because they must maintain a good leaser-leasee relationship. But they do profit to a certain extent, at least at first, because the negotiating results of the farms closing with the old leasers will become public. In contrast, the negotiating position of farmers who first lease their land areas following the introduction of the Combi-model is hardly strengthened, particularly in the current lease market in Germany.

Using the multinomial logit model, this paper investigates the factors influencing the government’s decision to lease different types of land in Shenzhen, China, including residential, industrial, commercial, and public service land. The aspects of the land attributes, economy and government at the district level, and land accessibility are considered as the influencing factors. Regarding the factors as the variables, the influencing factors supporting the district government decision to lease different types of land and the probability that a type of land will be consider to be leased by the government are investigated via the multinomial logit model. Using data of factors from 2005 to 2021 in Shenzhen, China, the results of the model can be obtained. After discussing and analyzing the results, it is shown that the land attribute, land accessibility, and economy and polity at the district level affect government decisions on leasing land; furthermore, industrial land is more likely to be leased by the district government than other types of land. Lastly, implications and suggestions for the district government are discussed.

Purpose This paper aims to compare and review alternative ways to adjust public ground leases. Design/methodology/approach Based on principles derived from a review of scientific literature, alternatives for the extension of leases are discussed based on the case of Amsterdam. Findings Many alternatives lead public ground-lease systems to produce results that are the opposite of what they are intended to be (as inspired by Henry George): new improvements result in higher rent, but additional location values do not result in higher rent. One exception is the lease-adjustment-at-property-transaction alternative, which may nevertheless result in fewer transactions. Social implications Public leasehold systems are highly contested with regard to the extension of leases. Such systems are often aimed at capturing land-value gains. In practice, however, this tends to be more difficult than expected. Value capture by authorities, as intended by the system, results in counter-movements of lessees, who often gain public support to set lower leases. These political processes may even result in the termination of such public ground-lease systems. This paper reports on a search for possible solutions. Originality/value The comparison of various alternatives to ground-lease extension based on principles derived from literature is new, and it contributes insight into public ground-lease systems.

Indonesia Train Company or PT Kereta Api Indonesia (hereafter referred to as PT. KAI (Persero) is a State Owned Campany or Badan Usaha Milik Negara (BUMN), which needs resources to carry out its business. To boost its capital, PT.KAI (Persero) leases its unused land located along the railways that have been closed due to ineffectiveness or the decrease in the operation. This lease carried out over either certified or uncertified land. Although many of the trains in West Sumatra no longer work since independence, PT. KAI (Persero) still leases land. The lease is done in the form of lease quotation document whose format is solely determined by PT.KAI (Persero), similar to a standard contract. In such quotation, the state is leaser and the leaseholder is only obliged to pay for the lease and enjoy / use the land without a balanced agreement. This situation raises the following question: does the arrangement and status of right and lease of land by PT.KAI (Persero) to the public have any legality / legal validity? The study draws on socio-legal data, both primary and secondary obtained through library and field research. The research was conducted in Regional Division II of West Sumatra with land tenants / users of lands that are deemed as assets by PT KAI (Persero). The site was chosen purposively. The results reveal that the leases of PT. KAI (Persero) arein accordance with the provisions of the Ministerial Decree on State-Owned Company along with the Regulation on Railways. However, land leases by PT.KAI (Persero) basedon the Decision Letter from the Ministry of State Owned Company, which is not specifically intended to PT.KAI (Persero), is illigal

Indonesia Train Company or PT Kereta Api Indonesia (hereafter referred to as PT. KAI (Persero) is a State Owned Campanyor Badan Usaha Milik Negara (BUMN), which needs resources to carry out its business. To boost its capital, PT.KAI (Persero) leases its unused land located along the railways that have been closed due to ineffectiveness or the decrease in the operation. This lease carried out overeither certified or uncertified land. Although many of the trains in West Sumatra no longer work since independence, PT. KAI (Persero) still leases land. The lease is done in the form of lease quotation document whose format is solely determined by PT.KAI (Persero), similar to a standard contract. In such quotation,the state is leaser and the leaseholder is only obliged to pay for the lease and enjoy / use the land without a balanced agreement. This situation raises the following question: does the arrangement and status of right and lease of land by PT.KAI (Persero) to the public haveany legality / legal validity? The studydraws on socio-legal data, both primary and secondary obtained through library and field research. The research was conducted in Regional Division II of West Sumatra with land tenants / users of lands thatare deemed as assets by PT KAI (Persero). The site was chosen purposively. The results reveal that the leases of PT. KAI (Persero) arein accordancewith the provisions of the Ministerial Decree on State-Owned Company alongwith the Regulation on Railways. However, land leases by PT.KAI (Persero) basedon the Decision Letter from the Ministry of State Owned Company, which is not specifically intended to PT.KAI (Persero), is illigal.

Abstract Selling hunting access may supplement household income, yet only a small proportion of nonindustrial private (NIP) landowners in United States lease the right to hunt their land. Based on a survey of Mississippi landowners, the decision to lease hunting rights and factors influencing lease revenue per leased hectare were analyzed. The two issues were jointly modeled consistent with Heckman's sample selection model, and the lease revenue was specified in accordance with hedonic pricing theory. Empirical results showed that landowner concerns about loss of privacy, accident liability, and conflicts with personal use of land reduced the likelihood of leasing; total landownership and specific landowner characteristics increased it. With regards to factors explaining differences in lease revenue per leased hectare, bottomland hardwoods commanded a greater premium than many other land uses. In addition, lease revenue per hectare was distinctly higher where a landowner had expertise in managing a hunting lease enterprise. These findings have implications for landowners interested in managing wildlife-associated enterprises and public agencies engaged in the provision of natural resource-based recreation.

Abstract Previous analyses of hunting leases need to be refined by addressing the decision to lease, incremental willingness to pay (WTP) for those already leasing, and number of leases purchased. Requisite data for this study were generated on the basis of a survey of Mississippi resident and nonresident hunters. Results suggested that a hunter decision to purchase a lease was influenced by hunting avidity, availability of alternative hunting access options, perceived hunter crowding on public lands relative to private lands, and household income, whereas the number of leases purchased was influenced by alternative access options and hunter perception of congestion on public lands compared with that on private land. Thus, factors influencing the decision whether or not to purchase a lease and number of leases purchased were not the same. Incremental median WTP ranged from $0.56 to $6.40 per acre, depending on alternative hunting access options, hunter perception of crowding on public lands, availability of game species on leased lands, and duration of the lease agreement. This result suggested that Mississippi landowners who currently allow hunting access may be able to enhance lease-related total gross annual financial returns by $800 to $9,200 if they improved management of their lands or modified their lease agreements consistent with hunters' genuine concerns.

Introduction: the land lease agreement is one of the most common in the sphere of civil turnover of land and other natural resources. However, despite the long-term reform of the civil and land legislation, as well as developed law enforcement practice, there are still many gaps and conflicts in the regulation of this sphere of public relations that need to be addressed. The purpose of the study: the identification of shortcomings of the legal regulation in the field of land lease, the development of constructive proposals to eliminate them. Relevance: the development of contractual relations in the sphere of the use of land plots as real estate objects requires an integrated approach that allows building a balance between private and public interests, as well as between the norms of civil and land law reflecting these interests. Meanwhile, at the moment the solution to this problem has not been achieved, which requires doctrinal discussion and legislative reform. Methods: the paper uses general and specific scientific methods, including the concrete historical method that allows identifying the causes of certain legal problems, as well as the method of system analysis that allows considering the problems under study in the context of other legal phenomena and processes. Results: in the course of the study, conflicts between the civil and land legislation regulating the lease of land real estate are identified, and proposals are made to eliminate them. Conclusions: it is proposed to expand the list of essential terms of the land lease agreement, the differences in the legal regulation of lease on lands of various categories are determined.

Cette thèse propose de simplifier et de moderniser le cadre juridique de l’occupation domaniale en ramenant la diversité des actes d’occupation à un régime contractuel commun, celui des contrats domaniaux, qu’elle définit comme des contrats de location des biens publics. Les contrats domaniaux, conclus sur le fondement du droit de propriété publique, portent sur tous les biens publics, qu’ils soient incorporés au domaine public ou au domaine privé, et établissent un rapport d’obligations entre les propriétaires publics et les occupants. Ce sont de véritables baux, qui octroient au cocontractant un droit de jouissance exclusive d’un bien public, pendant une certaine durée et en contrepartie d’un prix. Ils restent néanmoins soumis à un régime exorbitant du droit commun en raison de l’appropriation publique du bien loué. La thèse avance une typologie des contrats domaniaux à partir de leurs finalités d’habitation, d’exploitation économique et de construction. Sous l’effet de la politique de valorisation des biens publics, leur régime juridique s’harmonise et le droit des occupants se transforme. Il s’agit d’un droit de propriété locative, car l’occupant puise un droit de propriété de son titre, délimité par lui et cantonné à son existence. Pour poursuivre cette harmonisation et simplifier la gestion des biens publics, la thèse propose d’unifier législativement le régime juridique de la location publique
This thesis suggests to simplify and modernize the legal framework governing the use of public land by consolidating the variety of occupation acts into a common contractual regime, termed « contrats domaniaux ». These are defined as lease agreements for public properties. Based on the property right of public owners, they cover all public assets, whether incorporated into the public or private domain, and establish a set of obligations between public landlords and tenants. These contracts are, in effect, true leases granting the co-contractor an exclusive right to enjoy a public property for a specified period in return for a fee. However, they remain subject to special rules due to the public appropriation of the leased property. The thesis presents a typology of domain contracts based on their purposes: residential, economic exploitation, and construction. Under the influence of public asset valorization policies, their legal status is harmonizing, and the rights of occupants are evolving. Occupants have a « rental property right », as they derive their right from their contract, defined and limited by its terms. To further this harmonization and simplify the management of public assets, the thesis suggests that legislation be passed to unify the legal framework of public leases

The Planning and Building Act regulates how municipalities plan the use of land and water. When deciding on the detailed development plan, the respective municipality is responsible for the parking standard in the space that will be allocated for parking and which is made in connection with land construction. The decision is followed up in the building permit process. One of the requirements for building permits being granted is that the parking solution is approved. A public parking lot lease is a solution that is approved by law regarding parking in another area beyond one's own property. The municipality can be a party in the agreement for leasing public parking lots in the role of land access provider and may be responsible for preparing the parking lot. In order to be valid, the lease shall guarantee a measure of permanence over time. The rights that accompany the parking lot agreement need to be monitored by authority decisions that cause a change in land use. The municipalities' responsibility to meet the policy's stated objective to increase housing may result in already built-up areas becoming denser. Surfaces such as parking lots may be used for this purpose. Increased density in municipalities requires new detailed development planning. Thirty of the country's municipalities with the highest number of completed buildings, specifically multi-family housing, were examined for the time period 2005-2016. The basis for the analysis was experiencing increased density where the land area has been affected in relation to objects for public parking leases. Current legislation is interpreted to find support for the validity of leasing public parking lots in cases of changes in land use. This study's research question relates to how the municipality should handle their role in decisions on changed land use, as a party to the civil parking lease agreement and as a public authority. The results highlight the validity of agreements to lease public parking lots despite civil authorities' decisions that change the use of land within the area in question. It is suggested that the municipality, as a civil party to the agreement, must monitor legal right by entering into the agreement. As an authority, the municipality has the responsibility to monitor and follow up the underlying decisions of the regulating authority and building permission decisions, the assessment of which may depend on the approval of the suggested solution for parking. Thus, the new decision regarding land use should not be in conflict with the underlying decisions which also continue to be valid. It is recommended that municipal administrations and companies cooperate closely in the early stages of the detailed development planning process. This is necessary to ensure that the legal right resulting from agreements to lease public parking lots is taken into consideration. The working documents in the form of geographical information may include demarcated areas which include leased public parking lots.
Plan- och bygglagen styr hur kommunerna planerar användningen av mark och vatten. Vid beslut om detaljplan ligger respektive kommuns normtal för parkering till grund för det utrymme som ska avsättas för parkering i samband med byggande av marken. Beslutet följs upp i bygglovsprocessen. Godkänd lösning för parkering är ett myndighetskrav för erhållet bygglov. Parkeringsköp är en lösning som godkänns av lagen som parkeringslösning utanför den egna fastigheten. Kommunen kan vara part i parkeringsköpsavtalet med rollen som markupplåtare och ansvarig för att iordningsställa parkeringen. Upplåtelsen ska för sin giltighet garantera viss stabilitet i tid. Rättigheten som följer med parkeringsavtalet behöver bevakas vid myndighetsbeslut som ändrar markanvändningen. Kommunernas ansvar för att möta politikiska mål om ökat bostadsbyggande kan få till följd att redan bebyggda områden förtätas. Ytor som exempelvis parkering kan tas i anspråk för syftet. Förtätning ställer krav på ny detaljplan. Trettio av landets kommuner med högst antal färdigställda bostäder i flerfamiljshus inom tidsintervallet 2005 – 2016 analyseras utifrån erfarenhet av förtätning, där markområde påverkas som är objekt för parkeringsköp. Tolkning av gällande lagstiftning görs för att hitta stöd för parkeringsköpets giltighet vid ändrad markanvändning. Studiens frågeställning gäller hur kommunen bör hantera sin roll vid beslut om ändrad markanvändning dels som part i det civilrättsliga parkeringsköpsavtalet, dels som myndighet. Resultatet framhåller parkeringsköpsavtalets giltighet trots myndighetsbeslut som ändrar markanvändningen inom aktuellt område. Kommunen som civilrättslig part i avtalet ska bevaka rättigheten förslagsvis genom inskrivning av avtalet. Som myndighet har kommunen ansvar för att bevaka och följa upp bakomliggande myndighetsbeslut, bygglovsbeslutet, vars bedömning kan vila på godkänd lösning för parkering. Det nya beslutet om annan markanvändning ska således inte stå i strid med bakomliggande beslut som fortsatt har giltighet. Tätt samarbete mellan kommunens förvaltningar och bolag i tidiga skeden av detaljplaneprocessen bör vara ett mönster som följs. Detta för att rättigheten som följer på parkeringsköpsavtalet ska uppmärksammas. Arbetsunderlaget i form av geografisk information kan innehålla markering av områden som omfattas av parkeringsköp.

Public policy debate today in the field of urban transport tends to be strongly divided. On the one hand there are those who see private motorised mobility or automobile dependence as a logical expression of growing wealth and as such, virtually unavoidable; the city must be adapted to almost open-ended car use. On the other hand, there are those who see private passenger transport as a major problem in cities for a whole host of reasons; car use should be kept within limits imposed by the capacity of the urban system to deliver livability and ecological integrity. Several issues are prominent in this debate such as what primarily influences a city's transport system - physical characteristics of the city or the economics of transport systems. The relative economic merits of different transport modes are also hotly contested. There are claims that non-automobile modes are discriminated against in the market place by inequitable pricing policies which subsidise private transport, while others argue that private transport is more cost-effective and leads to economic growth and wealth creation. With respect to the role of public transport, one side tends to marginalise it, while the other claims that it has a much bigger role to play in cities. A host of data are brought to bear on both sides of the argument claiming to be authoritative, whereas in fact in most cases direct comparability remains somewhat illusive. Naturally, calls for balance between the two views can be heard which attempt to recognise the advantages and disadvantages of the different modes and to arrive at a point where a socially-optimal balance of transport modes might be struck, and where overall transport costs might be genuinely minimised in a city's economy. Unfortunately, a methodology that might be universally applied in finding such a balance and which would bring more clarity and rigour to the debate, does not appear to exist. This thesis therefore attempts to develop such a methodology by first asking and providing answers to a series of key questions. These questions relate to transport's position in the economy, its true costs, the extent and nature of competition between different modes, critical land use-transport interactions, the interaction of transport costs with other elements of the city, how these costs can be minimised and the role of public transport in this process. By then hypothesising that in any particular city there exists an optimum modal balance which will minimise transport costs as a function of that city's physical and economic constraints, the thesis sets out to develop a model which would represent an optimal balance of transport modes in any city. Through the use of an extensive theoretical overview, combined with thorough collection and analysis of a massive amount of comparable empirical land use, transport, economic and environmental data on 46 global cities, the thesis succeeds in providing some new insights into the above questions and building the suggested model. It also contributes significantly to overcoming a major problem in this policy debate area; the lack of standardised, comparable urban data across a wide range of city types. The research isolates what appear to be the key underlying factors which determine the characteristics of the transport system and its overall costs. These factors are primarily physical in nature; by contrast, the key economic factors, such as the cost of driving a car, the cost of using or operating public transport and the gross regional product per capita (or city wealth), do not bear significant relationships with modal split. Through a detailed statistical evaluation of all data collected in this study and a step-by-step model building process, the key factors behind the development of a least-cost transport curve are identified. This curve shows what percentage of total motorised passenger kilometres are required on public transport in order to minimise overall passenger transport costs in any city. These costs are expressed as a percentage of a metropolitan region's gross regional product per capita. Using the results of the statistical analysis, it was found that an effective least-cost model could be developed based on the relationships between urban density and private and public transport use, and thus mode split. In order to translate private and public transport use into cost, the relationships between car ownership and car use, as well as between public transport supply and use were then integrated into the model equation. This model, despite its present prototype form, yields some potentially significant policy insights. These include: •the fact that all cities in the study appear to benefit economically from a greater role for public transport; all cities appear to be underprovided with public transport service and thus public transport is underused. •the critical nature of the relative speed between public and private transport. This has direct implications for their competitive position and thus points to the need for appropriate investment in faster public transport or disinvestment in private transport infrastructure which will give public transport a speed advantage; •the strong influence of higher urban density in improving public transport use and minimising overall transport costs, revealing the importance of reurbanisation programmes in cities. Low density cities are confirmed as being highest in overall transport costs which is not compensated for by higher levels of income and wealth. This has implications for their global competitiveness. •the potential of lower private transport costs to negatively affect public transport share, thus offsetting the former's cost savings through increased external costs. •the importance of internal economic efficiency in public transport systems in contributing to their role in the urban transport system, but not at the expense of service quality. This least-cost model appears therefore to be worthy of further development and refinement as suggested in the thesis. If this can be done it would provide a very useful and wide-ranging policy tool which could be used to: •find what modal split between public and private transport is required to minimise overall urban passenger transport costs; •establish what kind of policies in urban planning, transport planning, infrastructure planning and the setting of transport costs might be required for a city to head towards this more satisfactory position; •test a range of theoretical changes in various factors to see what happens to the least-cost mode split point (eg increased investment in public or private transport infrastructure (rail or freeways), changes in density, pricing policies or changes in cost structures, for example in the energy sector). •formulate strategic policy directions and to monitor progress and adequacy of applied policies over time. In terms of the greater role for public transport suggested by the modelling work, the thesis explores ways of optimising the overall performance of urban passenger transport through improved public transport delivery. This work suggests that it is very important to distinguish between the commercial and social optimum in public transport and that only at the social optimum does public transport reach its full potential in a city's economic well-being. This mostly means running public transport systems with an operating result which is not as good as when public transport is commercially optimised. And in operational terms, better exploitation of public transport's potential would appear possible through the use of a coordinated and integrated public transport which employs: (a) time-pulse transfer networks; (b) pulsed, supply-based scheduling; (c) bulk, prepurchase oriented system-wide fare systems; (d) regional cooperation. Overall, the thesis points to a host of possible future research endeavours and policy applications which have the potential to improve the quality of urban transport decision-making and outcomes.

Kommuner har planmonopol i Sverige vilket innebär att de har ensamrätt att ta fram och anta detaljplaner. En detaljplan reglerar hur kommunens mark- och vattenområden ska användas och upplåtas. I planen regleras vilken mark som ska utgöra allmän plats och kvartersmark. Allmän plats är sådan mark som parker, natur, torg eller vägar som är till för allmänhetens behov. Upplåtelser av allmän plats får i regel inte ske för enskilt ändamål, då den allmänna platsen är till och upplåten för allmänna intressen. Platsens användning ska redovisas i plankartan med tillhörande planbestämmelser som är juridiskt bindande. Således ska den allmänna platsen bland annat vara tillgänglig för utryckningsfordon. Fastighetsbildning ska ske i överenstämmelse med gällande detaljplan. Vid beslut om en fastighetsbildningsåtgärd kan kommunen i sitt planerande bedöma en åtgärd som en mindre avvikelse enligt fastighetsbildningslagen 3:2 om det inte motverkar syftet med planen. Det har ifrågasatts om det är tillåtet att upplåta allmän plats för enskilt ändamål. Vissa kommuner menar att syftet med den allmänna platsen försvinner om den upplåts för ett enskilt intresse. Andra menar att det finns behov. Skälen som har använts är mindre avvikelse från detaljplan, att syftet med detaljplanen inte motverkas samt att den allmänna platsens tillgänglighet för allmänheten inte påverkas i större mån. I studien framgår att tillfälliga upplåtelser regleras i ordningslagen och upplåts med ett polistillstånd. Permanenta upplåtelser regleras i jordabalken samt i fastighetsbildningslagen och kan upplåtas via nyttjanderättsavtal eller servitut. I denna studie avser den allmänna platsen den som anges i plan- och bygglagen samt motsvarande definition av offentlig plats i ordningslagen. Syftet med denna studie är att beskriva rättsläget kring upplåtelse av allmän plats för enskilt ändamål. Studien ska även ge svar på hur utvalda kommuner och lantmäterimyndigheter förhåller sig till frågan. Vidare avser den att belysa de bakomliggande motiv som de utvalda myndigheterna har för sina beslut. Studien har avgränsats till att endast behandla upplåtelser i form av nyttjanderätter och servitut. Efter genomförd studie kan vi konstatera att enskilda upplåtelser förekommer på allmänplats. Kommuner upplåter den allmänna platsen främst med motiveringen som en mindre avvikelse från detaljplan och att syftet med platsen inte motverkas. Vidare konstaterar studien att det råder delade meningar om lagstiftningen bör förtydligas eller ändras. I dagsläget kan författarna till denna studie se att frågan om upplåtelser av allmän plats bör hanteras tidigt i planprocessen. Genom att få in frågan tidigt kan myndigheterna undvika en tidskrävande och dyr planändring. Vi ser även att det finns ett behov av att ändra eller förtydliga lagstiftningen.
Municipalities have the plan monopoly which means that they have the exclusive right to produce and adopt detailed plans. A detailed development plan regulates how land and water areas should be used and granted. The plan regulates which land that should constitute a land for public space and an area for building sites. Public space is for example land as parks, nature, squares or roads that are made for the public's needs. Public spaces are usually not allowed to be leased for private interests as they are made for public interests. The use of the site's must be reported in the map for the detailed plan, with associated plan regulations that both are legally conclusive. The public spaces should, among other things, also be available for emergency vehicles. Property formations should compliance with the current detailed plan. Minor deviations from the detailed plan can be made if the deviations are compatible with the purpose of the plan, according to the Real Property Formation Act 3:2. It has been questioned if it´s allowed to lease public spaces for private interests. Certain municipalities mean that the purpose with the public spaces disappears if it is leased for a private interest, but other municipalities think that there is a need. The selected authorities' reasons for the leases are minor deviation from the detailed plan, that the purpose of the detailed plan is not counteracted and that the public place's accessibility to the public is not affected that much. This thesis clear that land which is leased temporary regulates in the Order Act of Sweden and is leased with a police license. Permanent leases regulate in the Code of Land Laws forms part of the Statute Book of Sweden as well as in the Property Formation Act and make the leases with a use agreement or an easement. In this thesis public spaces definition that specifies in the Planning and Building Act and the corresponding definition in the Order Act of Sweden. The purpose of the thesis is to describe the legal situation concerning private leases on public places. The study is supposed to describe how four municipalities and two land survey authorities deal with the issue. The study also intends to clarify the underlying motives that the selected authorities have for their decisions. There are several rights to apply for private interests in public spaces. The authors of this thesis have defined to only investigate whether it is possible to grant land for private interests through easements or rights of user. After completing the study, we can conclude that there are shared opinions about whether the legislation should be clarified or changed. The authors of this study can see that the issue of granting public space should be dealt with early in the planning process. To start setting the issue up early, the authorities can avoid a time-consuming and expensive change of plan. We also can see that there is a need to change or clarify the legislation.

This thesis draws on David Harvey’s concept of “accumulation by dispossession” and an international political economy (IPE) approach centred on the institutional arrangements and power structures that privilege certain actors and values, in order to critique current capitalist practices of primitive accumulation by the global corporate extractive industry. The thesis examines how accumulation by dispossession by the global extractive industry is facilitated by the “free entry” or “free mining” principle. It does so by focusing on Canada as a leader in the global extractive industry and the spread of this country’s mining laws to other countries – in other words, the transnationalisation of norms in the global extractive industry – so as to maintain a consistent and familiar operating environment for Canadian extractive companies. The transnationalisation of norms is further promoted by key international institutions such as the World Bank, which is also the world’s largest development lender and also plays a key role in shaping the regulations that govern natural resource extraction. The thesis briefly investigates some Canadian examples of resource extraction projects, in order to demonstrate the weaknesses of Canadian mining laws, particularly the lack of protection of landowners’ rights under the free entry system and the subsequent need for “free, prior and informed consent” (FPIC). The thesis also considers some of the challenges to the adoption and implementation of the right to FPIC. These challenges include embedded institutional structures like the free entry mining system, international political economy (IPE) as shaped by international institutions and powerful corporations, as well as concerns regarding ‘local’ power structures or the legitimacy of representatives of communities affected by extractive projects. The thesis concludes that in order for Canada to be truly recognized as a leader in the global extractive industry, it must establish legal norms domestically to ensure that Canadian mining companies and residents can be held accountable when there is evidence of environmental and/or human rights violations associated with the activities of Canadian mining companies abroad. The thesis also concludes that Canada needs to address underlying structural issues such as the free entry mining system and implement FPIC, in order to curb “accumulation by dispossession” by the extractive industry, both domestically and abroad.

碩士
國立宜蘭大學
建築與永續規劃研究所碩士班
105
Since 2014, Domestic Department began its rental operations according to the related regulations, some real estate has been taken off after then. Therefore, the evaluation of the cases is worth exploration. On the other hand, Domestic Department should consider (1 ) is the rental point in line with the actual demand and (2 ) the results of rental implementation should be analyzed. If the Act does not meet the demand, Domestic Department should improve its practice to increase the removal rate. Based on the above approach has come to the conclusion: 1. Domestic Department before the expiry of the land transfer State given a renewed opportunity. 2. Domestic Department to hand over the land of soil testing responsibility to return themselves. 3. Domestic building land patrol system. 4. Domestic Department rental of farming, animal husbandry, aquaculture should be given priority after the expiry of the lease period of the land lease. 5. State-owned land has its market demand, sustainable handling for activation of State-owned assets.

碩士
元智大學
管理研究所
96
The purpose of this Paper is to study the current situation of leasing and non-productive occupation of TCG lands that are not for public use; to study the rationality of compensation for use of TCG lands and the rental through literature research of Equity & Justice Theory, Land Economic Theory, Policy Planning Theory and Public Policy Theory; to apply real data in analysis. Also, in the concepts of cost effectiveness and efficient use of land, we went deep further to study the justifiability of conditional restrictions on purchasing of tenants, and compared the difference in conditions and requirements for purchasing of state-own land and TCG lands for proposing practical suggestions. It is hoped that the finding of this research will help to promote the land management performance. According to statistics, the total area of Taipei City is 26,030 hectares, in which, the government owned land is 13,479 hectares, slightly more than 50% of the total, and it gives vital importance to the government own land policy. Up until end of 2007, there are 7,178 lots of TCG land administered by TCG Department of Finance are not for government use in the area of 111 hectare and 9,977 square meters and among them, 2,593 lots were leased or occupied, in total area of 113,507 square meters. In this city of inch land inch gold, the problem is very serious. Other than impairing city property interest, it also delays the urban renovation schedule and greatly hampers urban landscape and development. In view of the leased and occupied land cannot be utilized effectively and result to problems in management, in this research, through literatures, argument of experts and scholars, study of existing law and regulations and analysis of cause of occupation of city land, we proposed the following practical suggestions. I. In policy 1. Amend the provisions of calculating compensation and rental rate on the basis of declared land value and in short term, adjust up the compensation rate of use and rental rate to improve gradually, and in the long run, announced land value shall be used as the base of pricing. 2. Accelerate city land development to avoid idle and waste of land, and achieve the goal through raising land development fund level and appropriately offer accommodation reward. II. Occupation 1. Apply weighed compensation and rescind limitation of recourse period to eliminate motive of occupation and gain deterrent effect. 2. Land administration agency install signboards, fences and other effect ways to prevent the occupation of TCG land and asking related agencies to make regular patrol. 3. Increase the punishment level of illegal occupancy and empower land administration agency to demolish building on the illegally occupied land to win immediate effect. III. Lease 1. Enter lease agreements with those meeting the lease condition to step up management of land. 2. Relax the limitation on selling of land of small area to reduce management cost and accelerate urban renovation. 3. Establish bidding / lease operation procedure to meet the real needs. Key Word:leasing and non-productive occupation,TCG lands

Leasing of state land under control of the Department of Land Affairs takes place, due to historical reasons, in a manner that is unconformable with the cadastre. The Department (and the State) is obliged to manage its assets efficiently and promote land reform. How can such leases be described spatially, and captured on a land information system? The author argues that it is indeed possible to develop a method, system or convention of spatial description for leased areas unconformable with the cadastre by relating it to the cadastre and capture and maintain data on such areas on a spatially and text-based database. In order to identify relevant best practices, available technology, a review was carried out on methodologies from other countries within the fields of land administration and land information systems, focussing on parcel-based cadastral systems. Fieldwork consisted firstly of interviews with officials and specialists in these fields for more information on the management of leases in the Department and available technology. A full set of active leases (52) from a District Office was acquired for analysis on current spatial descriptions. In a second visit some of these leased areas were surveyed by GPS to construct maps to aid with the development of a convention. Based on this work, the author developed a methodology/convention for indexing and spatial description of unconformable leases, with the current South African cadastre and embedded 21-character land parcel identifier as basis. It was demonstrated that basic technology could be used in the field, supported by an advanced land information system. The value of the convention lies in the fact that it relates the unconformable leases back to the formal cadastre within a land information system. Administration of leases will be more effective. Also that it could be applied to other spheres of land reform and non-parcel based geocoding of centroids indicating occupational or communal rights on land.
Thesis (M.Sc.)- University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

AbstractIn Part I, entitled Real Estate and the Legal System, we analyze owner-unknown land issues, land acquisitions, and real estate auctions.The use and value of real estate such as land and buildings are significantly affected by public laws and regulations related to urban planning and construction, the environment, and taxation; for example, contract laws such as the Act on Land and Building Leases; private laws regulating torts, collateral enforcement, and so on; tax laws that regulate transfer taxes, ownership taxes, and transaction taxes; and regulations surrounding land use and urban infrastructure development. This paper discusses, therefore, the relationships between these laws and real estate, identifies problems in the laws associated with real estate in Japan, and proposes improvements.First, in recent years, owner-unknown land issues have become a serious concern in Japan. The Japanese registry does not always reflect the actual rightful owner, primarily because such registration is only a perfection requirement in civil law and registration involves a great deal of time and money. For example, because a large extent of land is registered to owners from nearly 100 years ago, it has changed hands many times through inheritance, which means that today, it is extremely difficult to determine the actual owner (inheritor) without spending a great deal of time and money. However, if the profits to be obtained from the land do not justify such expense, the land remains unused as “owner-unknown land.”Buying and selling land under Japanese civil law requires an agreement from all landowners including in the case of shared ownerships; therefore, even if the land has high returns, if it is “owner-unknown land,” it cannot be used effectively. With a focus on unknown-owner land, in this section, four writers provide multifaceted perspectives on the causes thereof, the defects in the current system, and the possible solutions.Eminent domain, the system which allows the acquisition of land against the land owner’s will for public projects, is widely institutionalized in many countries. It works to mitigate the owner-unknown land issues as far as lands are acquired by public projects.Further, real estate auctions are often held when liens are placed on land and/or residences for housing loan defaults. The Japanese civil auction system, which was institutionalized at the end of the nineteenth century, stipulates that a tenancy that is behind on a mortgage may resist a purchase unconditionally as long as the mortgage default period is within 3 years (short-term lease protection system/former Civil Code Article 395). This system was intended to avoid the unstable use of mortgaged properties and to promote the effective use of real estate; however, because the majority of users and the beneficiaries of this system were in fact anti-social groups, it was used to demand money unjustly from debtors and buyers, thus preventing the effective use of the mortgaged properties.When the protection of short-term leases was abolished in 2004, these types of interferences are said to have decreased drastically. However, successful bids for auctioned real estate properties continue to be lower than in general transactions. Therefore, here, we provide a quantitative analysis of these situations and propose further auction system improvements.Below, we introduce the outlines of each theory in Part I.

With the Peace Treaty of Trianon, 103,000 square kilometres were given to Romania. After the occupation of the territory, the Romanian authorities liquidated the Hungarian public administration and the schools. They only did not know what to do with the Hungarian churches. In 1921, the Romanian land reform law was passed, and it was a huge blow to the churches because not only the land holdings were confiscated, but the buildings standing on them as well. Gyula Glattfelder, the Roman Catholic bishop of Temesvár, protested the land reform most intensively. Because of this, he was subjected to open attacks both in Timişoara (Temesvár) and Bucharest. This eventually led to the fact that the Romanian authorities forced him to leave Timişoara in March 1923 and to move his episcopal seat to Szeged.

AbstractNorth America’s diverse grassland, savanna, steppe and desert ecosystems evolved in the absence of domesticated livestock. The arrival of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and horses after 1492 transformed many ecosystems while enabling European soldiers, missionaries and settlers to conquer the continent. The decimation of indigenous populations by warfare, disease and economic dependency further transformed rangelands by removing Native management practices, especially the use of fire. The history of rangelands since then has been one of recursive efforts to commodify and territorialize rangeland resources—including wildlife, grass, soil fertility and the land itself—for market production and exchange. Many former rangelands have been lost altogether, by conversion to forest cover (due to fire suppression) or to agricultural uses (especially in the Great Plains), and invasive exotic plant species have radically altered large areas of rangelands in California, the Great Basin, and other regions. Nonetheless, North American rangelands remain both vast and invaluable for wildlife. The Western Range system of public land grazing leases, which emerged from the devastating overgrazing of the late nineteenth century, succeeded in stabilizing range conditions and linking land use and management across large landscapes of mixed ownerships. With accelerating urbanization, the rise of environmentalism, and structural shifts in the livestock industry since World War II, however, the Western Range has begun to unravel, exposing rangelands to development and fragmentation. Climatic variability in the form of droughts, floods and extreme fire conditions, more so than aridity per se, has frustrated efforts to extract value from rangelands from the outset, and climate change promises to amplify these phenomena going forward.

The conclusion of contracts was known in ancient times and is still relevant today. Shares that are not distributed in kind can cause certain difficulties that force the interested parties to decide on distribution.Joint ownership of inherited property received from a family member necessitates joint decision-making on its maintenance, ownership, use, and disposal, and it is difficult to achieve such a consensus on all issues. Therefore, quite often a certain period may pass from the acquisition of the right to a share in the joint property to its distribution, but due to conflicts regarding the use of the property or in the case of the need to receive funds or for other reasons, the joint property is divided by the co-owners. That is, the reasons may even be questions of how to use agricultural land, for example, to rent it out, sow it yourself, plant a garden, etc. However, the complexity of the division of land plots is because it is difficult to «divide» agricultural lands at least. After all, their intended use depends on the size, etc. Quite often, disputes also arise regarding the use of residential buildings, since the size and location of the rooms make their use impossible or difficult, as well as the distribution in kind according to the inherited shares. In other words, there is a certain «trading» of assets. If the situation is related to the distribution of a small plot of land where the house is located, then questions also arise regarding the establishment of an easement, as well as mutual concessions for the compensation of a part of the house in exchange for most of the land. In general, there are protracted negotiations, from the point of view of which these parties, who are still in a family relationship, agree on the division of property.Factors that can affect the outcome of property division include unique family circumstances, the specific nature of assets, and traditional legal practices. The parties will use different mechanisms for the division of joint assets: sale, donation, or exchange, under the terms of which they «trade» with the consent of others their rights as co-owners of jointly owned objects. The various evolutionary stages of the agreement on the division of property by the testator’s family culminate in the final stage of agreeing. The agreement on the division of inheritance is a complex legal process. Potentially, in a single transaction, the beneficiaries can choose and implement the division by sale, exchange, or donation. These different legal constructions reflect the uniqueness of the decisions in each agreement and to some extent demonstrate the specific legal practice of the individual Old Babylonian city-state and the particular circumstances of each family.However, in addition to the division of property, there are other agreements regarding the division of inheritance. For example, an agreement on quasi-partition upon adoption (quasi-adoption), an agreement on the division of residential property by the owner between its future beneficiaries.The need to conclude such agreements arises when an agreement on the division of property is required, which differs from such concepts as sale, donation, exchange, etc.Domestic scientists consider the agreement on the distribution of joint property very broadly and include other types of agreements in the list of such agreements, establishing that the agreement on changing the succession of the right to inheritance by law is atypical. It was determined that the contract under investigation belongs to contracts on the distribution of inheritance. Agreements on the distribution of inheritance are concluded in the field of inheritance, which indicates that they belong to inheritance agreements. It is proposed to supplement the existing classifications of civil law contracts by distinguishing a new type of civil law contracts – contracts in the law of inheritance on the level with the selection of a new type of inheritance contracts – contracts on the distribution of inheritance.» This is a bold hypothesis, but it is difficult to agree with it for various reasons, not least because the distribution of inheritance has been known since ancient times.The factor that the term «distribution» of inheritance and giving it a broad legal meaning is analyzed is an interesting author’s hypothesis. At the same time, according to our position, the term «distribution of inheritance» is more balanced, since in Art. 1278 of the Civil Code does not quite successfully use the term «division», when in the content of this norm it is about the equality of shares in the inheritance and the allocation of a share in kind, and not about division. However, in Part 1 of Art. 1280 of the Civil Code, the term «distribution» is used with a direct meaning and «redistribution» as an opportunity to review the results of the distribution under new circumstances – in the case of acceptance of the inheritance by other heirs. In essence, the obvious meaning of the term «distribution» follows from this norm as the initial determination of the ownership of the share of each of the heirs. In this sense, the redistribution of the inheritance should be connected with the possible introduction of changes to the previously made distribution, that is, in this case, we do not limit the number of subsequent redistributions of the inheritance. This hypothesis is related to the fact that the number of heirs who missed the deadline for valid reasons is not limited by legislation and cannot be limited, but is determined by various legal circumstances.Therefore, it is hardly expedient and possible, to apply in Art. 1280 of the Civil Code, the concept of «distribution» should be given a wider meaning than it has in the Civil Code, as this would lead to its ambiguous perception and application both in theory and in legislation and practice. Usually, theoretical terms should be distinguished by being original and should accurately reflect the legal meaning of actions, events, or conditions.But an important element of the procedure for the distribution of common inheritance property or its redistribution are the subjects who must fix the relevant agreement or carry out such distribution according to their conviction.It is indicated that the practice of concluding contracts by the living owner with his future heirs is widespread in foreign countries. At the same time, German experts equate inheritance with what they consider to be contractual inheritance.It should be noted that the practice of concluding contracts on the distribution of inheritance in the practice of the Ukrainian notary is relatively new and does not have clear boundaries in regulation, which complicates the activity of notaries in certifying such contracts. There are several difficulties in the application of relevant legal norms in practice, as there is a lack of understanding of the legal nature and essence of the conclusion of contracts, the term of conclusion, and the procedure for notarization.The opinions of individual authors are studied, about legal relations regarding the division of inheritance characterized by a weak state policy, this obliges the participants of such relations to draw up the content of agreements on the division of inheritance independently. For agreements between heirs on the distribution of inheritance to be valid regulators of the relations of its participants (heirs), conditions (clauses) must be clarified and formulated, which will be disclosed with sufficient completeness and consistency of the content of the relevant agreement and the purpose of its conclusion.We do not agree with this point of view of the scientist regarding «weak state policy», since the Central Committee of Ukraine was not created by politicians or the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine, but by leading scientists of Ukraine. It is also difficult to agree with the statement that the lack of clear regulation of the terms of inheritance contracts «obliges the participants of such relationships to independently draw up the content of inheritance distribution contracts.» In Ukraine, some good notaries and lawyers can draw up high-quality contracts for the distribution of inheritance. Moreover, according to Art. 4 of the Law of Ukraine «On Notaries», notaries have the right to draw up relevant draft contracts. In our opinion, it is worth emphasizing here that this is a right, not a duty of a notary public. That is, the notary may not undertake the drafting of the relevant project, but this provision is positive for interested parties since the lack of experience in drafting original contracts will most likely lead to the drafting of a low-quality draft contract. Indeed, in this case, it is worth looking for an experienced notary who will be able to draw up a draft contract, but this will make it possible to prevent errors in its drafting with a high probability.Thus, the agreement on the distribution of inheritance enters into force if the parties reach an agreement in the proper form on all the essential terms of the agreement. The main essential condition for agreeing on the division of inheritance is the subject of the agreement. However, either party may consider this condition insufficient and propose to include additional conditions in the contract. In this case, these conditions become essential. In connection with the instability of the regulation of the content of contracts between heirs on the distribution of inheritance, it can be concluded that the inclusion of normal conditions in the contract is currently impossible. We believe that such a general scheme of perception of contract terms is not entirely rational, since how to perceive ordinary terms or essential terms of a contract quite often in practice depends on the judgments of the parties to the contract unless otherwise regulated by legislation. This issue can be approached more precisely if we take into account the possibility of interpreting transactions and contracts (Article 213 of the Civil Code).So, based on the essence of the process of concluding contracts, it should be taken into account that the notary who drafts the contract can edit it, therefore it is worth recognizing the right of the notary to interpret it, since according to Art. 5 of the Law of Ukraine «On Notaries», he is obliged to clarify the legal consequences that will arise for persons after his certification. It follows from this that the notary must be given the official right to interpret the contract upon its certification, then it will be clear that after its certification, the court can interpret the content of the contract. In this regard, Art. 213 of the Civil Code is proposed to be supplemented with a corresponding provision regarding the powers of the notary, namely: his duty to interpret the content of the deed or contract before and during its certification.The Inheritance Regulation, which envisages wide acceptance of the inheritance contract, is considered. It is noted that it is worth revising Ukrainian inheritance law in advance for compliance with European standards since after Ukraine accedes to the EU it will be necessary to inform all EU countries about what types of contracts in Ukraine will be related to the issuance of the European Certificate of Succession.This is also important for inheritance by law, because, in case of non-fulfillment of the terms of the lifetime maintenance (care) agreement and the inheritance agreement, they will have to be terminated or recognized as invalid or unfulfilled by the acquirer, so the property that was the subject of this agreement will be inherited by law. At the same time, if the terms of these agreements are fulfilled, the part of the property that belonged to the testator will not be inherited but will become the property of the acquirers.The process of accepting the inheritance is quite long, and the inheritance law allows for several agreements between the heirs, which can significantly affect the size of the inheritance shares and the real things in each share in the inheritance. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the possibility of agreements between the heirs at different stages of accepting or not accepting the inheritance. From communication with one of the clients, the author learned that the notary unofficially advised the heirs to agree on the distribution of the inheritance, as well as for certain heirs to waive the right to inheritance, but to receive a proper share of the inheritance in household items. When the author was informed of all the circumstances of the inheritance case, it became clear that the notary could not solve the complex inheritance problem, since the inheritance took place based on a will and some heirs had the right to a mandatory share, as well as part of the property remained. So, in such a situation, it was necessary to solve an arithmetical and at the same time legal problem, the complexity of which was determined by the complex subject composition of numerous heirs. Therefore, the notary tried to simplify its solution by artificially «transforming» the heirs who have the right to a mandatory share into ordinary heirs who claim property that is not subject to recording in the certificate of the right to inheritance.A natural will was considered, when the testator bequeathed the specific property to each of the heirs, namely: a house to a daughter, a factory to one son, and a yacht to another let’s say. In such a case, the will of the testator is formulated in the Shodo of the objects of inheritance, so it is difficult to perceive the consequences of the refusal of one of the heirs to inherit, when the yacht will be divided into equal shares between the son and the daughter, because: firstly, the value of the factory and the house will be different, so someone from the testator gave the children a larger inheritance than the other. Secondly, in the case of the existence of a part of the inheritance not covered by the will, it can be assumed with a high degree of probability that the will of the testator was formulated about a certain property and nothing more. Therefore, in case of refusal of one of the heirs to inherit under the will, the property bequeathed to him should be considered as not covered by the will and should be inherited according to the law. That is, if the will of the testator regarding the entire property is revealed, it can be assumed that he thus intended to deprive one of the heirs of the right to inheritance.At the same time, the will must be interpreted not only by the heirs under the will but also by the heirs under the law, when its content concerns the right to a mandatory share in the inheritance, which belongs to the heirs under the law of the first rank, who due to incapacity have the right to claim it, as well as the recipients of the response. With a high degree of probability, it can be assumed that the inheritance, which consists of household items, will be divided even without a written agreement. However, the interpretation of a will, which concerns a substantial inheritance between a significant number of heirs, requires not only a written form of recording of agreements – a contract, but also, in our opinion, a notarial form that will allow recording the agreement more reliably, to explain to the parties to the contract the consequences of its conclusion. If all interested parties sign the agreement, and the notary recognizes it as legal, then it will be difficult to recognize it as illegal or invalid in the next one. Therefore, the agreement on the interpretation of the will, which will establish the specific rights of the heirs and their obligations regarding the coverage of the testator’s debts, is a rational form of specification of the terms of the inheritance, which will allow establishing the executor of the will, if he was not determined by the testator.We can assume with a high degree of probability that similar «simplified calculations» are made by other notaries, as well as directly by the heirs, and certain agreements are not necessary here.

I doubt that Woody Guthrie had public lands specifically in mind when he wrote “This land is your land.” But I am sure he’d be pleased that each American citizen, through the agency of the federal government, is part owner of some six hundred million odd acres, roughly one quarter of the nation’s land. To be sure, a good deal of it would strike most of us as uninviting and not at all “made for you and me.” Guthrie couldn’t have been thinking of the Great Basin when he wrote of “the sparkling sands of her diamond deserts.” Even so, his words do fit the public lands. There we may be uplifted by natural wonders such as the Grand Canyon and what’s left of the “redwood forest.” There we are free to roam and ramble, for the signs read not “Private Property—No Trespassing” but “Please close the gate.” There, far horizons and the “endless skyway” can release us for a time from the narrowness of our lives. The federal estate is also rich in resources of a more conventional and coveted sort: timber, minerals, coal, oil, livestock forage, damsites, etc. Of course, sharing title with a couple hundred million other people would not give you or me much to say about how these lands and resources are used, even if they were managed by public referendum and not, as they are, by federal agencies. Except for weapons test sites and other military reservations, the public generally has free access to federal lands, but that does not mean that we may do whatever we like there. Private use is regulated in various ways. Rights to graze livestock, strip-mine coal, cut sawtimber, gather firewood, drill for oil, develop a ski resort, backpack into certain areas, excavate a prehistoric site, and so forth, are controlled by permit or lease, and some areas are closed to activities that some of us would dearly love to pursue. Extensive public lands and resources, whose use is governed by regulations rather than the wishes of those willing to pay most to satisfy their desires, may seem anomalous in a country ideologically committed to individual freedom, private property, and the free market.

By putting public, legal executions in the South at the center of the analysis, we see just how much the sacred African American gallows experiences challenged white authority and its punishment regime. This was contested terrain, and white supremacy was failing to dominate in that contest. In the same generation that developed the de jure segregation of Jim Crow, the generation that chained so many Blacks and poor whites to the land with debt peonage born of the sharecropping regime and that striped the franchise from the African American and the white underclass, the punishment regime of the South was likewise changing to better ensure white control. Lynching was prominent, the convict lease system was at its height, and public, multi-racial, gender-inclusive executions were becoming private, white, male ones.

This paper examines the role of the state farmers, their organisation and changes as a village institution in Roman Egypt. Since the cultivation of public land in Roman Egypt constituted one of the major sources of the income for the province, it is not surprising that the state farmers, usually called demosioi georgoi (public farmers), were one of the most important groups of the rural population. As public land was usually cultivated through a hereditary lease, the rural population saw the plots which were attached to their villages as their own property. It was, therefore, a natural consequence that the state farmers became involved in the management of their village’s affairs and in doing so cooperated with the local administrative officials.

The purpose of the study. The purpose of the study is to determine how different the situation of serfs living in public foundation manors differed from that of serfs living in private manors or church manors. Applied methods. We analyzed the manorial accounts of the public foundation district of Pécsvárad, which is located in Hungarian National Archives of Baranya County, as well as other censuses and court documents. The focus of the examination was the three abbey estates in Pécsvárad. Outcomes. The accounts showed that the source of income of public foundation manors were significantly different from that of private or church manors. The “robot” reports show that the serfs had ample opportunity to get rid of this burdensome service. The favorable terms of the land leases proved that the serfs living in the public foundation district had more opportunities for economic growth, and they took advantage of this. Farming on leased lands and clearings, significantly increased the economic opportunities of the serfs. The lack of “allodium” offered the serfs ample space for farming.Keywords: estate, public foundation, “robot”, “allodium”, leased land

This chapter shows how Theodore Roosevelt set in motion a fundamental reevaluation of U.S. public land policy in relation to energy development. In at least one respect, his impact in this area was even greater. The movement to reserve forests was well under way before he took office; Roosevelt just accelerated it. The same was true, though to a lesser extent, regarding the movement to use public lands to protect wildlife. But the idea that the United States should retain ownership of energy resources found on public lands in order to control and guide their development, a policy he strongly advocated, was almost entirely new. By the time Roosevelt took office, it was becoming increasingly clear that each of the pertinent legal regimes on public lands—the Coal Land Law, the Mining Law, and a hodgepodge of others—contained features that were fundamentally incompatible with orderly, efficient energy development.

This chapter examines Native Americans in the public land discourse. Beginning in the 1960s, Indian tribes across the nation stepped up efforts to reclaim their sovereignty and revitalize their cultures. As part of this renaissance, some tribes sought to regain title to, or at least control or influence over, those of their ancestral lands that remained in public ownership. Here, the chapter turns to the Havasupai tribe in the late 1960s, which fought proposals to enlarge the Grand Canyon National Park. Eventually, the tribe won a substantial victory. Encouraged by these successes, more tribes began to seek title to, or more influence over, public lands from which they had been dispossessed. This in turn led to numerous efforts by both Congress and the executive to accommodate Indian interests in how public lands are managed. The chapter also presents several modern examples of tribes working cooperatively with public land management agencies on measures of cultural importance to tribes.

While aircraft environmental performance has been important since the beginnings of commercial aviation, continuously increasing passenger traffic and a rise in public awareness have made aircraft noise and emissions two of the most pressing issues hampering commercial aviation growth today. The air transportation for the new millennium will require revolutionary solutions to meeting public demand for improving safety, reliability, environmental compatibility, and affordability. The objective of this research is to assess the trade-off between operating costs and environmental requirements of the future aero engines for short range commercial aircrafts. This involves optimising the engines’ design point to minimise the block fuel and evaluating the economic and environmental impact. A high by-pass ratio turbofan engine with performance characteristics and technology from the year 2000 was set up as a baseline and compared to very high by-pass ratio turbofans. The results present a great potential benefit of the geared turbofan compared to high BPR one (baseline) to reduce cruise CO2 emissions and noise; however this may involve NOx penalties, that is an increase of 5.1% in comparison to the baseline. The CRTF engine seems to be, at least according to the simulations, a very promising solution in terms of environmental and economical performance. This is one on the series of work that would be carried out on the cycles being assessed in this paper (feasibility study). Further work on the specific technical issues — such as: technological implications — would be published when completed.

In the present climate of uncertainty about CO2 emissions legislation, owners and power plant planners are looking into the possibility of accommodating “add-on” CO2 capture and sequestration (CCS) solutions in their current plant designs. The variety of CCS technologies currently under development makes it a very challenging task. Nevertheless, it is evident that the new generation of plants must address the CO2 capture issue. The underground sequestration of CO2 is associated with technical, legal and public acceptance issues. Current demonstration project will require years of operation in order to determine long term impact in the injection process on the environment. Alternative methods are used to convert CO2 into minerals that can be reused or at least stored in a solid form. The paper will review several of these alternative methods, identifying the advantages as well as the associated technical limitations. In addition to chemical or physical methods, the paper will address several other technologies that employ carbonation and algae as means of converting CO2 into a potential reusable material or transportation fuel. Finally the paper will address beyond the technical feasibility the economic and environmental impact of various alternative sequestration methods.

While aircraft environmental performance has been important since the beginnings of commercial aviation, continuously increasing passenger traffic and a rise in public awareness have made aircraft noise and emissions two of the most pressing issues hampering commercial aviation growth today. The focus of this study is to determine the feasibility of vey-high bypass ratio, geared and contra-rotating aero engines (see figures 2–4) for short range commercial aircraft in terms of economics and environment. This involves optimising the engines’ design point to minimise the direct operating cost and evaluating the economic and environmental impact. The results present a great potential benefit of the geared turbofan compared to high BPR one (baseline) to reduce DOC; however this may involve NOx penalties, that is an increase of 11.6% in comparison to the baseline. The CRTF engine seems to be, at least according to the simulations, a very promising solution in terms of environmental and economical performance. This is one on the series of work that would be carried out using the design tool proposed. Further work on the assessment of more radical turbofans at different economical and environmental scenarios would be published when completed.

It is important to rigorously and comprehensively evaluate the safety of Automated Vehicles (AVs) before their production and deployment. A popular AV evaluation approach is Naturalistic-Field Operational Test (N-FOT) which tests prototype vehicles directly on public roads. Due to the low exposure to safety-critical scenarios, N-FOTs is time-consuming and expensive to conduct. Computer simulations can be used as an alternative to N-FOTs, especially in terms of generating motions of the surrounding traffic. In this paper, we propose an accelerated evaluation approach for AVs. Human-controlled vehicles (HVs) were modeled as disturbance to AVs based on data extracted from the Safety Pilot Model Deployment Program. The cut-in scenarios are generated based on skewed statistics of collected human driver behavior, which amplifies riskier testing scenarios while reserves its statistical information so that the safety benefits of AV in non-accelerated cases can be accurately estimated. An AV model based on a production vehicle was tested. Results show that the proposed method can accelerate the evaluation process by at least 100 times.

Selecting a route for a pipeline right-of-way (ROW) generally consists of engineering (technical and economic), socioeconomic and biophysical components. To effectively select a route, simultaneous consideration must be given to all the components from the initiation of a project to the integration of all aspects of each throughout the route selection process. To successfully select a route which creates a win-win situation for all the stakeholders of a pipeline project, political/governmental issues, community and land owner views, public perceptions and other similar controlling factors (such as Safety, Health, Environment and Risk (SHER)) must be carefully analyzed and integrated into the process. It is the consideration of all these issues that will lead to a ROW which will provide a technically acceptable solution, which is at the same time the least expensive, economically viable and acceptable to the community it traverses. This paper will provide an overview of route selection techniques (including new technologies) used and the process generally practiced by pipeline designers, highlighting controlling issues and optimization methods that need to be utilized in order to achieve a cost effective route selection. It provides details on significant “Feeling/Perception” issues that can either thwart or, by careful consideration of these issues, lead to a successful pipeline project. An example of such a route selection process will be provided on a project located in rough and mountainous terrain, that has significant regulatory/governmental, land, environmental, indigenous and geological issues.

Abstract Oil demand continues to rise and is not projected to peak until at least 2030, according to the International Energy Agency, or possibly even later as per OPEC. Despite this, many publicly listed oil companies have announced aggressive emissions reduction targets. For instance, Canadian companies Cenovus and CNRL have committed to achieving net zero by 2050. Cenovus aims for a 35% absolute reduction of GHGs by 2035, and CNRL targets a significant reduction from oil sands operations by 2030. CEOs often cite the challenge of generating acceptable returns on emissions reduction projects as a major barrier to decarbonization, as reported by the Boston Consulting Group in 2023. Abatement technologies such as Carbon Capture, Usage, and Storage (CCUS) require substantial investment and are unlikely to yield positive returns for several years. Furthermore, they are expected to remain relatively small in scale and impact in the near to mid-term future, according to the World Economic Forum in 2023. The traditional and conventional method of heavy oil extraction in Alberta and Saskatchewan has been marked by inefficiencies, primarily due to low recovery rates that leave upwards of 90% of the resource untapped. The process is characterized by high emissions and significant capital investment, rendering the development of smaller deposits economically unfeasible. Heavy oil production typically necessitates a substantial upfront capital investment in large, permanent central facilities, leading to a planning horizon of five to ten years for the optimization of a steam plant and production installation. Additionally, securing regulatory approvals for land disturbance and water supply requires considerable time and effort.

The meanings of the earth and the world can be associated with issues of national identity. In the article, the issues of fostering national identity are discussed in the context of M. Heidegger's philosophy‘s outlook on a land and world disputes. The article tries to define how much a nation can be an object of scientific cognition. Understanding the nation as a resistance to limiting objectification is a methodological background to the development of the topic, which obliges the philosophical interpretation of the problem to be trusted, at least as a scientific reduction of the problem. Sketches of the earth and the world we use as a kind of catalysts of intellectual imagination and methodological guides. The main aim of the article is the attempt to analyze the conditions of the expression of the national identity in terms of both the subject matter and the non-objective reflection, where different approaches complement each other (what we call by the term "counterpoint", borrowed from the theory of music). The collision of national identities through Martin Heidegger's typology of images has not been examined before. There are also discussed the untapped reserves for nurturing Lithuanian identity - both spiritual and economic. The aim is to refine the political awareness of the Public Treaty model raised by the Enlightenment thinkers. Land is an important factor in the economic development of a so ciety and the object of economic exploitation, but, more importantly, it is a standpoint in establishing and maintaining the nation's vitality. The dispute between the earth and the world which foster the thesis of national identity acquires the essence of the truth of being.

Metals are fundamental components of modern society worldwide, and, despite the current economic downturn, we know we will be faced with ever increasing demands and ever-shrinking supplies. Efforts to achieve sustainable supplies of minerals must include efforts to expand the supply. About 60% of the ocean surface consists of the ocean floor, so it is reasonable to expect that deep ocean minerals could contribute significantly to the world supply. Human efforts to recover minerals have thus far concentrated almost exclusively on land-based resources, so it is reasonable to postulate that marine minerals might offer better prospects for future mineral supplies than land prospects. Currently, we know of at least six separate categories of marine minerals: 1. Aggegrate sand and gravel deposits; 2. Placer deposits of relatively high value minerals (gold, diamonds, tin, etc) hosted in aggegrates; 3. Biogenically derived phosphate deposits; 4. Sediment-hosted (manganese nodules) and hard-rock hosted (ferromanganese crusts) ferromanganese oxide deposits; 5. Sediment-hosted methane hydrate deposits; and 6. Hydrothermally derived sulfide deposits of copper, gold, nickel, zinc, and other metals. Thanks primarily to the engineering developments made by the offshore oil industry and the computer-science advances that have revolutionized much of modern society, the technology is in place for most of the tasks of deep seabed mining. The objective here is not to provide a general status update regarding marine minerals technology, but simply to demonstrate, using the best example available to date (the Nautilus Minerals venture in the Territorial Waters of Papua New Guinea) that the technology is in place and ready to go. Development of marine minerals has both the curse and blessing of taking place in the ocean. Since the 1970’s and before, the marine environment has taken on a public aura reserved more commonly for religious beliefs. This aura poses substantial obstacles to any marine development efforts. At the same time, a basic advantage of marine mineral developments is that nobody lives there. Thus, marine mining activities will not conflict with most normal human activities. Marine mining proposals should be subjected to thorough impact assessment analysis, but it is also critical that policymakers take steps to provide a level playing field for marine developments that encourages objective comparisons with alternative land-based proposals for supplying needed mineral resources. Governments should foster reasonable access to the marine mineral resources under their jurisdiction while also supporting incentive policies and related research programs.

This special report summarizes the regional workshop held 24–26 April 2018 at the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Ecological Services Office in Carlsbad, California on the importance of collaboration among federal, state, and nongovernmental agencies to facilitate the recovery of threatened and endangered species (TES). This workshop focused primarily on one species, the least Bell’s vireo (LBVI), and how to achieve full recovery and eventual delisting through agency partnerships. A major theme of the workshop was applying the Endangered Species Act (ESA) Section 7(a)(1) conservation planning process as a building block towards recovery of LBVI—as well as other threatened, endangered, and at-risk riparian species within the Southwest. The main objective of this workshop was to assemble an interagency and interdisciplinary group of wildlife biologists and managers to detail how the Section 7(a)(1) conservation planning approach, in consultation with the USFWS, can assist in the recovery of LBVI primarily on federal lands but also other public and private lands. Goals of this workshop were to (1) review Section 7(a)(1); (2) outline LBVI ecosystem processes, life history, threats, and conservation solutions; and (3) develop and organize agency commitments to collaborative conservation practices.

Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument (PARA) in northwestern Arizona has significant paleontological resources, which are recognized in the establishing presidential proclamation. Because of the challenges of working in this remote area, there has been little documentation of these resources over the years. PARA also has an unusual management situation which complicates resource management. The majority of PARA is administered by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM; this land is described here as PARA-BLM), while about 20% of the monument is administered by the National Park Service (NPS; this land is described here as PARA-NPS) in conjunction with Lake Mead National Recreation Area (LAKE). Parcels of state and private land are scattered throughout the monument. Reports of fossils within what is now PARA go back to at least 1914. Geologic and paleontologic reports have been sporadic over the past century. Much of what was known of the paleontology before the 2020 field inventory was documented by geologists focused on nearby Grand Canyon National Park (GRCA) and LAKE, or by students working on graduate projects; in either case, paleontology was a secondary topic of interest. The historical record of fossil discoveries in PARA is dominated by Edwin McKee, who reported fossils from localities in PARA-NPS and PARA-BLM as part of larger regional projects published from the 1930s to the 1980s. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has mapped the geology of PARA in a series of publications since the early 1980s. Unpublished reports by researchers from regional institutions have documented paleontological resources in Quaternary caves and rock shelters. From September to December 2020, a field inventory was conducted to better understand the scope and distribution of paleontological resources at PARA. Thirty-eight localities distributed across the monument and throughout its numerous geologic units were documented extensively, including more than 420 GPS points and 1,300 photos, and a small number of fossil specimens were collected and catalogued under 38 numbers. In addition, interviews were conducted with staff to document the status of paleontology at PARA, and potential directions for future management, research, protection, and interpretation. In geologic terms, PARA is located on the boundary of the Colorado Plateau and the Basin and Range provinces. Before the uplift of the Colorado Plateau near the end of the Cretaceous 66 million years ago, this area was much lower in elevation and subject to flooding by shallow continental seas. This led to prolonged episodes of marine deposition as well as complex stratigraphic intervals of alternating terrestrial and marine strata. Most of the rock formations that are exposed in the monument belong to the Paleozoic part of the Grand Canyon section, deposited between approximately 510 and 270 million years ago in mostly shallow marine settings. These rocks have abundant fossils of marine invertebrates such as sponges, corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, crinoids, and echinoids. The Cambrian–Devonian portion of the Grand Canyon Paleozoic section is represented in only a few areas of PARA. The bulk of the Paleozoic rocks at PARA are Mississippian to Permian in age, approximately 360 to 270 million years old, and belong to the Redwall Limestone through the Kaibab Formation. While the Grand Canyon section has only small remnants of younger Mesozoic rocks, several Mesozoic formations are exposed within PARA, mostly ranging in age from the Early Triassic to the Early Jurassic (approximately 252 to 175 million years ago), as well as some middle Cretaceous rocks deposited approximately 100 million years ago. Mesozoic fossils in PARA include marine fossils in the Moenkopi Formation and petrified wood and invertebrate trace fossils in the Chinle Formation and undivided Moenave and Kayenta Formations.

Colonial National Historical Park (COLO) in eastern Virginia was established for its historical significance, but significant paleontological resources are also found within its boundaries. The bluffs around Yorktown are composed of sedimentary rocks and deposits of the Yorktown Formation, a marine unit deposited approximately 4.9 to 2.8 million years ago. When the Yorktown Formation was being deposited, the shallow seas were populated by many species of invertebrates, vertebrates, and micro-organisms which have left body fossils and trace fossils behind. Corals, bryozoans, bivalves, gastropods, scaphopods, worms, crabs, ostracodes, echinoids, sharks, bony fishes, whales, and others were abundant. People have long known about the fossils of the Yorktown area. Beginning in the British colonial era, fossiliferous deposits were used to make lime and construct roads, while more consolidated intervals furnished building stone. Large shells were used as plates and dippers. Collection of specimens for study began in the late 17th century, before they were even recognized as fossils. The oldest image of a fossil from North America is of a typical Yorktown Formation shell now known as Chesapecten jeffersonius, probably collected from the Yorktown area and very likely from within what is now COLO. Fossil shells were observed by participants of the 1781 siege of Yorktown, and the landmark known as “Cornwallis Cave” is carved into rock made of shell fragments. Scientific description of Yorktown Formation fossils began in the early 19th century. At least 25 fossil species have been named from specimens known to have been discovered within COLO boundaries, and at least another 96 have been named from specimens potentially discovered within COLO, but with insufficient locality information to be certain. At least a dozen external repositories and probably many more have fossils collected from lands now within COLO, but again limited locality information makes it difficult to be sure. This paleontological resource inventory is the first of its kind for Colonial National Historical Park (COLO). Although COLO fossils have been studied as part of the Northeast Coastal Barrier Network (NCBN; Tweet et al. 2014) and, to a lesser extent, as part of a thematic inventory of caves (Santucci et al. 2001), the park had not received a comprehensive paleontological inventory before this report. This inventory allows for a deeper understanding of the park’s paleontological resources and compiles information from historical papers as well as recently completed field work. In summer 2020, researchers went into the field and collected eight bulk samples from three different localities within COLO. These samples will be added to COLO’s museum collections, making their overall collection more robust. In the future, these samples may be used for educational purposes, both for the general public and for employees of the park.

Mojave National Preserve (MOJA) in the Mojave Desert of southern California hosts an extensive geologic record, with units ranging in age from the Paleoproterozoic (2.5 to 1.7 billion years ago) to the Quaternary (present day). MOJA topography is dominated by numerous mountain ranges hosting extensive geological exposures divided by expansive valleys, dunes, and a low elevation dry salt lake. Some geological units are fossil-bearing, both within the preserve and in adjacent lands outside the boundaries of the preserve. The fossils preserved within MOJA span from the Proterozoic Eon (uncertain maximum age of fossiliferous rocks, but at least approximately 550 million years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (beginning 11,700 years ago). Abundant and diverse marine fossils are preserved in units dated from the late Proterozoic through most of the Cambrian, as well as from the Devonian through the early Permian. More recent volcanic tuff and unconsolidated sedimentary deposits in valleys preserve Cenozoic flora and fauna. Geologic surveys documented paleontological resources within the modern (2023) boundaries of MOJA as early as 1914, but fossils were rarely the focus of detailed study, and no comprehensive inventory was compiled. John Hazzard was the first geologist to devote significant attention to the study of paleontology within MOJA. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Hazzard and collaborators identified Paleozoic assemblages within the Kelso and Providence Mountains. Between the 1950s to 1980s, several dissertations and theses described the geology of various areas within MOJA, in which the authors provided limited paleontological descriptions and fossil locality information. Jack Mount conducted extensive paleontological research in the Cambrian sections of the Providence Mountains in the 1970s and 1980s, focusing on olenellid trilobites in the Latham Shale. As early as the 1960s, rockhounds collecting opalite and petrified wood discovered fossilized plant material and vertebrate bones in areas now in south-central MOJA and notified paleontologists at San Bernardino County Museum (SBCM). This resulted in one of the only paleontological excavations in what is now MOJA, with collections of Miocene vertebrate fauna including camelid and early rhino material. More recently, James Hagadorn reported the late-surviving Ediacaran organism Swartpuntia in an assemblage from the Wood Canyon Formation of the Kelso Mountains in 2000. From October 2021 to January 2022, a field inventory was conducted to determine the scope and distribution (both temporal and geospatial) of paleontological resources at MOJA. An additional week of field work was conducted in December 2022. A total of thirteen localities were documented and field-checked throughout the preserve. These localities resulted from field checks of previously reported fossil sites, as well as new discoveries based on literature searches and information provided by MOJA staff. The findings of this report constitute a baseline of paleontology resource data for MOJA, and reflect the current understanding of the scope, significance, and distribution of MOJA’s fossil record. This report provides a foundation for the management and protection of paleontological resources within MOJA and supports future education, interpretation,

Theodore Roosevelt National Park (THRO) in western North Dakota was established for its historical connections with President Theodore Roosevelt. It contains not only historical and cultural resources, but abundant natural resources as well. Among these is one of the best geological and paleontological records of the Paleocene Epoch (66 to 56 million years ago) of any park in the National Park System. The Paleocene Epoch is of great scientific interest due to the great mass extinction that occurred at its opening (the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), and the unusual climatic event that began at the end of the epoch (the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, an anomalous global temperature spike). It is during the Paleocene that mammals began to diversify and move into the large-bodied niches vacated by dinosaurs. The rocks exposed at THRO preserve the latter part of the Paleocene, when mammals were proliferating and crocodiles were the largest predators. Western North Dakota was warmer and wetter with swampy forests; today these are preserved as the “petrified forests” that are one of THRO’s notable features. Despite abundant fossil resources, THRO has not historically been a scene of significant paleontological exploration. For example, the fossil forests have only had one published scientific description, and that report focused on the associated paleosols (“fossil soils”). The widespread petrified wood of the area has been known since at least the 19th century and was considered significant enough to be a tourist draw in the decades leading up to the establishment of THRO in 1947. Paleontologists occasionally collected and described fossil specimens from the park over the next few decades, but the true extent of paleontological resources was not realized until a joint North Dakota Geological Survey–NPS investigation under John Hoganson and Johnathan Campbell between 1994–1996. This survey uncovered 400 paleontological localities within the park representing a variety of plant, invertebrate, vertebrate, and trace fossils. Limited investigation and occasional collection of noteworthy specimens took place over the next two decades. In 2020, a new two-year initiative to further document the park’s paleontological resources began. This inventory, which was the basis for this report, identified another 158 fossil localities, some yielding taxa not recorded by the previous survey. Additional specimens were collected from the surface, among them a partial skeleton of a choristodere (an extinct aquatic reptile), dental material of two mammal taxa not previously recorded at THRO, and the first bird track found at the park. The inventory also provided an assessment of an area scheduled for ground-disturbing maintenance. This inventory is intended to inform future paleontological resource research, management, protection, and interpretation at THRO. THRO’s bedrock geology is dominated by two Paleocene rock formations: the Bullion Creek Formation and the overlying Sentinel Butte Formation of the Fort Union Group. Weathering of these formations has produced the distinctive banded badlands seen in THRO today. These two formations were deposited under very different conditions than the current conditions of western North Dakota. In the Paleocene, the region was warm and wet, with a landscape dominated by swamps, lakes, and rivers. Great forests now represented by petrified wood grew throughout the area. Freshwater mollusks, fish, amphibians (including giant salamanders), turtles, choristoderes, and crocodilians abounded in the ancient wetlands, while a variety of mammals representing either extinct lineages or the early forebearers of modern groups inhabited the land. There is little representation of the next 56 million years at THRO. The only evidence we have of events in the park for most of these millions of years is isolated Neogene lag deposits and terrace gravel. Quaternary surficial deposits have yielded a few fossils...

This paper analyses the dynamics of policy-making among the various political institutions in Brazil. The authors find that the driving force behind policies in Brazil is the strong set of powers given to the President, though several institutions constrain and check this power, in particular the legislature, the judiciary, the public prosecutors, the auditing office, state governors and the Constitution itself. The electorate of Brazil holds the President accountable for economic growth, inflation and unemployment. At least for the past ten years, and particularly during the Lula administration, executive power has been aimed at pushing policy towards macro orthodoxy. Achieving stable macro policies required constitutional amendments as well as considerable legislation. To attain their goals, the past administrations used their property rights over pork to trade for policy changes. The rationale for members of Congress to exchange votes on policy for pork is that the electorates reward or punish members of Congress based on the degree to which pork lands in their district.

“Are private schools better than public schools?” This ubiquitous debate in low- and middle-income countries is the wrong one to have. The foreword and three essays collected in this Forum each explore how to move past the stuck “public vs. private” binary. Jason Silberstein is a Research Fellow at RISE. His foreword is titled “A Shift in Perspective: Zooming Out from School Type and Bringing Neighborhood Education Systems into Focus.” It summarizes the current state of the “public vs. private” debate, outlines an alternative approach focused on neighborhood education systems, and then synthesizes key findings from the other essays. Jishnu Das has conducted decades of research on school systems in low-income countries, including in Zambia, India, and Pakistan. His essay is titled “The Emergence and Consequence of Schooling Markets.” It describes exactly what schooling markets look like in Pakistan, including the incredible variance in school quality in both public and private schools within the same village. Das then reviews the evidence on how to engineer local education markets to improve learning in all schools, including polices that have underdelivered (e.g., vouchers) and more promising policies (e.g., finance and information structured to take advantage of inter-school competition, and a focus on the lowest performing public schools). Das’ research on Pakistan is available through leaps.hks.harvard.edu, which also houses the data and documentation for the project. Lant Pritchett writes from a global lens grounded in his work on systems thinking in education. His essay is titled “Schooling Ain’t Just Learning: Controlling the Means of Producing Citizens.” It observes that governments supply, and families demand, education for many reasons. The academic emphasis on one of these reasons, producing student learning, has underweighted the critical importance of other features of education, in particular the socialization function of schooling, which more persuasively explain patterns of provision of both public school and different kinds of private schools. With this key fact in mind, Pritchett argues that there is a strong liberty case for allowing private schools, but that calls for governments to fund them are either uncompelling or “aggressively missing the point”. Joanna Härmä has done mixed-methods research on private schools across many cities and rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa and India, and has also founded a heavily-subsidized private school in Uttar Pradesh, India. Her essay responds to both Das and Pritchett and is titled “Why We Need to Stop Worrying About People’s Coping Mechanism for the ‘Global Learning Crisis’—Their Preference for Low-Fee Private Schools”. It outlines the different forces behind the rise of low-fee private schools and asserts that both the international development sector and governments have failed to usefully respond. Policy toward these private schools is sometimes overzealous, as seen in regulatory regimes that in practice are mostly used to extract bribes, and at other times overly solicitous, as seen in government subsidies that would usually be better spent improving the worst government schools. Perhaps, Härmä concludes, “we should leave well enough alone.”

Global migration has been increasing since the 1990s. People are forced to leave their homes in search of safety, a better livelihood, or for more economic opportunities. Environmental drivers of migration, such as land degradation, water pollution, or changing climate, are acting as stronger phenomena with time. As millions of people are exposed to multiple water crises, daily needs related to water quality, lack of provisioning, excess or shortage of water become vital for survival as well for livelihood support. In turn, the crisis can transform into conflict and act as a trigger for migration, both voluntary and forced, depending on the conditions. Current interventions related to migration, including funding to manage migration remain focused on response mechanisms, whereas an understanding of drivers or so-called ‘push factors’ of migration is limited. Accurate and well-documented evidence, as well as quantitative information on these phenomena, are either missing or under-reflected in the literature and policy discourse. The report aims to start unpacking relationships between water and migration. The data used in this Report are collected from available public sources and reviewed in the context of water and climate. A three-dimensional (3D) framework is outlined for water-related migration assessment. The framework may be useful to aggerate water-related causes and consequences of migration and interpret them in various socioecological, socioeconomic, and sociopolitical settings. A case study approach is adopted to illustrate the various applications of the framework to dynamics of migration in various geographic and hydrological scenarios. The case studies reflect on well-known examples of environmental and water degradation, but with a focus on displacement /migration and socioeconomic challenges that apply. The relevance of proxy measures such as the Global Conflict Risk Index, which helps quantify water and migration interconnections, is discussed in relation to geographic, political, environmental, and economic parameters. The narratives presented in the Report also point to the existing governance mechanisms on migration, stating that they are fragmented. The report examines global agreements, institutions, and policies on migration to provide an aggerated outlook as to how international and inter-agency cooperation agreements and policies either reflected or are missing on water and climate crises as direct or indirect triggers to migration. Concerning this, the new directives related to migration governance, i.e., the New York Declaration and the Global Compact for Migration, are discussed. The Report recommends an enhanced focus on migration as an adaptation strategy to maximize the interconnectedness with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It calls for the migration discourse to look beyond from a preventative and problematic approach to a perspective emphasizing migration as a contributor towards achieving sustainable development, particularly SDGs 5, 6, 13, and 16 that aim strengthening capacities related to water, gender, climate, and institutions. Overall, the synthesis offers a global overview of water and migration for researchers and professionals engaged in migration-related work. For international agencies and government organizations and policymakers dealing with the assessment of and response to migration, the report aims to support the work on migration assessment and the implementation of the SDGs. The Report may serve as a public good towards understanding the drivers, impacts, and challenges of migration, for designing long-term solutions and for advancing migration management capabilities through improved knowledge and a pitch for consensus-building.

Water-quality monitoring in National Park Service units of the Northern Colorado Plateau Network (NCPN) is made possible through partnerships between the National Park Service Inventory & Monitoring Division, individual park units, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Utah Division of Water Quality. This report evaluates data from site visits at 62 different locations on streams, rivers, and reservoirs in or near ten NCPN park units between October 1, 2015 and September 30, 2018. Data are compared to state water-quality standards for the purpose of providing information to park managers about potential water-quality problems. The National Park Service does not determine the regulatory status of surface waters; state water quality agencies determine whether waters comply with the Clean Water Act. Evaluation of water-quality parameters relative to state water-quality standards indicated that 17,997 (96.8%) of the 18,583 total designated beneficial-use evaluations completed for the period covered in this report met state water-quality standards. The most common exceedances or indications of impairment, in order of abundance, were due to elevated nutrients, elevated bacteria (E. coli), elevated water temperature, elevated trace metals, elevated total dissolved solids (and sulfate), elevated pH, and low dissolved oxygen. While some exceedances were recurring and may have been caused by human activities in the watersheds, many were due to naturally occurring conditions characteristic of the geographic setting. This is most apparent with phosphorus, which can be introduced into surface water bodies at elevated levels by natural weathering of the geologic strata found throughout the Colorado Plateau. Higher phosphorus concentrations could also be attributed to anthropogenic activities that can accelerate erosion and transport of phosphorus. Some activities that can increase erosional processes include grazing, logging, mining, pasture irrigation, and off-highway vehicle (OHV) use. Exceedances for total phosphorus were common occurrences at nine out of ten NCPN park units, where at least one site in each of these parks had elevated phosphorus concentrations. At these sites, high levels of nutrients have not led to algal blooms or other signs of eutrophication. Sites monitored in Arches National Park (NP), Black Canyon of the Gunnison NP (BLCA), Bryce Canyon NP (BRCA), Capitol Reef NP (CARE), Curecanti National Recreation Area (CURE), Dinosaur National Monument (DINO), and Zion NP (ZION) all had E. coli ex-ceedances that could be addressed by management actions. While many of these sites already have management actions underway, some of the actions necessary to bring these waters into compliance are beyond the control of the National Park Service. Changes to agricultural practices to improve water quality involves voluntary participation by landowners and/or grazing permittees and their respective states. This could be the case with lands upstream of several parks with E. coli contamination issues, including Red Rock Canyon (BLCA); Sul-phur, Oak, and Pleasant creeks (CARE); Blue Creek and Cimarron River (CURE); Brush and Pot creeks (DINO); and North Fork Virgin River (ZION). Issues with E. coli contamination at Yellow Creek (BRCA) seemed to be resolved after the park boundary fence downstream of the site was repaired, keeping cattle out of the park. At North Fork Virgin River, E. coli exceedances have been less frequent since the State of Utah worked with landowners and grazing permittees to modify agricultural practices. Continued coordination between the National Park Service, state agencies, and local landowners will be necessary to further re-duce E. coli exceedances and, in turn, improve public health and safety in these streams. Selenium concentrations in Red Rock Canyon (BLCA) continued to exceed the state aquat-ic-life standard at both the upstream and downstream sites. Although selenium weathers naturally from bedrock and...