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1
Dlouhý, Martin. „Alternative Production Models in Economic Theory“. Acta Oeconomica Pragensia 19, Nr. 5 (01.08.2011): 34–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.18267/j.aop.345.
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Kuregyan., S. „HUMAN AND ECONOMIC THEORY“. Экономическая наука сегодня, Nr. 15 (19.06.2022): 87–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.21122/2309-6667-2022-15-87-93.
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The article is devoted to the study of man as an economic category. It examines the place of man in the system of production forces and production relations. The role of creativity in changing human nature and its influence on the study of economic theory is shown.
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Peixiong, Chen. „The End of Western Economic Growth Theory“. Journal of Finance Research 5, Nr. 2 (02.12.2021): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.26549/jfr.v5i2.6877.
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Economics is a science that studies how the economy grows, so the theory of economic growth is the most important theory of economics. In the real market economy society, people achieve the goal of economic growth through two kinds of economic activities: production and transaction. Then a correct economic growth theory must be one that can explain both production and transaction economic activities. Just like Newton’s law of universal gravitation in physics, it can explain the motion law of all objects. For a long time, we have been dominated by the western economic growth theory of western mainstream economics. It is not difficult to find that it has a fatal defect, which can only explain production economic activities but not transaction economic activities. So it can’t explain the Chinese economy, and it can’t explain the western economy. The new economic growth theory proposed in this paper makes up for the defects of western economic growth theory, and it is the terminator of western economic growth theory. This is a revolution of new economics to traditional western economics.
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Mukhin, А. А. „THE USE OF COBB-DOUGLAS PRODUCTION FUNCTION IN MODELING PRODUCTION PROCESSES“. Bulletin of Udmurt University. Series Economics and Law 30, Nr. 6 (28.12.2020): 822–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.35634/2412-9593-2020-30-6-822-829.
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Several alternative economic approaches to the study of organization are discussed in the literature: the neoclassical theory, the theory of transaction costs (the theory of specific assets), the theory of incomplete contracts (the theory of property rights), and the Agency theory (the theory of incentives). Recently, there have been approaches at the intersection of Economics and management: resource theory, knowledge theory, strategic theory, entrepreneurial theory; in the framework of sociology: network theory, the theory of resource dependence, the theory of institutional isomorphism, the theory of situational choice, the theory of strategic choice. The article deals with the basic model of neoclassical theory. The advantage of the neoclassical theory is that it emphasizes the role of technology in General and economies of scale in particular as factors that influence the size of production, turnover of organizations. Within the framework of the considered approach, a certain macrostructure is determined that carries out the costs of economic resources: fixed assets, the number of employees that affect the turnover of organizations. The task of rational economic management, which meets the Udmurt Republic, is to determine the forecast of turnover of organizations with the given resources and to calculate the necessary for its value of fixed assets, the number of employees.
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KUREGYAN, S. „ECONOMIC DESCRIPTIONS OF INTELLECTUAL PRODUCTION“. Экономическая наука сегодня, Nr. 7 (25.06.2018): 34–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.21122/2309-6667-2018-5-34-42.
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The article describes new approaches for researching object of economic theory. It gives the definition of intellectual production. Various criteria for evaluating the intellectual product is analyzed, economic evaluation of intellectual work results is proposed.
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Temnenko, S. M. „CONCEPT «MARKET» IN ECONOMIC THEORY“. Scientific and Technical Bulletin оf State Scientific Research Control Institute of Veterinary Medical Products and Fodder Additives аnd Institute of Animal Biology 21, Nr. 1 (01.06.2020): 222–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.36359/scivp.2020-21-1.27.
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The essence of the market as an economic category was analyzed in the article. Interpretation of the "market" concept by the classics of economic thought as well as by modern domestic and foreign scientists was considered. The evolution of scientific knowledge regarding the depth of understanding and difference of approaches to the interpretation of this economic category was traced.
The market as an economic phenomenon has emerged as a result of such socio-economic processes as production and exchange. In the process of forming economically independent business entities, there was a transition from direct commodity exchange to more complex economic relations, such as buying and selling. The relationship between sellers and buyers gradually became more complex and multilevel. The concepts of supply and demand appear in economic theory, emerges a basic tenet of economics about the market as the main mechanism for establishing optimal proportions between production and consumption.
Thus, over time, the understanding of the "market" has transformed from a narrow interpretation as a platform where purchase and sale takes place to a complex mechanism that regulates economic relations in the process of production and distribution of resources and public goods.
An analysis of modern publications has shown that modern discourse on the nature of the "market" significantly expands the semantics of this concept. In our opinion, the thesis about the "market" - as a sphere of realization of human freedom, and about the person - as central and most important subject of market, is extremely interesting. In this regard, the age-old controversy of economists over the freedom of the market and the expediency of state intervention in the relationship between sellers and buyers, producers and consumers is gaining new arguments.
Often, modern market definitions are rather cumbersome and difficult to understand, therefore we offer a more concise definition of the market as an economic environment, which serves as a coordinating mechanism where producers, sellers and consumers interact in a competitive environment, and as a result of such interaction a general equilibrium of prices is formed.
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Schilir`o, Daniele. „A Glance at Solow’s Growth Theory“. Journal of Mathematical Economics and Finance 3, Nr. 2(5) (06.02.2018): 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.14505/jmef.v3.2(5).04.
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This article examines the growth theory of Robert Solow1 , which has been a point of reference of economic growth since the 1950s. First, the article analyzes the path-breaking model of growth contained in Solow’s article “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growt” published in The Quarterly Journal of Economics (1956). Second, it looks at the contribution of Solow to growth accounting and to the new method of studying capital formation in economic growth through the vintage ap- proach. Therefore, the work analyzes the article “Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function” published in The Review of Economics and Statistics (1957). In the latter publication, Solow, through the aggregate production function, tries to measure growth and provide an explanation of the nature of technical progress. The article also examines Solow’s 1960 essay “Investment and Technical Progress” based on the hypothesis of embodied technological progress and the vintage approach.
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Danilov, Vladimir. „Towards the theory of general economic equilibrium“. Economics and the Mathematical Methods 58, Nr. 3 (2022): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s042473880020012-2.
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The paper proposes a model of general economic equilibrium, when some firms can influence prices by their actions. Their primitives (that is, the description of production, distribution, and consumption) of the proposed model are the same as those of the Arrow–Debreu model. The difference lies in the behavior of oligopolistic firms: it is assumed that they (as in the original Cournot model) assign their production plans. The main innovation is the description of the decision-making process on production plans by oligopolistic firms. In previous models, it was assumed that oligopolistic firms seek to maximize profits at current prices. Here, a more natural assumption is made that oligopolistic firms make decisions about production plans through a vote of shareholders. It is shown how the Arrow–Debreu model can be modified to account for this circumstance. The concept of Condorcet–Cournot–Walras equilibrium is introduced, combining the ideas of these three classics. The question of the existence of equilibria is discussed. A simplified version of the model is also considered, in which each firm is owned by one agent. The simplification is that there is no need to turn to the voting.
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Grassi, Basile, und Julien Sauvagnat. „Production networks and economic policy“. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 35, Nr. 4 (2019): 638–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grz021.
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Abstract In this paper, we show how to combine data on input–output tables and recent insights from the theory of production networks in order to inform policy. We first describe the information contained in input–output tables compiled by statistical agencies, and show how to derive relevant statistics of production networks. We then discuss the implications of production networks for policy intervention in a series of domains, such as fiscal policy, industrial policy, or, finance. Finally, we present a quantitative exercise applied to French data in order to illustrate that production networks shape the overall impact of competition policy on the economy.
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Сорокин, Александр Иванович. „Economic Theory on Role and Place of Entrepreneur in Social Production“. ЖУРНАЛ ПРАВОВЫХ И ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ, Nr. 1 (15.03.2022): 219–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.26163/gief.2022.47.46.031.
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В статье рассматривается эволюция взглядов видных представителей экономической науки разных поколений на роль, место и функции предпринимателя в процессе производства. Статья охватывает значительный временной период - с конца XVIII в. до середины XX в. Отправная точка проблемы это - «экономический человек», явленный А. Смитом как воплощение неуклонной силы рыночной экономики, двигающий экономику вперед и общество к процветанию. Однако признание в экономической науке тезис А. Смита получил далеко не сразу, выдержав серьезную конкуренцию альтернативных воззрений на проблему. И только в конце XX в., благодаря вкладу виднейших представителей экономической науки, великая догадка А. Смита заняла свое достойное место в экономических трактатах. We consider the evolution of the views of prominent economics researchers of different generations on the role, place and functions of an entrepreneur in the production process. The article covers a significant time period - from the end of the XVIII century to the middle of the XX century. The starting point of the problem is the "economic man" introduced by A. Smith as the embodiment of the steady power of the market economy, driving economic and social prosperity. However, A. Smith's thesis did not get immediate recognition in economics facing serious competition from alternative views of the problem. Only at the end of the XX century, due to the contribution of the most outstanding representatives of the economic science, A. Smith's great guess took its rightful place in economic treatises.
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KUREGYAN., S. „THE NEW IN THE SUBJECT OF ECONOMIC THEORY“. Экономическая наука сегодня, Nr. 8 (22.12.2018): 56–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.21122/2309-6667-2018-8-56-62.
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Modern understanding of the subject of economic theory requires the study of economic problems arising in intangible production. Non-material production is heterogeneous: one part of it is associated with the production of spiritual goods and their distribution, exchange and consumption, the other with the provision of services of a non-material nature. This affects economic theory as the methodological basis of specific economic disciplines.
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Djurkovic, Misa. „Economic theory of distributism“. Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, Nr. 153 (2015): 653–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1553653d.
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this paper, the economic theory of distributism has been analyzed. In the first place, the author explains that the distributism is a social thought which emerged in the Anglo-American world as the development of social teachings in the Roman Catholic Church. Although it has not received the status the main schools in modern economic thought have, distrubutism persists as a specific direction of socio-economic thinking. The paper particularly investigates the ideas of classical distibutism. The author focuses on two basic books by Gilbert Chesterton and two most important economic books by Hilaire Belloc. These authors have insisted on the problem of society moving towards the so-called servile state in which a small number of capitalists rule over mass of proletarians who are gradually coming under slavery status, which is sanctioned by the law. For the purpose of remedying this tendency and collectivism, they proposed a series of measures for a repeated broad distribution of ownership over the means of production. Finally, there is an overview of this idea and its development throughout the twentieth century, finishing with contemporary distributists like John Medaille and Alan Carlson.
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Grassetti, Francesca, und Gevorg Hunanyan. „On the economic growth theory with Kadiyala production function“. Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation 58 (Mai 2018): 220–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2017.06.036.
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Dormady, Noah, Alfredo Roa-Henriquez und Adam Rose. „Economic resilience of the firm: A production theory approach“. International Journal of Production Economics 208 (Februar 2019): 446–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2018.07.017.
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Filippovskiy, Maksim. „The general theory of the economic formation evolution and innovative transformations“. Theoretical economics, Nr. 5 (31.05.2024): 40–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.52957/2221-3260-2024-5-40-56.
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In modern economic science, the theory of socio-economic formations of K. Marx is practically not studied, with the exception of review historical works and theoretical publications on political economy that examine the crisis of capitalism. We believe that there is a certain potential for the development and use of this theory to remove individual theoretical contradictions, which can serve as the basis for a revision of economic evolution as a whole. The work aims to demonstrate how economic evolution is developing from the point of view of changing the economic formation through innovative renewal of factors and transformation of the mode of production, which is ensured by a number of solved problems. In particular, a refined system of production factors is proposed: land, labor, capital (means of production), energy and information. In the historical aspect, the process of emergence of innovations in production factors is generalized, taking into account the properties of economic formations. A process of sequential transformation of the formation has been established depending on changes in the priority factor and the main mode of production. The results of the work were achieved by using formational and factor analysis, as well as the use of heuristic methods, in particular structural-semantic modeling to clarify the theory of formations. The formational dependence of the current mode of production on the energy factor and the increasing role of the information factor have been reliably determined. Theoretical conditions for the transformation of the economic formation with maximum interaction of all factors and modes of production, which can be called technological singularity, have been identified. It has been suggested that there will be several phases in the further development of the economic formation based on the sequential liberation of each factor of production from labor exploitation. The work presents ideas of interest to economics, philosophy, history and futurology.
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Bababekov, Akbar. „The economic anthropology: theory and terminology issues“. E3S Web of Conferences 402 (2023): 08051. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340208051.
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The intensive course of socio-economic progress on a planetary scale makes it possible to strengthen the integration process in the economic and economic activities of the peoples of the world. The preservation of characteristic local ethno-economic structures and economic and cultural traditions, as well as their use, are becoming important in the implementation of national goals and objectives for the stable development of countries as a solution to problems related to food security, unemployment, real incomes of the population and the environment. In a number of leading research centers of the world, priority is given to the study of economic life, the traditions of creating material wealth inherent in various social, national-ethnic and agrarian-economic societies. They pay special attention to the theoretical and practical problems of economic anthropology, concerning such topics as socio-economic, cultural diversity, ethno-economic structure of peoples living in a certain natural and geographical environment. In this article “Theoretical problems of ethno-economics”, special attention is paid to the scientific characterization of ethno-economics as a new concept in ethnology and economics, as well as to the analysis of theoretical problems, the concepts of marginalism, formalism, substantivism, which the term regard to share public wealth, and production equally to every member of society, and institutional theory.
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Kuregyan, S. „ASPECTS OF METHODOLOGY OF ECONOMIC THEORY“. Экономическая наука сегодня, Nr. 14 (10.12.2021): 16–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.21122/2309-6667-2021-14-16-20.
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The article is devoted to the disclosure of the methodology of economic theory. The methodology largely depends on the subject and object of economic theory, on the problems under study, on the methods and techniques used by scientists. An attempt is made in the work to consider a systematic approach in the methodology of economic theory, proceeding from an integral system of social production.
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Abdullah, Fadli Daud, Chaerul Saleh, Fauzan Ali Rasyid und Doli Witro. „ANALISIS PERDAGANGAN INTERNASIONAL MELALUI MODEL POLITIK HECKSCHER-OHLIN TERHADAP KEPENTINGAN EKONOMI NASIONAL PESPEKTIF HUKUM EKONOMI ISLAM“. Al Ushuliy: Jurnal Mahasiswa Syariah dan Hukum 2, Nr. 2 (31.12.2023): 249. http://dx.doi.org/10.31958/alushuliy.v2i2.11483.
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This research analyzes international trade through the Heckscher-Ohlin political model towards national economic interests from an Islamic economic law perspective. This research uses qualitative methods with a text analysis approach. The data used is secondary, regarding the relationship between international trade, economic policy and national economic welfare. The research results show that the Heckscher-Ohlin (HO) theory is the main basis for studying the economics of international trade. This theory emphasizes differences in the scarcity of production factors between countries as the main factor influencing trade patterns. The main production factors in this theory are labor and capital. This difference in the scarcity of production factors encourages specialization in production, which helps increase the efficiency of resource allocation. Comparative advantage is basic in HO theory, where countries focus on producing goods they are able to produce at lower costs. This analysis also carries the HO Theory with Islamic economic law, which emphasizes the fairness of wealth distribution, business ethics, integrity, social welfare, balance and social justice, as well as individual moral responsibility in international trade. By combining these two approaches, international trade can provide sustainable economic and social benefits and is in accordance with Islamic ethical values.
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VALLIER, KEVIN. „Production, Distribution, and J. S. Mill“. Utilitas 22, Nr. 2 (10.05.2010): 103–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0953820810000038.
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J. S. Mill's role as a transitional figure between classical and egalitarian liberalism can be partly explained by developments in his often unappreciated economic views. Specifically, I argue that Mill's separation of economic production and distribution had an important effect on his political theory. Mill made two distinctions between economic production and the distribution of wealth. I argue that these separations helped lead Mill to abandon the wages-fund doctrine and adopt a more favorable view of organized labor. I also show how Mill's developments impacted later philosophers, economists, and historians. Understanding the relationship between Mill's political theory and economic theory does not only matter for Mill scholarship, however. Contemporary philosophers often ignore the economic views of their predecessors. I argue that paying insufficient attention to historical political philosophers' economic ideas obscures significant motivations for their political views.
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Susanto, Adi, Nurul Amini und Retno Subekti. „Implementation of Expectation Value and Variance in Decision-Making with Risk in Economic Learning in High School“. Jurnal Ilmiah Profesi Pendidikan 9, Nr. 2 (05.05.2024): 962–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.29303/jipp.v9i2.2208.
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Learning outcomes in economics learning at SMA Phase E that are related to material on production activities are that students understand the economic system as a way of organizing various economic activities to meet the various needs of society. Decision-making is commonly found in production activities, and every decision-making process has risks. To overcome this, the concept of probability is needed. Decision-making needs to be taught to students so that they can understand economic activities, which are always dynamic in nature, and the impact of these economic dynamics. Therefore, in learning economics, especially in material on production activities related to decision-making with risk, teachers can start with the theory of expected value and variance so that production activities do not experience losses and can even increase profits. This research aims to explore the relationship between statistical material and economics learning in high school. The research method used is a literature study method and is descriptive-qualitative in nature. The results show that economics teachers in high schools can teach and implement opportunity theory in economics learning in Phase E high schools to equip students to manage various economic activities, especially production activities.
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Holub, N. O. „The concept of economic concentration in theory“. Uzhhorod National University Herald. Series: Law 1, Nr. 81 (27.03.2024): 269–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2307-3322.2024.81.1.43.
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The article considers in chronological order the scientific views of scientists of both modern and past centuries on defining the essence of economic concentration. The article analyses and compares them, and as a result reveals the main criteria of the concept of economic concentration, identifies its components and mechanisms as a theoretical value.
The article highlights the historical aspect of the origin and development of scientific thought on the essence of economic concentration and the impact on it of events that took place in society in a particular period of time, such as the industrial revolution of the XVIII century, which became the driving force for intensifying scientific research in the field of economic mergers.
The main aspects of concentration processes and their impact on the economic situation both within a particular state and abroad are clarified. The author outlines the range of possible consequences of economic concentration and gives an assessment of them, according to which the impact of concentration on the economy and society is both positive, leading to the flourishing of competition as a driving force of economic and social progress, and negative, leading to the formation of monopolies, oligopolies and imperfect competition, rising unemployment, production restrictions, rising prices, and slowing down scientific and technological progress.
The importance of theoretical consolidation of the concept of economic concentration as a way to avoid negative consequences of concentration processes is revealed.
It is established that due to the diversity of criteria for economic concentration, it is theoretically quite difficult to capture its essence in one concept, since it is necessary to separate its types, levels, volumes and other criteria. In a generalised form, economic concentration is a complex economic process that consists in the controlled combination of production, technology, economic relations, labour, labour, capital, resulting in an increase in the size of production, labour resources, capital, production technologies, which in turn may lead to the formation of monopolies and restriction of competition.
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Astanakulov, Olim, Zina Arsahanova, Meir Surilov und Ahmed Gachaev. „History of human capital in economic theory“. OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2022, Nr. 3-1 (01.03.2022): 193–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202203statyi33.
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The neoliberal paradigm has put forward a conceptual and epistemological shift from neoclassical economics, suggesting that economic activity should not be the study of various mechanisms such as consumption, production and investment, but rather should be the study of interchangeable options. These interchangeable options will function within a spontaneous order that goes beyond the human will and must be maintained to ensure optimal and efficient allocation of limited resources. Moreover, based on the theory of human interests, it has been postulated that human capital is a key factor in economic growth and income growth throughout the developed world.
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Zamulin, O. A., und K. I. Sonin. „Economic growth: Nobel prize in economic sciences 2018 and the lessons for Russia“. Voprosy Ekonomiki, Nr. 1 (15.01.2019): 11–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2019-1-11-36.
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The article discusses the evolution of the theory of long-run economic growth and the contribution of the 2018 Nobel prize winners Paul Romer and William Nordhaus. First, it describes the exogenous growth theory of the 1950s and 1960s, such as the Solow model, the Ramsey model, and the overlapping generations model, in which growth is determined by exogenously given technological progress. Then the paper turns to the contribution of the Nobel laureates, who were the first ones to develop the theory of endogenous growth. In the case of the Romer model, technological progress is the result of intentional actions of firms, which introduce new products and thereby raise the overall productivity. In case of the Nordhaus model, production causes environmental damage, which then stifles further growth. In both cases production causes externalities, which have either positive or negative effect on growth. Then, the article considers further developments in the theory of economic growth, such as the Schumpeterian theory , unified growth theory, and institutional theory. The paper concludes with some practical implications about policies needed to reignite the growth of the Russian economy.
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Gorev, Vladimir, und Olga Djunina. „Modern Economic Theory and Economic Problems of the Modern World“. Известия Байкальского государственного университета 28, Nr. 3 (03.09.2018): 426–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2500-2759.2018.28(3).426-433.
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Public relations have always been full of contradictions. The roots of these contradictions are in the system of economic relations. It is not a coincidence that it has always been the task of economics, first of all, to reveal the nature of economic relations and, secondly, to find ways to resolve the social contradictions caused by these relations. The evolution of economic theories reflects the search for ways of solving the problem. Economic theory has constantly experienced pressure of certain social groups at various stages of its development, that benefited from the historical realities developed at the given time. The interest of these social groups have almost always been limited to the desire to prove that the existing system of economic relations is not historically transient, but the eternal and the best possible one. Having excluded production from the system of economic relations, reducing the extent of production relations to market relations, modern economic theories do not go beyond vulgar political economy. The article deals with the problem of property and social inequality, as a factor that slows down economic growth in Russia, as well as the possibilities of modern theoretical concepts to explain the essence of the economic contradictions of the modern world. There have always been poverty and injustice in the world. But if the gap between the rich and the poor has diminished in the last century, the world has returned to its state on the eve of the First World War by the beginning of the 21st century, as far as the degree of inequality is concerned.
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VERSAN, V. G. „QUALITY OF ECONOMIC AND PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT: PRACTICE, QUESTIONS OF THEORY“. EKONOMIKA I UPRAVLENIE: PROBLEMY, RESHENIYA 1, Nr. 8 (2021): 12–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.36871/ek.up.p.r.2021.08.01.002.
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The article notes the low quality of economic and production management in Russia. The reasons for this and ways to eliminate them are established. It is shown that the global trends of socio-economic development are not fully reflected in the theory of economic and production management. The ways of developing a management model based on improving the quality of interaction between people and economic entities are proposed. The concept of interaction in relation to socio-economic processes is revealed. The ways of minimizing management costs are considered.
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Marinescu, Cosmin. „Why Institutions Matter: From Economic Development to Development Economics“. European Review 22, Nr. 3 (30.06.2014): 469–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798714000283.
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The last few decades have seen a significant growth of economists’ interest in studying institutions. They are generally preoccupied with explaining institutions using instruments that are specific for an economist, and especially with discerning the significance of institutions for both economic development and development economics. Therefore, the integration of institutions into economic theory is an essential step in our continuous attempt to refine and improve scientific explanations. The neoclassical theory of economic growth only identifies the conditions needed for material production growth, such as capital accumulation and technical progress. In order to explain ‘why’ people save, invest, learn and seek useful knowledge, special attention must also be paid to institutional and value systems.
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Shan, Cheng, und Anton D. Murzin. „Ecologization of industrial production in Сhina: theory and practice“. Economy and ecology of territorial educations 5, Nr. 4 (28.01.2022): 44–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.23947/2413-1474-2021-5-4-44-51.
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Modern technologies of industrial production, the methods of management used and the exploita-tion of natural resources clearly affect not only economic development, but also the socio-ecological conditions of citizens' life. The study attempts to study the theoretical approaches and practice of greening industrial production in China, which has direct borders and close economic ties with Russia. The study examined economic and regulatory approaches to assessing environ-mentally friendly production, studied the impact of industrial emissions on the ecology of China's border regions, and identified the level of environmental investments. As a result of the study, on the basis of the information obtained, directions for the development of methodological tools and economic mechanisms for stimulating the greening of industrial production were formed.
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Kleiner, George. „Universal system of the production factors“. Economics and the Mathematical Methods 58, Nr. 2 (2022): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s042473880020011-1.
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In this article, based on the new theory of economic systems, we propose a universal concept of the factors of economic activity, suitable for modeling economic systems of various scales, nature, and purpose. The concept described in the article indicates the objective genesis of a unified system of aggregated factors of production, particular cases of which are the classical theory of factors of production, marginal theory of factors, and intellectual theory of factors. The first case is characteristic of the industrial economy; the second is characteristic of the industrial and post-industrial economy; the third is characteristic of the knowledge economy and the intellectual economy. At the same time, we refine the concept of a factor of production and a system of factors, representing a set of independent processes that are generally necessary and sufficient for the implementation of production and have a similar aggregation level to a description of the results of economic activity. When developing a universal system of factors of production, we also modernize the concept of an economic phenomenon and the economic space-time that serves as a container for these phenomena. Thus, economic space-time is like the physical space-time, at each point of which the reserves of substance (in the economic space — goods) and energy (in the economic space — the ability to use space-time resources effectively) are concentrated. The possibilities of conjugation of the action of internal and external universal factors on the enterprise functioning are explored. An example of constructing a parametric production function based on a system of universal factors of production is given.
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Yereshko, Julia, und Iryna Kreidych. „Intellectual theory of value: substantiation and formulation“. Technology audit and production reserves 2, Nr. 4(58) (30.04.2021): 38–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.15587/2706-5448.2021.230777.
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The object of research is the role of the intellectual capital and knowledge in modern economics and value creation process. Therefore, taking into account the intellectual component of value due to the transformation of the society’s productive forces structure in the transition to a post-industrial economic system, there was proven the necessity of rethinking the existing theories of value. Based on the classic politeconomists, neoclassics and institutionalists groundwork analysis, there was defined the economic essence of the intellectual capital. This essence consisted in the people’s capacity, using the personal factor of production, rather part of it – the knowledge and intellect, to produce objectified factors. Also, there was justified the place of an intellectual capital in a system of productive forces – its feature of simultaneous affiliation to an immaterial (as a form of individual development), as far as to a material (applied knowledge) spheres. Due to active modern automation and robotics in manufacturing, labour as a factor of production is gradually replaced by knowledge: personal and ones materialized in the means of production. Thus, there are grounds for the assumption that namely knowledge, not labour, that is present in all spheres of social production, but rather, more accurately, the productive part of knowledge – an intellectual capital is the source of the value of goods in a post-industrial (neoindustrial) economic system. Modern economy has inherent significant share the intellectual component that participates in generating the innovative goods as the new value. Therefore, based on the above stated, the «intellectual theory of value» was formulated, which defines directions for the intellectual economics paradigm development in future.
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Pokrovskii, Vladimir N. „Endogenous Technical Progress in the Theory of Economic Growth“. ISRN Economics 2014 (26.03.2014): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/928121.
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It is shown that substitutive work, which can be defined as work of production equipment (capital stock) replacing the efforts of workers in production processes, can be considered as a measure of technical progress. The methods of estimation of substitutive work are discussed. The theoretical results are illustrated on the data for the US. economy.
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Басовский, Leonid Basovskiy, Басовская und Elena Basovskaya. „Theory of Long-Term Technical and Economic Development“. Economics 4, Nr. 4 (17.08.2016): 11–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/21076.
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The purpose of this study was to summarize theoretical propositions about the
main stages of a long-term technical and economic development. Stages
of modern technical and economic development are the technological orders.
The life cycle of technological order lasts for three Kondratieff cycles. At the same
time in the economy, there are three technological orders. The difference between
orders is in ratio and efficiency of the use of substances, energy and information,
the level of labor productivity, capital intensity and energy intensity of production
of goods. The beginning of the formation of the first order can be attributed to the
1720s years. Industrial economy is the first, second, third and fourth technological
orders. These provide a way of gradual growth of labor productivity by increasing
capital intensity and the energy intensity of the national production. The postindustrial
economy is the fifth, sixth and subsequent order. These provide a way
of gradual growth of labor productivity due to an increase in the volume of the
used information. The capital intensity and energy in stages of national production
reduces at the expense of human capital and new technologies.
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Falleti, Tulia G. „Theory Production: Made In or For Latin America?“ Latin American Politics and Society 56, Nr. 01 (2014): 23–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1531426x00003733.
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The essay by Murillo, Shrank, and Luna constitutes a much-needed and welcome wake-up call for those of us who study Latin America—and for political scientists more generally. The authors make a plea for “a rigorous, comparative, and empirically grounded” study of Latin American political economy. I fully agree with their diagnosis of this field and their recommendations. I also praise the authors for defining political economy broadly—rather than narrowly, through a focus on research methods. They understand political economy to encompass all the economic, social, and political factors that are either contextual conditions or consequences of major macroeconomic transformations. Thus the authors lay out an important research agenda for the study of Latin American political economy that includes not only issues of economic development and inequality, but also patterns of democratic politics, state capacities, the rule of law, identity politics, and international linkages, among others. For the authors, the major political and economic transformations that the region has undergone since the start of the twentyfirst century—in its postneoliberal era—cry out for a contextualized research agenda and, I would add, open a host of opportunities for theoretical and conceptual innovation.
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De Valence, Gerard. „A theory of construction management?“ Construction Economics and Building 12, Nr. 3 (15.09.2012): 95–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ajceb.v12i3.2751.
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The links between theory and construction management (CM), and for that matter construction economics (CE), are not strong (see de Valence 2011). This may be one of the reasons why they have not gained complete acceptance as academic disciplines and are not seen as distinct branches of economics and management respectively. Another reason may be that products and production (the focus of management and economic theories respectively) are not the same as projects and project management in general, and construction projects and CM in particular.
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Chaldaeva, L. A., und A. A. Kilyachkov. „Economic security of economic entities: Theory and the current practice“. Finance and Credit 26, Nr. 9 (29.09.2020): 1970–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.24891/fc.26.9.1970.
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Subject. This article discusses the issues related to the safety of a business entity's activities. Objectives. The article aims to determine the position of the security service of a company in its business processes and the specifics of its implementation in the Russian business environment. Methods. For the study, we used a systems approach and comparison. Results. The article says that in the conditions of steady-increasing complexity of production processes, the security service functionality should be expanded not through an increase in the number of its employees only, but through involving specialists of the company's business units to perform certain functions that ensure the company's safety, as well. Conclusions. All employees of the company should be concerned about and deal with the issues of economic security in terms of their professional activities and the work they perform. They also should be able to act in crisis situations.
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Mukhin, Alexei А., Elena A. Konina, Natalia V. Gorbushina und Anna I. Latysheva. „Modeling of production processes in rural areas: management and development effectiveness“. Revista Amazonia Investiga 9, Nr. 29 (18.05.2020): 179–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.34069/ai/2020.29.05.21.
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In the modern economy, the process of studying independent and alternative approaches to studying a business (organization) is happening more and more. Such alternative approaches of today include: “neoclassical theory”, “theory of transaction costs” (theory of specific assets), “theory of incomplete contracts” (theory of property rights), and also “agent theory” (theory of incentives). Such integrated systems and approaches of economics and management as “resource theory”, “knowledge theory”, “strategic theory”, “entrepreneurial theory”, “network theory”, “theory of resource dependence”, “theory of institutional isomorphism”, “theory of situational choice", "The theory of strategic choice" is currently promising and relevant. The article discusses the basic model of neoclassical theory. The main superiority of this theory is expressed in the fact that it predetermines the technological component as a whole as an economy in the broad sense of the understanding and depends on the scale of activity of the economic entity. Moreover, this theory provides for the reflection of savings in the activities of an economic entity, taking into account the scale of activity and business processes (factors) that characterize the volume of production and turnover of organizations. In the framework of the approach under consideration, a certain macrostructure is determined that incurs costs of economic resources: fixed assets, the number of employees that affect the turnover of organizations. The rational management task that the Udmurt Republic encounters is to determine the forecast for the turnover of organizations for given resources and in calculating the fixed assets necessary for its value and the number of employees. It was revealed that the rural economy of Udmurtia has a negligible effect on the scale of resources, since with a simultaneous increase in labor and capital by 1%, the turnover of organizations increases by 1.82%, and the final product is most dependent on the state of the workforce, as the current state the equipment used is in critical condition in terms of wear and efficiency.
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Pink, Małgorzata. „Value Theory in the Economics of Sustainable Development“. Problemy Ekorozwoju 15, Nr. 1 (01.01.2020): 95–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.35784/pe.2020.1.11.
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Historically, the value theory was based on an objectivist approach, where the value of the goods arises through the involvement of private means of production, with a special role of work or a subjectivist approach, where value is a subjective phenomenon and depends on marginal utility of the economic entity. The neoclassical revolution replaced the vague value theory with price theory, the economic reality and consumer expectations led to a situation in which lowering the price of goods at the expense of the environment became a commonly accepted mode of operation. For a long time, the value theory in economics was not an area of reflection, both in the sense of economic and moral value. It was assumed that the subjective character of the value phenomenon makes the analysis of value elusive for the tools of economics. At the same time, environmental goods were considered to be so-called free, occurring in unlimited quantities. These assumptions have contributed to the development of an economics theory that is the antithesis of the economics of sustainable development, excessively exploiting the environment and, indirectly, society as well. The assumptions of sustainable development redefine the space for interpretation of the value theory and imply a change in the approach to an environmental element that cannot be understood in the sense of a free good and which imposes an objective understanding of values that can be preserved or lost in the production process.
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Myerson, R. „Nash Equilibrium and the History of Economic Theory“. Voprosy Ekonomiki, Nr. 6 (20.06.2010): 26–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2010-6-26-43.
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John Nashs formulation of noncooperative game theory was one of the great breakthroughs in the history of social science. Nashs work in this area is reviewed in its historical context to better understand how the fundamental ideas of noncooperative game theory have been developed and how they have changed the course of economic theory. It is shown in particular how the scope of economics has changed from production and allocation of material goods to the study of rational competitive behavior in any institution of society.
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Ilyina, Elena A., und Leonid A. Saraev. „On the theory of interaction of related economic systems“. Vestnik of Samara University. Economics and Management 13, Nr. 3 (22.11.2022): 138–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.18287/2542-0461-2022-13-3-138-147.
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In the published article the process of interaction of several related economic systems, which, on the one hand, compete with each other for fixed assets, the necessary human capital and natural resources is examined. On the other hand, they complement and develop each other and form a single complex within which joint goods are produced, goods, services and financial resources are exchanged, etc. An economic-mathematical model of the dynamics of development and interaction of related economic systems is proposed, taking into account both their competition for resources and their cooperation in the production of joint benefits. This model is a system of non-linear differential equations, which are used to calculate indicators of the dynamics of development of related systems of the economy. The values of these indicators depend on the ratio of investment investments in the production of economic systems and their depreciation deductions for the restoration of resources and costs. The peculiarity of the presented model is that the production function of each economic system containing as arguments not only its own production factors, but also the resources of all other considered related economic entities. It is shown that by controlling the choice of the rates of accumulation of internal investments of economic systems, it is possible to obtain various options for their interaction. With a certain choice of accumulation rates, economic systems can operate independently of each other. Under other norms, some systems of the economy become independent and backbone, while the rest of the systems are subsidized.
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Altman, Morris. „Implications of smart decision-making and heuristics for production theory and material welfare“. Mind & Society 18, Nr. 2 (24.10.2019): 167–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11299-019-00219-y.
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Abstract Conventional theory assumes that economic agents perform at optimal levels of efficiency by definition and this is achieved when individuals behave in a particular fashion. Moreover, neoclassical production theory masks the process by which optimal output can be achieved. I argue that economic theory should be revised to incorporate some key findings of behavioural economics, while retaining the conventional theory’s normative ideal of optimum output whilst rejecting its normative procedural ideals of how to achieve optimality in production. I argue that neoclassical procedures can be expected to yield sub-optimal levels of output and therefore should not be benchmarks for procedural rationality. I present an alternative more realistic and analytically precise specification of the production function related to the fast and frugal heuristics narrative pioneered by Gigerenzer and Leibenstein’s x-efficient theory. This approach incorporates an understanding of the appropriate procedures, psychological and organization variables, decision-making capabilities and end-goals required to achieve optimality in production and, thereby, grow the wealth of nations, thereby enhancing the material wellbeing of the population at large. This also provides us with the tools to better identify economic inefficiency and the conditions that contribute to it.
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Dong, Xu, und Su Hu. „A Discussion about Economic Theory Used in Safety Investment of Petrochemical Enterprises“. Advanced Materials Research 989-994 (Juli 2014): 5217–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.989-994.5217.
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Petrochemical industry plays a vital role in the world's economic development. However, companies are still faced with a great number of economic loss and a lot of safety investment activities, thus, it needs to study and discuss the theories and methods of safety economics so as to guide economic activities and make enterprises gain the greatest safety benefits. This article is in the view of economics and from the perspective of safety investment, which analyzed the importance, characteristics, categories of safety investment and establish a safety investment model. Companies should seek a way to make full use of economic resources and carry out different safety investment policies according to different production methods.
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Jiménez Contreras, Baruc. „Academic Integrity at Risk. Joan Robinson's Interpretation of Marxian Economics and Her Ethic Critique of Orthodox Economic Theory“. Iberian Journal of the History of Economic Thought 9, Nr. 1 (05.05.2022): 13–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.5209/ijhe.78669.
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During the twentieth century, Joan Robinson introduced Marx's political economy into academic discussions of economic thought. This article argues that Robinson's work generates a proposal for academic integrity in economic ideas through an ethical vision of Marx's discourse and an epistemic critique of orthodox economic theory. Robinson's research shows that economic theory has been characterized by hiding the interests of the bourgeoisie, consolidating an "unethical behavior". Following Macfarlane's (2009) work on virtue theory, it is possible to identify in Robinson's production virtues that can enhance the academic integrity of economists.
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Hu, Quan, und Siwei Wang. „Production Structure and Multiple Equilibria - A DSGE Perspective“. SHS Web of Conferences 163 (2023): 02030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202316302030.
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This paper integrates the Austrian school’s production structure theory and financial market theory, considers the impact of heterogeneity of firms’ production cycles on economic fluctuations, constructs a DSGE model that incorporates production structure, and uses the model to analyse the existence of multiple equilibria and endogenous financial economic cycles. Compared with previous DSGE models, this paper highlights the asymmetry of firms’ responses due to the existence of different production cycles and considers emotional shocks as the main source of economic volatility, as Keynes’ “animal spirits” suggest.
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Soo, Kwok Tong. „ENDOGENOUS ECONOMIC POLICY AND THE STRUCTURE OF PRODUCTION: THEORY AND EVIDENCE“. Scottish Journal of Political Economy 54, Nr. 2 (Mai 2007): 220–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9485.2007.00412.x.
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Бурковский, П. В. „Conceptual characteristics of cost factors of public production in economic theory“. Экономика и предпринимательство, Nr. 6(119) (23.06.2020): 1207–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.34925/eip.2020.119.6.257.
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В статье охарактеризованы основные концептуальные положения в области механизмов формирования стоимости в условиях товарного производства. Описываются факторы идентификации справедливой цены на основе измерений и сопоставлений необходимого и фактического рабочего времени. Раскрывается механизм действия закона стоимости применительно к частнокапиталистической форме собственности на средства производства и формулируются основные умозаключения относительно содержательной основы исследуемого экономического феномена. In article describes main conceptual provisions in area of value-generating mechanisms in conditions of commodity production. Described factors for identifying a fair price based on measurements and comparisons of necessary and actual working hours. Formulated amechanism of law of value in relation to private-capitalist form of ownership of means of production is revealed and basic conclusions on meaningful basis of economic phenomenon under study.
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Victor, Ashikhmin, und Shabarov Vladimir. „The Theory of the Evolution of Economic Relations as an Approach to Generalize the Theory of Games“. WSEAS TRANSACTIONS ON BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS 21 (16.02.2024): 676–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.37394/23207.2024.21.56.
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The Theory of Games in the classical sense uses the idea of a system of economic relations of one type, namely economic relations of a private nature when the goal of rational behavior of the subject of economic relations (ER) is to maximize the benefit (own profit). In the process of evolution, economic relations go through several stages (namely 16), and for each stage, the set of characteristics of the basic elements strictly differs from the set of other stages. The rational behavior of the subjects is largely determined by this particular set of characteristics. Thus, the corresponding Theory of Rational Behavior of Economic Subjects (TRES) is the generalization of the Theory of Games for application in economics (that is, it applies not only to one type of economic relations, aiming at private benefit). Another aspect of the generalization of the Theory of Games in conditions of global information and computer accessibility is the transition from money as a medium of exchange that was a “transferable numerical utility” to another medium of exchange - a full range of goods with the complete dynamically changing set of exchange coefficients as a “generalized medium of exchange” that organically corresponds to the economic content of the production process.
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Wang, Zichen. „A Literature Study on Business Cycle Theory“. BCP Business & Management 40 (08.03.2023): 308–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.54691/bcpbm.v40i.4395.
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Business cycle theory is always a research focus during the last couple of decades as a tool to explain the fluctuation in economic growth. In chronological order, this review sorts out the theories trying to explain the business cycle into five main influential schools of economics based on previous studies: Keynesian economics, Monetarism, New classical economics, Real business cycle theory, and New Keynesian economics. This review summarizes these theories respectively, introducing their origins, main mechanism, related models and empirical evidence, drawbacks, and challenges they face from other economists. Meanwhile, this review also compares the differences and similarities between each theory from three aspects: the determinant of aggregate production, the driving force of the business cycle dynamics, and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies. The motivation is to gain a general view of modern business cycle theory to provoke thinking in long-term growth and short-term fluctuations in economic activities to support further research.
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Hipp, Janie S., und Harriet F. Francis. „The Legal Environment Facing Economic Agents in Production“. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 37, Nr. 2 (August 2005): 327–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1074070800006817.
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Agriculture has seen a steady movement toward the increased use of contracts. Agricultural contracts now guide the interrelationships of parties throughout the modern production system, extending well beyond the livestock sector. With this predominance come new issues that require us to reexamine contract theory and the roles of the parties. This review examines legislation, regulations, and recent court rulings in seemingly unrelated areas that have specific relationships to the development of contracts in production agriculture: environmental law and labor law.
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Parkhomenko, I. I. „TYPOLOGY OF MODERN THEORETICAL CONCEPTS OF CULTURAL ECONOMY“. UKRAINIAN CULTURAL STUDIES, Nr. 1 (2) (2018): 30–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/ucs.2018.1(2).06.
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The article proposes theoretical concepts typology of the modern cultural economy, which proves the existence of economic relations in the field of culture according to the Western European scientific tradition of XX-XXI centuries: 1) cultural and philosophical (T.W.Adorno, J. Baudrillard, P.Bourdieu, M.Horkheimer, S.Lash, C.Lury, J.Urry); 2) cultural industries approach (R.Williams, B.Miege, N.Garhnam, P.L.Sacco); 3) economic and managerial (W.J.Baumol, W.G.Bowen, M.Blaug, V.A.Ginsburg, D.Hesmondhalgh, A.Klamer, B.Miege, A.J.Scott, D.Throsby, B.S.Frey). According to these modern theoretical concepts, culture is the sphere of production and consumption of goods and services; it is functioning as a resource for economic, social and cultural development. This understanding of culture is the basis of the current policy of cultural and creative industries in the European Union and the United Kingdom. Cultural production is an interdisciplinary object of study, since the cultural good has its own peculiarity: its cultural value determines economic value. The article analyzes production in the field of culture and, at first, determines economy of culture as a scientific approach for understanding the functioning of the modern society in the categories of production and consumption; secondly, economics of culture is a scientific discipline in the field of economics. Theoretical and methodological bases were interdisciplinary scientific approaches to the understanding of culture as a sphere of production and consumption. For that reason were organized and systematized approaches to the understanding of culture as an economic reality in scientific discourse: 1) critical theory of T.W.Adorno, W.Benjamin and M.Horkheimer and the concept of "cultural industry"; 2) the interaction of cultural and power institutions in the processes of democratization of society and industrialization of culture (R.Williams, N.Garhnam, P.L.Sacco); 3) culture as a set of cultural industries, which form cultural capital (P.Bourdieu, D.Hesmondhalgh, B.Miege, D.Throsby); 4) the functioning of modern society as global culture industry in theory of S.Lash and C.Lury; 5) cultural economics theory (W.J.Baumol, W.G.Bowen, M.Blaug, V.A.Ginsburg, A.J.Scott, D.Throsby, B.S.Frey).
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Drin, Bohdan, Iryna Drin und Svitlana Drin. „THE NONLINEAR MODEL OF BEHAVIOR OF TWO COMPETITIVE FIRMS“. BULLETIN OF CHERNIVTSI INSTITUTE OF TRADE AND ECONOMICS I, Nr. 81 (15.03.2021): 115–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.34025/2310-8185-2021-1.81.08.
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The practical task of economics lies in applying the methods of substantiating its decisions. For economics, the main method is the modeling of economic phenomena and processes and, above all, mathematical modeling, which has been stipulated by the presence of stable MATHEMATICAL METHODS, MODELS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN ECONOMY Issue I (81), 2021 117 quantitative patterns and the possibility of a formalized description of many economic processes. The economic-mathematical model contains a system of equations of linear and nonlinear units that promote a mathematical description of economic processes and phenomena, consists of a set of variables and parameters and serves to study these processes and control them. Dynamic models of the economy describe it in development, as well as provide a detailed description of technological methods of production. Mathematical description of dynamic models is carried out with the use of a system of differential equations (in models with continuous time), difference equations (in models with discrete time), as well as systems of algebraic equations. It is important that the investigation of various economic issues has led to the development of the mathematical apparatus. In linear algebra, productive matrices are caused by the studies of intersectoral balance, whereas mathematical programming arose in the course of researching the optimal plan for the distribution of limited resources. In a similar way, there emerged the theory of economic indices and econometrics, the theory of production functions and the theory of consumption, the theory of general economic balance and social welfare, the theory of optimal economic growth. The paper under studies deals with the dynamic economic behavior of two competing objects, whose mathematical model is a nonlinear nonlocal problem for a system of ordinary differential equations with variable coefficients and argument deviation. The dynamic mathematical model is based on the assumption that the volume of output of both firms is determined by such factors on which output depends linearly. The model under discussion includes nonlinear factors, which describe the level of distrust of the competitors and depend on the time of observations and production volumes in previous moments, because the latter significantly affect the production activities of the firm. Such mathematical models are called time-delayed models.
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Basovskiy, Leonid, und Elena Basovskaya. „System Foundations of the Theory of Long-Term Technical and Economic Development“. Scientific Research and Development. Economics 10, Nr. 4 (19.08.2022): 12–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/2587-9111-2022-10-4-12-15.
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Modern ideas of the theory of long-term technical and economic development and evolutionary economics are systematically criticized, since the models created on their basis do not provide predictive capabilities even in predicting deep economic cri-ses. Based on the general approach to systems theory formulated by N. Wiener, the pe-riodization of Kondratiev cycles, the provisions of the history of the economy, the histo-ry and theory of automated control systems, the ideas of technological structures are deepened. The first, second, third and fourth technological modes ensured the growth of labor productivity due to an increase in material intensity, energy intensity and capital intensity of production based on an increase in the scale of obtaining and using scientific and technical information. The improvement of production was carried out through its mechanization, the replacement of human labor by the work of machines, including the simplest control systems, which were later replaced by automatic lines. The fifth and sixth technological modes ensured the growth of labor productivity with a simultaneous reduction in material intensity, energy intensity and capital intensity of production on the basis of an increase in the scale of obtaining and using scientific and technical in-formation. The improvement of production was carried out by replacing automatic lines with flexible automated production, then by creating automated intelligently controlled automated systems.