Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Poor laws, Germany: Breslau“

This article compares Brazil, the United States, and Germany's laws in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic, describing the scenario of these laws, comparing them to evaluate which country had the best performance, in their laws concerning the COVID-19, in the face of the international requirements. The primary laws of Brazil, the USA, and Germany were used, comparing WHO requirements and international requirements, analyzing: speed in the isolation decision; assembly of hospitals and equipment; economic measures for the population; organization of states and international negotiation. The comparison system established was based on scores (scores), with scores ranging from 1 to 5 (very poor to very good) depending on the existence of legislation for each country (Brazil, USA, and Germany), for each type of requirement, concerning the level of awareness of the norm's applicator to the problems faced in the pandemic. Although some nations have acted quickly in imposing restrictions and recommending social isolation, they have been hampered by economic, social, and political factors.

In democratic Switzerland, each of its 26 cantons (states) has its own government and its own laws. Thus there are 26 ministries of health and as many different laws regulating medical and health care practice. The Swiss Nurses' Association likewise has 13 regional chapters and a central organization that works on the national level. Medicine is private and practically all of the Swiss population is privately insured. High technology has led to high specialization with, among other results, a reduced number of premature deaths, longer life span but also rising costs of health. Health professionals are also becoming much more aware of ethical issues such as cost versus quality, high technology versus compassionate care, etc. A multilingual (four national languages) and multicultural country, Switzerland's health care system relies heavily on foreign nurses, many of whom come from neighbouring France and Germany but also from England, Yugoslavia, Canada and other countries. Regulation of nursing practice is still poor. Nursing or nurses are hardly mentioned in the state laws and, when mentioned, are often put in a dependent relation to the physician. Basic nurse training is regulated nationally by cantonal delegations to the Swiss Red Cross. Although there is a good postbasic training scheme, nurses are still striving for access to the university. Meanwhile, they go abroad to acquire degrees. Research in nursing is being developed mainly by the efforts of individuals and the Swiss Nurses' Association.

In August 1945, Karl Loewenstein began work as senior expert advisor to the Legal Division of American Military Government (AMG) in Berlin. An eminent German-born and educated political scientist and jurisprudent, Loewenstein had come to assist in the “democratization” of his homeland's Nazified law and legal institutions. It was soon obvious, however, that in its crucial first phase the American legal mission in Germany was in disarray. The development and implementation of American law reform policy was being undercut by ill-prepared leadership, poor planning, and the scarcity of learning about German laws, lawyers, and legal history. By Loewenstein's reckoning, many American officers had been “set to work on problems of which they have not the slightest idea and very little professional qualification.” Critical law reform initiatives had been based upon expedient “over-simplifications” of Nazism and its eradication. By January 1946, his initial misgivings having given way to mordant despair, Loewenstein concluded that the American program for the democratization of the German legal system was irrevocably “lost,” a “failure which stinks to high heaven.” This article sets forth the theoretical and observational bases of Loewenstein's assessment and evaluates its cogency.

This paper examines how Hermann Aron, a well-trained physicist, exploited his multilayered knowledge of science for technological innovations, innovations upon which he built a successful industrial company with more than 1,000 employees. In his academic training, research, and teaching, Aron gained expertise in electromagnetic theory and experimentation, which he later put to use to invent a new electricity meter for the emerging electric power industry of the 1880s. While Aron employed established physical laws and data, particular methods and techniques were central to his development of technology. Moreover, these and the scientific ethos of precision, which he adopted from his training in the Neumann School, were crucial to his invention of a pendulum electricity meter. Contrary to a recent claim about the lack of a scientific basis to the electrical industry, Aron's case shows a direct transformation of knowledge from physics to technology. Still, his work also displays the influence of technology on many topics of scientific research. The relevance of Aron's particular scientific expertise to the technological questions he examined was a central factor in his unusual move from academic physics to his own industrial firm. The move also benefited from sharing ideas, methods, and interests between scientists and engineers. Berlin, in particular, provided a nexus for such an interchange. On the other hand, Aron's poor prospects for a professorship in physics (further reduced by being Jewish), made him more receptive to opportunities outside the academy.

Giacomo Corneo is a professor of Social Policy and Public Finance at the Free University of Berlin, Germany. He starts his analysis by arguing that capitalism is increasingly becoming unpopular in Europe due to its being wasteful as demonstrated in widespread unemployment, injustice and alienation. He points out that high level of inequality in wealth possession is a real threat to both shared prosperity and democracy in Western Europe. His main problem is how to make the world a better place where people share wealth and prosperity. This ideal world could be achieved through adoption of an alternative economic system that would eliminate the basic contradiction found within capitalism, namely that between the social nature of production and the private mode of appropriation of wealth. Alhough capitalism applies advanced science and technology in creating more wealth, its ironic nature is such that a few people enjoy power, wealth and privileges over the poor who are the majority. This creates a polarized society based on appropriation of wealth- the rich on one end and the poor on the other. Corneo engages us in a debate to find out an alternative economic system that will do away with these imbalances in the appropriation and distribution of wealth. Currently, wealth, power and privileges are concentrated on few capitalists with powers to make decisions affecting billions of people in this world. Capitalist principles, laws and institutions promote and protect the right to private property and power.

Corporate governance refers to the way a company is run and includes laws, rules and principles on which it is based. Corporate governance has poor history. Models of corporate governance have been developed from different cultural, historical and legal environments in which corporations do their business. There are two basic types of corporate governance in developed economies: the one-tier system, which is practiced in the United Kingdom and the United States and the two-tier system, which evolved in Germany and Japan. On the other hand, the transitional countries started developing their corporate governance under very different circumstances due to their socialism-oriented market and public property. Investments are among the main prerequisites for economic growth. The most important investment is greenfield investment, which means that foreign investors invest their money in another country to start a new business. The last, but not least important issue, is agency problem, which arises when management runs a company in the way that maximizes their own interests, while the ownership of shareholders is depreciated. This paper describes the genesis of corporate governance, its models in developed countries, its state in transitional economies and some of the main ways of controlling management and dealing with agency problems.

Article 12 Clause 4 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea provides for the assistance of lawyers. “Anyone who is arrested shall have the right to be assisted immediately by a lawyer.” When a criminal defendant is unable to seek an attorney for himself/herself, the State shall assign a lawyer as prescribed by law.｣ Criminals may, of course, be protected by the appointment of a lawyer when they are investigated by an investigative agency on the basis of the Constitution. Article 33 Clause 1 of the Criminal Procedure Act also specifies the assistance of counsel. The spirit of the constitution was reflected. ｢If it falls under certain conditions and is necessary to protect the rights of criminal offenders, a lawyer shall be selected as necessary. If the economically poor or the physically and mentally handicapped cannot appoint a lawyer, the state protects the defendant's rights in selecting a public defender.｣ But what laws are the victims of crime protected by? Article 10 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea stipulates the “right to pursue happiness of all citizens.” Article 11 of the Constitution stipulates equal rights for all citizens. Clause 2 of Article 294-2 of the Criminal Procedure Act guarantees the right of victims to state. However, other than that, there are no other regulations protecting victims' rights. Thus, it received a lot of criticism. ｢① After a crime incident, secondary damage is inflicted. ② Victims of a crime shall not be directly involved in an investigation or trial. ③ All citizens are equal.｣ Due to these criticisms, the victim's lawyer system was introduced in 2012. The system of public defenders for victims has been in effect since March 6, 2012. Nevertheless, the system has not been properly established in criminal practice yet. Therefore, confusion has continued. This is because the scope and rights of lawyers for victims of crime and their status in litigation are unclear. Germany settled the issue of protecting victims of crime in 1998 by enacting new legislature. “Act on the Protection of Witnesses and the Improvement of Victims’ Protection when interrogating witnesses in criminal cases: The Witness Protection Act.” Germany clearly defined the rights of crime victims to counsel by the law. Since then, the law has been constantly revised. The rights of crime victims to counsel became victims' rights. Article 395 of the German Criminal Procedure Act stipulated the private prosecution system and the participation system in a public prosecution. Crime victims are equal litigants. It is a legal position recognized by the Criminal Procedure Act. According to the German Criminal Procedure Act, the protection of witnesses has been strengthened. You can exclude the accused and interrogate the witness. Also, it is possible to read a report and record a witness on a tape recorder. Japan has also introduced victim’s participation system. Victims and victims’ lawyers may appear at the trial date and ask the defendant for a witness. Opinions on the confirmation of facts or the application of laws may be stated in the trial. The protection of crime victims has been strengthened. This is the crime victim’s protection system in Germany and Japan. The spirit of the Constitution is urging more rights for crime victims. The Criminal Procedure Act should establish a stipulation for the protection of victims. The legal rights of the victim’s lawyer should also be clearly defined. Only then, can victim lawyers be more active for victims in the investigation and trial stages with legal grounds. The assistance of the investigative agency alone is not enough. You can refer to the German Criminal Procedure Act and the Japanese Criminal Procedure Act.

In Korea, the Japanese Civil Code was used during the Japanese colonial period, and the Civil Code, a translation of the Japanese Civil Code, was applied until the Korean Civil Code enacted in 1958 was enforced in 1960. The Korean Civil Code is very similar to the Japanese civil law, and the number of articles is significantly smaller and lacks specificity compared to the civil laws of many Western countries. In the case of the divorce law, the deficiencies of such legislation are being supplemented by the interpretation of the courts. Divorce laws in the West, such as Germany, England, France, and the United States, have been revised in the direction of protecting the rights and interests of the parties through numerous historical changes and discussions since the 19th century. Based on the history of changes in various Western countries, Korea will also need to revise the civil law in the direction of fulfilling the state's constitutional duty to protect marriage and family life. Through counseling before marriage and divorce, the marriage and family system should be strengthened, and counseling and other educational programs should be activated so that a recoverable family can be saved. In order to minimize conflicts in a marriage relationship that has already been irretrievably broken and exists only legally, no fault divorce based on separation for a certain period of time should be introduced. And in order to protect innocent spouses and children who do not want to divorce, marriage should be terminated only if protective measures or agreements for innocent spouses and children are included in the divorce ruling, and divorce should not be allowed if the divorce threatens to cause economic, social and psychological difficulties for them. In addition, if legal separation system where the obligation to cohabit is exempted and a marriage is deemed to have broken down after a certain period of separation is established, I think it can serve as a buffer zone to encourage reunion after separation and also as a gateway from marriage to divorce. The legal separation system can alleviate the impact of divorce, and has an economic effect almost similar to divorce, except that the marriage relationship is legally maintained, so the parties can attempt reconciliation while stably separating for a certain period of time. I think it is desirable to unify the divorce procedure by incorporating the divorce by agreement system into the judicial divorce procedure to ensure that the rights and interests of the divorced parties are fully protected. As with the divorce laws of many countries that adopt no fault divorce, even if there is mutual consent to divorce, divorce must be conducted through a trial and should be granted only after court approval of an agreement regarding children and the financial effects of the divorce. Additionally, if a couple with minor children wants to divorce by agreement, counseling should be mandatory. In addition, according to the Supreme Court precedent, Korea's property division system has the main purpose of distributing the actual common property acquired during marriage, and the supportive nature such as consideration for the other person's livelihood security is added. Since the current support system is insufficient to protect spouses with poor economic status in that the system is not provided by law, a separate support system after divorce should be prepared like in many Western countries. As pointed out by the Supreme Court's ruling in 2015, the fact that the spouse responsible for breakdown of marriage is not allowed to file for divorce is also intended to prevent the other spouse from being expelled by the spouse in the bigamous relationship.

The Gulf of Guinea states (GOGs) discussed in this article comprise a diverse group of more than 20 African states bordering on the oil-rich Gulf of Guinea. They are former colonies of Belgium, France, Great Britain and Germany. These states are of strategic importance to the United States, the European Union, India and China because of their tremendous natural resources that include biodiversity, oil, gas and other strategic minerals. But to what extent are they also of strategic importance not only to South Africa but to SADC member states? After all, the GOGs boast of their sea routes being safer and more convenient for sea transport. Post-colonial independence finds these states still adopting a mixture of foreign legal systems side by side with indigenous laws and customs. The region is still underdeveloped, with poor physical infrastructure, weak government structures, an inefficient legal system, and internecine strife and other inter-state disputes exerting a debilitating influence. The NEPAD Plan of Action of 2001 looks to the regional economic communities (RECs) to become the leaders in regional economic co-operation and integration. Although the GOGs are characterised at present by overlapping membership of various communities, they have enjoyed some successes based on the newly found petroleum commodity which, wisely managed, can help to increase intra-African trade and produce a viable extensive African market buttressed by South Africa’s economic advances into the rest of Africa. In some of the regions in Africa RECs such as ECOWAS and SADC have been able to transform their economic and monetary co-operation efforts into a powerful driving force for economic policy co-ordination and integration, but a strong, credible, effective and efficient legal framework with sustainable supporting institutions is now needed. South Africa is well poised to assist with deepening the political and economic integration in the GOGs by intensifying foreign direct investment (FDI), capacity-building and training projects, and the transfer of skills and technology. But the RECs’ overlapping membership needs to be rationalised, the negative influences of the superpowers need to be resisted, and support is required to maintain peace and stability and ensure the security of the maritime regimes. A strong, independent supra-national body that is also able to supervise and monitor revenues from oil for the benefit of the region as a whole should be established.

Abstract Introduction According to the Embryo Protection Act, the selection of embryos with the greatest potential for successful implantation in Germany must be performed in the pronucleus stage. The main aim of this study was to identify morphokinetic parameters that could serve as noninvasive biomarkers of blastocyst quality in countries with restrictive reproductive medicine laws. Materials and Methods The sample comprised 191 embryos from 40 patients undergoing antagonist cycles for intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Blastocysts were cultured in an EmbryoScope chamber and video records were validated to determine the post-injection timing of various developmental stages, cleavage stages, and blastocyst formation. The Gardner and Schoolcraft scoring system was used to characterize blastocyst quality. Results Morphokinetic data showed that the zygote diameter and total cytoplasmic volume were significantly different between good and poor blastocysts quality groups, where zygotes, which formed better blastocyst quality, had smaller diameter and smaller total cytoplasmic volume. Zygotes with more rapid pronuclear disappearance developed in better-quality blastocysts. Differences between good- and poor-quality blastocysts were also observed for late-stage parameters and for the spatial arrangement of blastomere where tetrahedral embryos more frequently forming good-quality blastocyst compare to the non-tetrahedral. Conclusions The study findings could be used to enhance embryo selection, especially in countries with strict Embryo Law Regulations. Further studies, including those in which the implantation potential and pregnancy rate are considered, are warranted to confirm these preliminary results.

Johannes Bugenhagen’s church orders revealed the lasting imprint of religious values on the poverty policies of many German cities. Originally from Pomerania (the coastal region of present-day Poland and Germany), Bugenhagen crafted legislation that included practical measures for poor relief. As a Wittenberg pastor, professor, and organizer of church reform, Bugenhagen became the diplomat for translating Lutheran ideals into practical laws that would reorganize or create new institutions of poor relief in north German cities, as well as in Scandinavia. In his negotiations with city councils and political rulers, he highlighted an emerging need to support poor pastors who, as married clergy, now had families to support. His experience of creating laws for diverse circumstances led him to delineate flexible policies with an adaptable understanding of the deserving poor.